Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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Main Responsibilities
1.1
Code compliance
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Personal Attributes
1.1
Honesty Integrity
Knowledge
Good communicator
Physical fitness
Good eyesight
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Welding Inspection
1.2
Vision Access:
eye should be within 600mm of the surface viewing angle (line from eye to surface) to be not less than 30 30
600mm
30 30
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Welding Inspection
When access is restricted may use: a mirrored boroscope usually by a fibre optic viewing system
1.3
agreement
Other aids: welding gauges (for checking bevel angles, weld profile, fillet sizing, undercut depth) dedicated weldweld-gap gauges and linear misalignment (high(high -low) gauges straight edges and measuring tapes magnifying lens (if magnification lens used it should have magnification between X2 to X5)
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1.3
flexible tape, steel rule Temperature indicating crayons Welding gauges Voltmeter Ammeter Magnifying glass Torch / flash light Gas flowflow-meter
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1.3
G.A.L.
S.T.D. 16mm
G.A.L.
3 4
S.T.D. 16mm
5 6
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1.3
Voltmeter
Ammeter
Tong Tester
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Before welding (Before assemble & After assembly) During welding After welding
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1.5
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1.5
Welder Qualifications: list of available qualified welders related to WPSs certificates are valid and inin-date
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1.5
PrePre -heat (if required) minimum temperature as specified by WPS maximum interpass temperature as WPS
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1.6
1.6
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1.6
Visual Inspection ensure weld is suitable for all NDT visually inspect & sentence to Code requirements
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1.6
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1.6
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Summary of Duties
It is the duty of a Welding Inspector to ensure all the welding and associated actions are carried out in accordance with the specification and any applicable procedures.
Welding Inspector
Terms & Definitions Section 2
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2.1
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2.1
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Edge
Lap
Cruciform
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Tee
Butt
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Butt weld
Fillet weld
Spot weld
Edge weld
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2.4
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C
Root
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Included angle
Root Face
SingleSingle -V Butt
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SingleSingle-U Butt
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Root Radius
Root Gap
SingleSingle -J Butt
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2.10
Single sided preparations are normally made on thinner materials, or when access form both sides is restricted
Single Bevel
Single Vee
SingleSingle -J
SingleSingle -U
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2.11
Double sided preparations are normally made on thicker materials, or when access form both sides is unrestricted
Double -Bevel
Double -Vee
Double - J
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Double - U
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Weld Preparation
Terminology & Typical Dimensions:
bevel angle included angle
V-Joints
Typical Dimensions bevel angle root face root gap 30 to 35 35 ~1.5 to ~2.5mm ~2 to ~4mm
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Most codes quote the weld toes shall blend smoothly This statement is not quantitative and therefore open to individual interpretation The higher the toe blend angle the greater the amount of stress concentration The toe blend angle ideally should be between 20o-30o
80
20
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2.13
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2.13
a
a = Design Throat Thickness b = Actual Throat Thickness
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a
a = Design Throat Thickness b = Actual Throat Thickness
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2.14
2.14
Features to Consider 2
2.14
4mm 4mm
8mm 2mm
Approximately the same weld volume in both Fillet Welds, but the effective throat thickness has been altered, reducing considerably the strength of weld B
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2.14
4mm
Area = 4 x 4 = 8mm2 2
Area = 6 x 6 = 18mm2 2
The c.s.a. of (b) is over double the area of (a) without the extra excess weld metal being added
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2.15
Mitre Fillet
Convex Fillet
A concave profile is preferred for joints subjected to fatigue loading
Concave Fillet
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2.15
Deep penetration fillet welds from high heat input welding process MAG, FCAW & SAW etc
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Welding Positions
PA PB PC PD PE PF PG H-L045 J-L045
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2.17
1G / 1F 2F 2G 4F 4G 3G / 5G 3G / 5G 6G 6G
Flat / Downhand HorizontalHorizontal-Vertical Horizontal HorizontalHorizontal-Vertical (Overhead) Overhead VerticalVertical-Up VerticalVertical-Down Inclined Pipe (Upwards) Inclined Pipe (Downwards)
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Welding Positions
2.17
ISO
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Flat - PA Vertical up - PF
Overhead - PE
Vertical down - PG
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Horizontal - PC
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Flat - PA
axis: horizontal pipe: rotated
H-L045
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J-L045
Horizontal - PC
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axis: inclined at 45 axis: inclined at 45 axis: vertical pipe: fixed pipe: fixed pipe: fixed
Flat - PA
Horizontal - PB
Overhead - PD
Vertical up - PF
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Vertical down - PG
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Flat - PA
axis: inclined at 45 pipe: rotated
Horizontal - PB
axis: vertical pipe: fixed
Overhead - PD
axis: vertical pipe: fixed
2.17
PA / 1G
PA / 1F PF / 3G
PB / 2F
PC / 2G
PD / 4F
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PE / 4G
PG / 3G
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2.17
PA / 1G
Weld: Flat Pipe: rotated Axis: Horizontal
PF / 5G
Weld: Vertical upwards Pipe: Fixed Axis: Horizontal 45o
PG / 5G
Weld: Vertical Downwards Pipe: Fixed Axis: Horizontal 45o
PC / 2G
Weld: Horizontal Pipe: Fixed Axis: Vertical
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H-LO 45 / 6G
Weld: Upwards Pipe: Fixed Axis: Inclined
J-LO 45 / 6G
Weld: Downwards Pipe: Fixed Axis: Inclined
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2.18
Definition: the rate of weld progression measured in case of mechanised and automatic welding processes in case of MMA can be determined using ROL and arc time
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Welding Inspector
Welding Imperfections Section 3
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Welding Imperfections
All welds have imperfections
3.1
Imperfections are classed as defects when they are of a type, or size, not allowed by the Acceptance Standard
A defect is an unacceptable imperfection A weld imperfection may be allowed by one Acceptance Standard but be classed as a defect by another Standard and require removal/rectification
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Welding Imperfections
Standards for Welding Imperfections
3.1
BS EN ISO 6520 6520-1(1998) Welding and allied processes Classification of geometric imperfections in metallic materials Part 1: Fusion welding Imperfections are classified into 6 groups, namely: 1 Cracks 2 Cavities 3 Solid inclusions 4 Lack of fusion and penetration 5 Imperfect shape and dimensions 6 Miscellaneous imperfections
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Welding Imperfections
Standards for Welding Imperfections
3.1
EN ISO 5817 (2003) Welding - FusionFusion-welded joints in steel, nickel, titanium and their alloys (beam welding excluded) - Quality levels for imperfections This main imperfections given in EN ISO 65206520-1 are listed in EN ISO 5817 with acceptance criteria at 3 levels, namely Level B (highest) Level C (intermediate) Level D (general) This Standard is directly applicable to visual testing of welds ...(weld surfaces & macro examination)
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3.1
Cracks
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Cracks
3.1
Cracks that may occur in welded materials are caused generally by many factors and may be classified by shape and position.
Classified by Shape Longitudinal Transverse Chevron Lamellar Tear Classified by Position HAZ Centerline Crater Fusion zone Parent metal
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Cracks
3.1
Cracks
3.1
Transverse crack
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Longitudinal crack
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Cracks
3.2
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Cracks
Solidification Cracking
3.2
Occurs during weld solidification process Steels with high sulphur impurities content (low ductility at elevated temperature) Requires high tensile stress Occur longitudinally down centre of weld
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Cracks
3.3
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Lamellar Tearing
Location: Parent metal Steel Type: Any steel type possible
3.5
Lamellar tearing has a step like appearance due to the solid inclusions in the parent material (e.g. sulphides and silicates) linking up under the influence of welding stresses Low ductile materials in the short transverse direction containing high levels of impurities are very susceptible to lamellar tearing It forms when the welding stresses act in the short transverse direction of the material (through thickness direction)
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Gas Cavities
Gas pore Cluster porosity Causes:
3.6
Loss of gas shield Damp electrodes Contamination Blow hole Herringbone porosity Arc length too large Damaged electrode flux Moisture on parent material Welding current too low Gas pore <1.5mm Blow hole.>1.6mm
Root piping
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Gas Cavities
3.7
Porosity
Root piping
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Gas Cavities
3.8
Cluster porosity
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Herringbone porosity
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Crater Pipe
3.9
Weld crater
Crater pipe
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Crater Pipe
3.9
Crater pipe is a shrinkage defect and not a gas defect, it has the appearance of a gas pore in the weld crater
Causes:
Too fast a cooling rate Deoxidization reactions and liquid to solid volume change Contamination
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Crater pipe
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Solid Inclusions
3.10
Slag inclusions are defined as a nonnon-metallic inclusion caused by some welding process
Causes: Slag originates from welding flux
Slag inclusions Lack of sidewall fusion with associated slag
MAG and TIG welding process produce silica inclusions Slag is caused by inadequate cleaning
Other inclusions include tungsten and copper inclusions from the TIG and MAG welding process
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Solid Inclusions
3.11
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Welding Imperfections
Typical Causes of Lack of Fusion: welding current too low bevel angle too steep root face too large (single-sided weld) root gap too small (single-sided weld) incorrect electrode angle linear misalignment welding speed too high
3.13
welding process related particularly dip-transfer GMAW flooding the joint with too much weld metal (blocking Out)
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Lack of Fusion
Causes:
3.13
Poor welder skill Incomplete filled groove + Lack of sidewall fusion Incorrect electrode manipulation Arc blow 1 2 1. Lack of sidewall fusion 2. Lack of interinter-run fusion Incorrect welding current/voltage Incorrect travel speed Incorrect interinter-run cleaning
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Lack of Fusion
3.13
3.15
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Cap Undercut
3.18
Undercut
3.18
Root undercut
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Cap undercut
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3.19
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3.19
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3.20
Overlap
3.21
An imperfection at the toe or root of a weld caused by metal flowing on to the surface of the parent metal without fusing to it
Causes: Contamination Slow travel speed Incorrect welding technique Current too low
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Overlap
Toe Overlap
3.21
Toe Overlap
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3.22
Linear misalignment is measured from the lowest plate to the highest point. Plate/pipe Linear Misalignment (Hi(Hi -Lo) Angular misalignment is measured in degrees
Angular Misalignment
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3.22
Linear Misalignment
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3.22
Linear Misalignment
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Incomplete Groove
3.23
3.24
pressure during TIG welding Excessive root bead grinding before the application of the second pass welding current too high for 2nd pass overhead welding root gap too large - excessive weaving
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Concave Root
3.24
Concave Root
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3.24
Concave root
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Causes:
High Amps/volts Small Root face Large Root Gap Slow Travel Speed
Burn through
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3.25
Burn Through
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Miscellaneous Imperfections
Causes:
3.26
Accidental striking of the arc onto the parent material Faulty electrode holder Poor cable insulation Poor return lead clamping
Arc strike
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Miscellaneous Imperfections
Causes:
3.27
Excessive current Damp electrodes Contamination Incorrect wire feed speed when welding with the MAG welding process Arc blow
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Spatter
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Mechanical Damage
3.28
Mechanical damage can be defined as any surface material damage cause during the manufacturing process.
Grinding Hammering Chiselling Chipping Breaking off welded attachments (torn surfaces) Using needle guns to compress weld capping runs
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Mechanical Damage
Chipping Marks
3.28
Welding Inspector
Destructive Testing Section 4
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Qualitative Tests:
For assessing joint quality (good fusion & free from defects) Qualitative tests - bend tests - macro examination - fillet fracture & nick nick-break tests
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Position 5 2, 4 2, 4 3 3
Additional Tests
Definitions
Mechanical Properties of metals are related to the amount of deformation which metals can withstand under different circumstances of force application.
Ability of a material to withstand deformation under static compressive loading without rupture
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Definitions
Mechanical Properties of metals are related to the amount of deformation which metals can withstand under different circumstances of force application.
Ability of a material undergo plastic deformation under static tensile loading without rupture. Measurable elongation and reduction in cross section area
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Definitions
Mechanical Properties of metals are related to the amount of deformation which metals can withstand under different circumstances of force application.
Ability of a material to withstand bending or the application of shear stresses by impact loading without fracture.
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Definitions
Mechanical Properties of metals are related to the amount of deformation which metals can withstand under different circumstances of force application.
Measurement of a materials surface resistance to indentation from another material by static load
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Definitions
Mechanical Properties of metals are related to the amount of deformation which metals can withstand under different circumstances of force application.
Measurement of the maximum force required to fracture a materials bar of unit crosscross-sectional area in tension
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4.2
Weld on plate
Weld on pipe
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Tensile Test
4.3
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4.4
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Objectives: measuring impact strength in different weld joint areas assessing resistance toward brittle fracture Information to be supplied on the test report: Material type Notch type Specimen size Test temperature Notch location Impact Strength Value
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4.6
Transition range
Brittle fracture - 50 - 40 - 30 - 20 - 10 0 Testing temperature - Degrees Centigrade Three specimens are normally tested at each temperature
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Average = 51 Joules
The test results show the specimens carried out at room temperature absorb more energy than the specimens carried out at -20oC
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Anvil (support)
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4.9
100% Brittle
Machined notch Fracture surface 100% bright crystalline brittle fracture
8 mm
100% Ductile
Machined notch Large reduction in area, shear lips Randomly torn, dull gray fracture surface
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Hardness Testing
Definition
4.10
Measurement of resistance of a material against penetration of an indenter under a constant load There is a direct correlation between UTS and hardness
Hardness tests:
Brinell Vickers Rockwell
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Hardness Testing
Objectives:
4.10
measuring hardness in different areas of a welded joint assessing resistance toward brittle fracture, cold cracking and corrosion sensitivity within a H2S (Hydrogen Sulphide) environment.
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4.11
indentation body is a square based diamond pyramid (136 included angle) the average diagonal (d) of the impression is converted to a hardness number from a table it is measured in HV5, HV10 or HV025
Diamond indentor Indentation Adjustable shutters
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4.11
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4.11
a given time to a given load Load divided by area of indentation gives Brinell hardness in kg/mm2 More suitable for on site hardness testing 30KN
Rockwell C
120Diamond Cone
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Hardness Testing
usually the hardest region fusion line or fusion boundary
4.12
1.5 to 3mm
HAZ
Fatigue Fracture
4.13
Location: Any stress concentration area Steel Type: All steel types Susceptible Microstructure: All grain structures Test for Fracture Toughness is CTOD (Crack Tip Opening Displacement)
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Fatigue Fracture
4.13
Fatigue cracks occur under cyclic stress conditions Fracture normally occurs at a change in section, notch and weld defects i.e stress concentration area All materials are susceptible to fatigue cracking Fatigue cracking starts at a specific point referred to as a initiation point The fracture surface is smooth in appearance sometimes displaying beach markings The final mode of failure may be brittle or ductile or a combination of both
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Fatigue Fracture
Precautions against Fatigue Cracks
Toe grinding, profile grinding. The elimination of poor profiles The elimination of partial penetration welds and weld defects Operating conditions under the materials endurance limits The elimination of notch effects e.g. mechanical damage cap/root undercut The selection of the correct material for the service conditions of the component
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Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue fracture occurs in structures subject to repeated application of tensile stress. Crack growth is slow (in same cases, crack may grow into an area of low stress and stop without failure).
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Fatigue Fracture
Secondary mode of failure ductile fracture rough fibrous appearance Fatigue fracture surface smooth in appearance
Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue fracture distinguish features:
Crack growth is slow It initiate from stress concentration points load is considerably below the design or yield stress level The surface is smooth The surface is bounded by a curve Bands may sometimes be seen on the smooth surface beachmarks. They show the progress of the crack front from the point of origin The surface is 90 90 to the load Final fracture will usually take the form of gross yielding (as the maximum stress in the remaining ligament increase!) Fatigue crack need initiation + propagation periods
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Bend Tests
Object of test:
4.15
To determine the soundness of the weld zone. Bend testing can also be used to give an assessment of weld zone ductility. There are three ways to perform a bend test:
Side bend tests are normally carried out on welds over 12mm in thickness
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Bending test
4.16
t up to 12 mm
Side bend
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4.17
To break open the joint through the weld to permit examination of the fracture surfaces Specimens are cut to the required length A saw cut approximately 2mm in depth is applied along the fillet welds length Fracture is usually made by striking the specimen with a single hammer blow Visual inspection for defects
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4.17
2mm Notch
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4.17
Lack of Penetration
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4.18
To permit evaluation of any weld defects across the fracture surface of a butt weld.
Specimens are cut transverse to the weld A saw cut approximately 2mm in depth is applied
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4.18
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4.18
Alternative nicknick-break test specimen, notch applied all way around the specimen
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Quantitative: (Have units/numbers) To measure mechanical properties Hardness (VPN & BHN) Toughness (Joules & ft.lbs) Strength (N/mm2 & PSI, MPa) Ductility / Elongation (E%)
Qualitative: (Have no units/numbers) For assessing joint quality Macro tests Bend tests Fillet weld fracture tests Butt Nick break tests
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Welding Inspector
WPS Welder Qualifications Section 5
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* properties properties mechanical properties are the main interest - always strength but toughness & hardness may be important for some applications test also demonstrates that the weld can be made without defects
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Welding Procedures
Producing a welding procedure involves: Planning the tasks Collecting the data Writing a procedure for use of for trial Making a test welds Evaluating the results Approving the procedure Preparing the documentation
5.1
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Other codes may not specifically deal with the requirement of a procedure but may contain information that may be used in writing a weld procedure
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The welding engineer writes qualified Welding Procedure Specifications (WPS) for production welding
Production welding conditions must remain within the range of qualification allowed by the WPQR
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5.3
welding conditions are called welding variables welding variables are classified by the EN ISO Standard as:
5.3
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SOME TYPICAL ESSENTIAL VARIABLES Welding Process Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT) Material Type Electrode Type, Filler Wire Type (Classification) Material Thickness Polarity (AC, DC+ve / DC-ve) Pre Pre-Heat Temperature Heat Input Welding Position
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Welding Procedures
Type (Grouping) Thickness Diameter (Pipes) Surface condition)
5.3
Welding process
Type of process (MMA, MAG, TIG, SAW etc) Equipment parameters Amps, Volts, Travel speed
Welding Consumables
Type of consumable/diameter of consumable Brand/classification Heat treatments/ storage
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Welding Procedures
Edge preparation Root gap, root face Jigging and tacking Type of baking
5.3
Welding Position
Location, shop or site Welding position e.g. 1G, 2G, 3G etc Any weather precaution
Welding Procedures
Object of a welding procedure test
5.3
To give maximum confidence that the welds mechanical and metallurgical properties meet the requirements of the applicable code/specification. Each welding procedure will show a range to which the procedure is approved (extent of approval) If a customer queries the approval evidence can be supplied to prove its validity
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Welding Procedures
Summary of designations: pWPS: Preliminary Welding Procedure Specification
(Before procedure approval)
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Welder Qualification
5.4
Numerous codes and standards deal with welder qualification, e.g. BS EN 287. Once the content of the procedure is approved the next stage is to approve the welders to the approved procedure. A welders test know as a Welders Qualification Test (WQT). Object of a welding qualification test: To give maximum confidence that the welder meets the quality requirements of the approved procedure (WPS). The test weld should be carried out on the same material and same conditions as for the production welds.
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Welder Qualification
(according to EN Standards) Question: What is the main reason for qualifying a welder ?
Answer: To show that he has the skill to be able to make production welds that are free from defects Note: when welding in accordance with a Qualified WPS
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5.5
The welder is allowed to make production welds within the range of qualification shown on the Certificate The range of qualification allowed for production welding is based on the limits that the EN Standard specifies for the welder qualification essential variables A Certificate may be withdrawn by the Employer if there is reason to doubt the ability of the welder, for example a high repair rate not working in accordance with a qualified WPS
The qualification shall remain valid for 2 years provided there is certified confirmation of welding to the WPS in that time. A Welders Qualification Certificate automatically expires if the welder has not used the welding process for 6 months or longer.
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Welder Qualification
(according to EN 287 )
5.9
An approved WPS should be available covering the range of qualification required for the welder approval.
The welder qualifies in accordance with an approved WPS A welding inspector monitors the welding to make sure that the welder uses the conditions specified by the WPS EN Welding Standard states that an Independent Examiner, Examining Body or Third Party Inspector may be required to monitor the qualification process
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Welder Qualification
(according to EN 287 )
5.9
The finished test weld is subjected to NDT by the methods specified by the EN Standard - Visual, MT or PT & RT or UT The test weld may need to be destructively tested - for certain materials and/or welding processes specified by the EN Standard or the Client Specification A Welders Qualification Certificate is prepared showing the conditions used for the test weld and the range of qualification allowed by the EN Standard for production welding The Qualification Certificate is usually endorsed by a Third Party Inspector as a true record of the test
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Welder Qualification
Welders name and identification number Date of test and expiry date of certificate Standard/code e.g. BS EN 287 Test piece details Welding process. Welding parameters, amps, volts Consumables, flux type and filler classification details Sketch of run sequence Welding positions Joint configuration details Material type qualified, pipe diameter etc Test results, remarks Test location and witnessed by Extent (range) of approval
5.10
Information that should be included on a welders test certificate are, which the welder should have or have access to a copy of !
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Welder Qualification
Tests methods required for welder qualification (BS EN 287)
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Welding Inspector
Materials Inspection Section 6
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Material Inspection
One of the most important items to consider is Traceability. The materials are of little use if we can not, by use of an effective QA system trace them from specification and purchase order to final documentation package handed over to the Client. All materials arriving on site should be inspected for: Size / dimensions Condition Type / specification In addition other elements may need to be considered depending on the materials form or shape
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Pipe Inspection
We inspect the condition
(Corrosion, Damage, Wall thickness Ovality, Laminations & Seam)
LP5
Size
Other checks may need to be made such as: distortion tolerance, number of plates and storage.
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Plate Inspection
We inspect the condition (Corrosion, Mechanical damage, Laps, Bands & Laminations) Specification
5L
Size
Other checks may need to be made such as: distortion tolerance, number of plates and storage.
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Segregation line Laminations are caused in the parent plate by the steel making process, originating from ingot casting defects. Segregation bands occur in the centre of the plate and are low melting point impurities such as sulphur and phosphorous. Laps are caused during rolling when overlapping metal does not fuse to the base material.
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Lapping
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Lamination
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Laminations
Plate Lamination
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Codes & Standards Section 7
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Codes often do not contain all relevant data, but may refer to other standards
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Standard/Codes/Specifications
STANDARDS
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Welding Inspector
Welding Symbols Section 8
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Dimensions
Convention of dimensions
In most standards the cross sectional dimensions are given to the left side of the symbol, and all linear dimensions are give on the right side
BS EN ISO 22553
a = Design throat thickness s = Depth of Penetration, Throat thickness z = Leg length (min material thickness)
AWS A2.4
In a fillet weld, the size of the weld is the leg length In a butt weld, the size of the weld is based on the depth of the joint preparation
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The above information does not tell us much about the wishes of the designer. We obviously need some sort of code which would be understood by everyone. Most countries have their own standards for symbols. Some of them are AWS A2.4 & BS EN 22553 (ISO 2553)
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by symbolic representation
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Weld type
Square edge butt weld Single-v Singlebutt weld
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Sketch
Symbol
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Sketch
Symbol
Sketch
Symbol
Fillet weld
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Plug weld
Surfacing
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Arrow Line
(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4): Convention of the arrow line:
Shall touch the joint intersection Shall not be parallel to the drawing Shall point towards a single plate preparation (when only one plate has preparation)
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Reference Line
(AWS A2.4) Convention of the reference line:
Shall touch the arrow line Shall be parallel to the bottom of the drawing
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Reference Line
(BS EN ISO 22553) Convention of the reference line:
Shall touch the arrow line Shall be parallel to the bottom of the drawing There shall be a further broken identification line above or beneath the reference line (Not necessary where the weld is symmetrical!)
or
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Fillet weld
Double bevel
Double J
Double V
Double U
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Arrow side
Other side
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DoubleDouble-bevel butt
SingleSingle -J butt
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10
15
z z6
6mm leg
a s
a4
4mm Design throat
s6
6mm Actual throat
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Arrow side
Arrow side
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Other side
s6
Other side
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n x l (e)
Welds to be staggered
2 x 40 (50) 3 x 40 (50)
111
Process
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6 6
90
90
90
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90
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Supplementary symbols
(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A A2 2.4) Convention of supplementary symbols
Supplementary information such as welding process, weld profile, NDT and any special instructions Toes to be ground smoothly (BS EN only)
Site Weld
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Supplementary symbols
(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4) Convention of supplementary symbols
Supplementary information such as welding process, weld profile, NDT and any special instructions
Ground flush
MR
Removable backing strip
M
Permanent backing strip
111
Welding process numerical BS EN
Further supplementary information, such as WPS number, or NDT may be placed in the fish tail
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c
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d
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Mitre
Convex
Concave
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z z6
6mm leg
a s
a4
4mm Design throat
s6
6mm Actual throat
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MMA welding with covered electrode SubSub -arc welding with wire electrode MIG welding with inert gas shield MAG welding with nonnon-inert gas shield Flux core arc welding TIG welding OxyOxy -acetylene welding ElectroElectro -slag welding Plasma arc welding
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Root Opening
Effective Throat
Groove Angle
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3 10 3 10
3
SMAW Process
10
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FCAW
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FCAW
1/8 60o
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Member A
6 8
Member B
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10
3 x 50 (70)
70 50 10
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Fillet welds
Fillet weld dimensions according AWS A 2.4
8
8
5x8
5 8
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z z
l-e l-e
z z
l-e l-e
Welding Inspector
Intro To Welding Processes Section 9
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Welding Processes
Welding is regarded as a joining process in which the work pieces are in atomic contact
Pressure welding
Forge welding Friction welding Resistance Welding
Fusion welding
Oxy Oxy-acetylene MMA (SMAW) MIG/MAG (GMAW) TIG (GTAW) Sub Sub-arc (SAW) Electro Electro-slag (ESW) Laser Beam (LBW) Electron Electron-Beam (EBW)
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Welding Processes
The four essential factors for fusion welding:
1. Fusion is achieved by melting using a high intensity heat source 2. The welding process must be capable of removing any oxide and contamination from the joint 3. Atmosphere contamination must be avoided 4. The welded joint must possess the mechanical properties required by the specification being adapted
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Electrical characteristic
Drooping / constant current Drooping / constant current Flat / constant voltage
MAG FCAW Flat / constant voltage Sub-arc Drooping / constant current >1000amp Flat / constant voltage <1000amp Electro-slag Flat / constant voltage
DC+ve,
DC-ve,
AC
DC+ve,
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O.C.V. Striking voltage (typical) for arc initiation Required for: MMA, TIG, Plasma arc and SAW > 1000 AMPS
Voltage
Large voltage variation, e.g. + 10v 10 v (due to changes in arc length) Small amperage change resulting in virtually constant current e.g. + 5A.
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Amperage
ARC CHARACTERISTICS
Constant Voltage Characteristic O CV
Large arc gap Small arc gap
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Welding Inspector
MMA Welding Section 10
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MMA welding
Main features:
Shielding provided by decomposition of flux covering Electrode consumable Manual process
Welder controls:
Arc length Angle of electrode Speed of travel Amperage settings
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Power cables
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Voltage
Large voltage variation, e.g. + 10v (due to changes in arc length) Small amperage change resulting in virtually constant current e.g. + 5A.
200
Amperage
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position
Too low poor starting slag inclusions weld bead contour too high lack of fusion/penetration
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Welding current
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MMA - Troubleshooting
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Disadvantages:
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Welding Inspector
TIG Welding Section 11
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Welding Torch
Current Conductor
Shielding gas Tungsten Electrode Contact Tube Gas Shield Filler Wire Arc
Weld Pool
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Helium Argon mixes Suitable for welding carbon steel, stainless steel, copper, aluminium and magnesium High cost, high flow rates More suitable for thicker materials and materials of high thermal conductivity.
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Current
The current is adjusted proportionally to the tungsten electrodes diameter being used. The higher the current the deeper the penetration and fusion
Polarity
The polarity used for steels is always DC ve as most of the heat is concentrated at the +ve pole, this is required to keep the tungsten electrode at the cool end of the arc. When welding aluminium and its alloys AC current is used
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TORCH TORCH HOSE RETURN LEAD INERT GAS SUPPLY (Cylinder & regulator) FLOWMETER (graduated in ltr/min)
Sizes/types vary depending on current/application Flexible may carry current, gas, cooling water. Note that current actually flows from this lead Correct type for application.(ar, he, ar/he mixture) Argon/hydrogen for austenitic stainless steel To deliver correct gas flow (velocity) depending on welding position and joint configuration.
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Types of current
DC can be DCEN or DCEP DCEN gives deep penetration can be sine or square wave requires a HF current (continuos or periodical) provide cleaning action requires special power source low frequency - up to 20 pulses/sec (thermal pulsing) better weld pool control weld pool partially solidifies 256 of 691 between pulses
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+ + + + +
+ +
Current type & polarity Heat balance Penetration Oxide cleaning action Electrode capacity
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DCEN 70% at work 30% at electrode Deep, narrow No Excellent (e.g. 3,2 mm/400A)
AC (balanced) 50% at work 50% 50 % at electrode Medium Yes - every half cycle Good (e.g. 3,2 mm/225A)
DCEP 35% at work 65% 65 % at electrode Shallow, wide Yes Poor (e.g. 6,4 mm/120A)
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ARC CHARACTERISTICS
Constant Current/Amperage Characteristic
OCV
Volts
Large arc gap Welding Voltage Small arc gap
Amps
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HF start
need a HF generator (spark(sparkgap oscillator) that generates a high voltage AC output (radio frequency) costly reliable method required on both DC (for start) and AC (to rere-ignite the arc) can be used remotely HF produce interference requires superior insulation
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Pulsed current
Current (A) Pulse Cycle Peak Background time time current current
usually peak current is 22-10 times background current useful on metals sensitive to high heat input reduced distortions in case of dissimilar thicknesses equal penetration can be achieved
one set of variables can be used in all positions used for bridging gaps in open root joints require special power source
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Tungsten Electrodes
Old types: (Slightly Radioactive)
Thoriated: DC electrode -ve - steels and most metals 1% thoriated + tungsten for higher current values 2% thoriated for lower current values Zirconiated: AC - aluminum alloys and magnesium
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Too small
Electrode extension
Too large
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Tungsten Electrodes
Old types: (Slightly Radioactive)
Thoriated: DC electrode -ve - steels and most metals 1% thoriated + tungsten for higher current values 2% thoriated for lower current values Zirconiated: AC - aluminum alloys and magnesium
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Vetex angle Note: too fine an angle will promote melting of the electrodes tip
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Note: when welding aluminium with AC current, the tungsten end is chamfered and forms a ball end when welding
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Too low
Welding current
Too high
Unstable arc
Penetration
Tungsten inclusions
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Helium Argon mixes Suitable for welding carbon steel, stainless steel, copper, aluminium and magnesium High cost, high flow rates More suitable for thicker materials and materials of high thermal conductivity.
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Preflow
Postflow
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Too small
Electrode extension
Too large
consumable).
Filler wires of different materials composition and
variable diameters available in standard lengths, with applicable code stamped for identification
Steel Filler wires of very high quality, with copper
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Tungsten Inclusion
May be caused by Thermal Shock of heating to fast and small fragments break off and enter the weld pool, so a slope up device is normally fitted to prevent this could be caused by touch down also. Most TIG sets these days have slopeup devices that brings the current to the set level over a short period of time so the tungsten is heated more slowly and gently
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Disadvantages
High skill factor required Low deposition rate Small consumable range High protection required Complex equipment Low productivity High ozone levels +HF
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Welding Inspector
MIG/MAG Welding Section 12
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Disadvantages
Lack of fusion (dip) Small range of consumables Protection on site Complex equipment Not so portable
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Increasing welding current Increase in depth and width Increase in deposition rate
Polarity
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Increasing arc voltage Reduced penetration, increased width Excessive voltage can cause porosity, spatter and undercut
Travel speed
Increasing travel speed Reduced penetration and width, undercut
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Carbon steel
Stainless steel
Ar+2%O2
Aluminium
Ar
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Argon (Ar): higher density than air; low thermal conductivity the arc has a high energy inner cone; good wetting at the toes; low ionisation potential Helium (He): lower density than air; high thermal conductivity uniformly distributed arc energy; parabolic profile; high ionisation potential Carbon Dioxide (CO2): cheap; deep penetration profile; cannot support spray transfer; poor wetting; high spatter
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for CC-Mn & low alloy steels for stainless steels can be used for C - steels
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Penetration Undercut
Deep
Moderate Shallow
Electrode extension
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Increased extension
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19 mm
25 mm
Voltage (V)
Current (A)
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25 mm L
25 mm
Voltage (V)
Current (A)
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Current - 250A Voltage - 27V WFS - 7,8 m/min Wire diam. - 1,2 mm Shielding gas Ar+18%CO2
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0.10 sec
0.15 sec
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Globular transfer
Spray transfer
Electrode diameter = 1,2 mm WFS = 3,2 m/min Current = 145 A
Dip transfer
Voltage = 1818-20V
Current
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Current/voltage conditions
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Transferransfer-mode disadvantages More complex & expensive power source Difficult to set parameters - requires power source manufacturer to provide pulse programmes to suit wire type, dia. and type of gas
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process using CO2 shielding gas Spray Transfer: (Voltage > 27) / (Amperage > 220)
Thicker materials, limited to flat welding positions, high
pulses/second
Positional welding and root runs
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touches the weld pool, at this point the output from the power supply is short circuited and a very high current flows through the electrode. If this was allowed to continue, the wire would melt and eject excessive amounts of spatter.
The inclusion or the choke in the welding circuit
controls the rate at which the current rises so that the electrode tip is melted uniformly without excessive spatter
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Minimum inductance
Colder arc, used only for arc stability when welding wide gaps Convex weld, more spatter Improved weld pool control Recommended on thin materials
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ARC CHARACTERISTICS
Constant Voltage Characteristic O CV
Large arc gap Small arc gap
Volts
Amps
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33 32 31
Voltage
100
Amperage
200
300
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Union nut
Gas nozzle
Trigger Handle
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Voltage:
The voltage is the most important setting in the spray transfer mode, as it controls the arc length. In dip transfer it controls the rise in current
Current:
The current is automatically increased as the wire feed is increased. Current mainly affects penetration
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WELDING PROCESS Flux Core Arc Welding (Not In The Training Manual)
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ARC CHARACTERISTICS
Constant Voltage Characteristic O CV
Large arc gap Small arc gap
Volts
Amps
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Disadvantages
produce a higher weld profile difficult to follow the weld joint can lead to burnburn-through on thin sheet plates
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Disadvantages
produce a low weld profile, with coarser ripples fast weld progression, shallower depth of penetration the amount of spatter can increase
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FCAW advantages
less sensitive to lack of fusion requires smaller included angle compared to MMA high productivity all positional smooth bead surface, less danger of undercut basic types produce excellent toughness properties good control of the weld pool in positional welding especially with rutile wires seamless wires have no torsional strain, twist free ease of varying the alloying constituents no need for shielding gas
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FCAW disadvantages
limited to steels and NiNi-base alloys slag covering must be removed FCAW wire is more expensive on a weight basis than solid wires (exception: some high alloy steels) for gas shielded process, the gaseous shield may be affected by winds and drafts more smoke and fumes are generated compared with MIG/MAG in case of Innershield wires, it might be necessary to break the wire for restart (due to the high amount of insulating slag formed at the tip of the wire)
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FCAW advantages/disadvantages
Advantages: 1) Field or shop use 2) High productivity 3) All positional 4) Slag supports and shapes the weld Bead 5) No need for shielding gas Disadvantages: 1) High skill factor 2) Slag inclusions 3) Cored wire is Expensive 4) High level of fume (Inner(Inner -shield) 5) Limited to steels and nickel alloys
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Welding Inspector
Submerged Arc Welding Section 13
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Principles of operation
Factors that determine whether to use SAW chemical composition and mechanical properties required for the weld deposit thickness of base metal to be welded joint accessibility position in which the weld is to be made frequency or volume of welding to be performed
SAW methods
Semiautomatic
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Mechanised
Automatic
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+ Slide rail
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SAW Consumables
(Covered in detail in Section 14)
SAW Consumables
Agglomerated fluxes advantages: easy addition of deoxidizers and alloying elements usable with thicker layer of flux when welding colour identification
Agglomerated fluxes disadvantages: tendency to absorb moisture possible gas evolution from the molten slag leading to porosity possible change in flux composition due to segregation or removal of fine mesh particles
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SAW equipment
Power sources can be: transformers for AC transformertransformer -rectifiers for DC
Static characteristic can be: Constant Voltage (flat) - most of the power sources Constant Current (drooping)
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SAW equipment
Constant Voltage (Flat Characteristic) power sources: most commonly used supplies for SAW can be used for both semiautomatic and automatic welding selfself -regulating arc simple wire feed speed control wire feed speed controls the current and power supply controls the voltage applications for DC are limited to 1000A due to severe arc blow (also thin wires!)
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ARC CHARACTERISTICS
Constant Voltage Characteristic O CV
Large arc gap Small arc gap
Volts
Amps
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SAW equipment
Constant Current (Drooping Characteristic) power sources: Over 1000 1000A A - very fast speed required - control of burn off rate and stick out length can be used for both semiautomatic and automatic welding not selfself-regulating arc must be used with a voltagevoltage-sensing variable wire feed speed control more expensive due to more complex wire feed speed control arc voltage depends upon wire feed speed whilst the power source controls the current cannot be used for highhigh-speed welding of thin steel
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SAW equipment
Welding heads can be mounted on a: Tractor type carriage provides travel along straight or gently curved joints can ride on tracks set up along the joint (with grooved wheels) or on the workpiece itself can use guide wheels as tracking device due to their portability, are used in field welding or where the piece cannot be moved
Courtesy of ESAB AB
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Courtesy of ESAB AB
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excessively low speed produce hathat-shaped beads danger of cracking excessively low speed produce rough beads and lead to slag inclusions
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to keep a proper weld shape, when electrode extension is increased, voltage must also be increased when burnburn-through is a problem (e.g. thin gauge), increase electrode extension excessive electrode extension: it is more difficult to maintain the electrode tip in the correct position
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SAW
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SAW
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SAW
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welding towards earth produces backward arc blow deep penetration convex weld profile
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Weld backing
Backing strip
Backing weld
Copper backing
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SAW variants
Twin wire SAW welding two electrodes are feed into the same weld pool wire diameter usually 1,6 to 3,2 mm electrodes are connected to a single power source & a single arc is established normally operate with DCEP offers increased deposition rate by up to 80% compared to single wire SAW
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SAW variants
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SAW variants
Tandem arc SAW process usually DCEP on lead and AC on trail to reduce arc blow requires two separate power sources the electrodes are active in the same puddle BUT there are 2 separate arcs increased deposition rate by up to 100% compared with single wire SAW
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SAW variants
SAW tandem arc with two wires
Courtesy of ESAB AB
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SAW variants
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SAW variants
Tandem arc SAW process - multiple wires only for welding thick sections (>30 mm) not suitable for use in narrow weld preparations (root passes) one 4 mm wire at 600 A, 6.8 kg/hr
Courtesy of ESAB AB
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SAW variants
Strip cladding needs a special welding head
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SAW variants
Narrow gap welding for welding thick materials less filler metal required requires special groove preparation and special welding head requires special fluxes, otherwise problems with slag removal defect removal is very difficult
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SAW variants
Cold wire welding the cold wire is not connected to power source increase deposition rates up to 75% high deposition rate at fixed heat input results in lower penetration!
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SAW variants
Hot wire welding the hot wire is connected to power source & much more efficient than cold wire (current is used entirely to heat the wire!) increase deposition rates up to 100% requires additional welding equipment, additional control of variables, considerable setset -up time and closer operator attention
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SAW variants
SAW with metal powder addition
increased deposition rates up to 70%; increased welding speed gives smooth fusion, improved bead appearance, reduced penetration and dilution from parent metal & higher impact strength metal powders can modify chemical composition of final weld deposit does not increase risk of cracking do not require additional arc energy metal powder can be added ahead or directly into the weld pool
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SAW variants
SAW with metal powder addition magnetic attachment of powder
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SAW variants
Storage tank SAW of circular welds
Courtesy of ESAB AB
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15%
60%
25%
Flux elements
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Electrode
Dilution
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Advantages of SAW
high current density, high deposition rates (up to 10 times those for MMA), high productivity deep penetration allowing the use of small welding grooves fast travel speed, less distortion deslagging is easier uniform bead appearance with good surface finish and good fatigue properties can be easily performed mechanised, giving a higher duty cycle and low skill level required provide consistent quality when performed automatic or mechanised Virtually assured radiographically sound welds arc is not visible little smoke/fumes are developed
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Disadvantages of SAW
limited mainly between flat and horizontal positions limited to carbon, low alloy, creep resisting, stainless steels and nickel alloys due to the high heat input, impact strength of weld metal/HAZ may be low; also high dilution slag must be cleared away after welding due to the danger of slag inclusions need flux storage, handling and recirculation control difficult to apply onon-site due to complicated equipment high capital costs weld line must be regular (straight or circumferential seams only) with accurate fitfit-up
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Disadvantages
Restricted welding positions Arc blow on DC current Shrinkage defects Difficult penetration control Limited joints
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Welding Inspector
Welding Consumables Section 14
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Welding consumables
Welding consumables are any products that are used up in the production of a weld
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(GTAW)
BS 2901: Filler wires BS EN 440: Wire electrodes AWS A5.9: Filler wires BS EN 439: Shielding gases
SAW
BS 4165: Wire and fluxes BS EN 756: Wire electrodes BS EN 760: Fluxes AWS A5.17: Wires and fluxes
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Welding Consumables
Each consumable is critical in respect to:
Size, (diameter and length) Classification / Supplier Condition Treatments e.g. baking / drying Handling and storage is critical for consumable
control
Handling and storage of gases is critical for safety
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Quality Assurance
Welding Consumables:
filler material must be stored in an area with controlled temperature and humidity poor handling and incorrect stacking may damage coatings, rendering the electrodes unusable there should be an issue and return policy for welding consumables (system procedure) control systems for electrode treatment must be checked and calibrated; those operations must be recorded filler material suppliers must be approved before purchasing any material
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3: Electrode designation
EN 499-E 51 3 B
Arc ignition enhancing materials (optional!) See BS EN ISO 544 for further information
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Tin can
cellulosic electrodes
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Advantages:
Deep penetration/fusion Suitable for welding in all positions Fast travel speeds Large volumes of shielding gas Low control
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Disadvantages:
High in hydrogen High crack tendency Rough weld appearance High spatter contents Low deposition rates
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Advantages:
Easy to use Low cost / control Smooth weld profiles Slag easily detachable High deposition possible with the addition of iron powder
Disadvantages:
High in hydrogen High crack tendency Low strength Low toughness values
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Cellulosic Rutile
E XX X C E XX X R
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Electrode efficiency
up to 180% for iron powder electrodes
Mass of weld metal deposited Electrode Eficiency = Mass of core wire melted
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Weld
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Welding Consumables
TIG Consumables
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consumable).
Filler wires of different materials composition and
variable diameters available in standard lengths, with applicable code stamped for identification
Steel Filler wires of very high quality, with copper
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must be kept clean and free from oil and dust might require degreasing
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Fusible Inserts
PrePre -placed filler material
Before Welding
After Welding
Other terms used include: EB inserts (Electric Boat Company) Consumable socket rings (CSR)
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Fusible Inserts
Consumable inserts: used for root runs on pipes used in conjunction with TIG welding available for carbon steel, Cr r-Mo steel, austenitic stainless steel, nickel and coppercopper-nickel alloys different shapes to suit application
Radius
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Fusible Inserts
Application of consumable inserts
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Welding Consumables
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gases
variable spool size (1(1-15Kg) and Wire diameter (0.6 (0.6-
as electrode wires.
Some Steel Electrode wires copper coating purpose
Courtesy of ESAB AB
wires must be kept clean and free from oil and dust flux cored wires does not require baking or drying
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EN 440 - G 46 3 M G3Si1
Weld deposit produced by gas shielded metal arc welding Impact properties Type of wire electrode
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Group R Ar + H2 (<35%)
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Welding Consumables
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Functions of metallic sheath: provide form stability to the wire serves as current transfer during welding
Function of the filling powder: stabilise the arc add alloy elements produce gaseous shield produce slag add iron powder
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not sensitive to moisture pickpick -up can be copper coated, better current transfer thick sheath, good form stability, 2 roll drive feeding possible difficult to manufacture
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good resistance to moisture pickpick-up can be copper coated thick sheath difficult to seal the sheath
sensitive to moisture pickpickup cannot be copper coated thin sheath easy to manufacture
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Welding Consumables
SAW Consumables
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SAW Consumables
Welding fluxes:
are granular mineral compounds mixed according to various formulations shield the molten weld pool from the atmosphere clean the molten weld pool can modify the chemical composition of the weld metal prevents rapid escape of heat from welding zone influence the shape of the weld bead (wetting action) can be fused, agglomerated or mixed must be kept warm and dry to avoid porosity
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SAW Consumables
Welding flux:
might be fused or agglomerated supplied in bags must be kept warm and dry handling and stacking requires care
Courtesy of Lincoln Electric
Fused fluxes are normally not hygroscopic but particles can hold surface moisture so only drying Agglomerated fluxes contain chemically bonded water. Similar Similar treatment as basic electrodes If flux is too fine it will pack and not feed properly. It cannot be recycled indefinitely
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SAW Consumables
Welding flux: supplied in bags/pails (approx. 25 kg) or bulk bags (approx. 1200 kg) might be fused, agglomerated or mixed
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SAW Consumables
Fused Flux Flaky appearance Lower weld quality Low moisture intake Low dust tendency Good rere-cycling Very smooth weld profile
Fused Flux:
Baked at high temperature, glossy, hard and black in colour, cannot add ferro-manganese, non moisture absorbent and tends to be of the acidic type
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SAW Consumables
TYPES OF FLUX FUSED (ACID TYPE) name indicates method of manufacture minerals are fused (melted) and granules produced by allowing to cool to a solid mass and then crushing or by spraying the molten flux into water flux tends to be glassglass-like (high in Silica) granules are hard and may appear shiny granules do not absorb moisture granules do not tend break down into powder when being rere-circulated are effectively a low hydrogen flux welds do not tend to give good toughness at low temperatures
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SAW Consumables
Fused fluxes advantages: good chemical homogeneity easy removal of fines without affecting flux composition normally not hygroscopic handling easy storage and
readily recycled without significant change in particle size or composition Fused fluxes disadvantages: difficult to add deoxidizers and ferroferro-alloys (due to segregation or extremely high loss) high temperatures needed to melt ingredients limit the range of flux compositions
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SAW Consumables
Agglomerated Flux Granulated appearance High weld quality Addition of alloys Lower consumption Easy slag removal Smooth weld profile
Agglomerated Flux:
Baked at a lower temperature, dull, irregularly shaped, friable, (easily crushed) can easily add alloying elements, moisture absorbent and tend to be of the basic type
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SAW Consumables
Agglomerated fluxes advantages: easy addition of deoxidizers and alloying elements usable with thicker layer of flux when welding colour identification
Agglomerated fluxes disadvantages: tendency to absorb moisture possible gas evolution from the molten slag leading to porosity possible change in flux composition due to segregation or removal of fine mesh particles
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SAW Consumables
TYPES OF FLUX AGGLOMERATED (BASIC TYPE) name indicates method of manufacture basic minerals are used in powder form and are mixed with a binder to form individual granules granules are soft and easily crushed to powder granules will absorb moisture and it is necessary to protect the flux from moisture pickpick-up - usually by holding in a heated silo granules tend to break down into powder when being rerecirculated are a low hydrogen flux - if correctly controlled welds give good toughness at low temperatures
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SAW Consumables
Mixed fluxes - two or more fused or bonded fluxes are mixed in any ratio necessary to yield the desired results Mixed fluxes advantages: several commercial fluxes may be mixed for highly critical or proprietary welding operations Mixed fluxes disadvantages: segregation of the combined fluxes during shipment, storage and handling segregation occurring in the feeding and recovery systems during welding inconsistency in the combined flux from mix to mix
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wires must be kept clean and free from oil and dust
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Ceramic Backing
Ceramic backing:
used to support the weld pool on root runs usually fitted on an aluminium self adhesive tape
allow increased welding current without danger of burnburn-through, increased productivity, consistent quality different profiles to suit different applications no backing/drying required
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Welding Inspector
Non Destructive Testing Section 15
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Each technique has advantages & disadvantages with respect to: Technical Capability and Cost
Note: The choice of NDT techniques is based on consideration of these advantages and disadvantages
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Radiographic Testing
The principles of radiography
X or Gamma radiation is imposed upon a test object Radiation is transmitted to varying degrees dependant upon the density of the material through which it is travelling Thinner areas and materials of a less density show as darker areas on the radiograph Thicker areas and materials of a greater density show as lighter areas on a radiograph Applicable to metals,nonmetals,non-metals and composites
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Radiographic Testing
X Rays
Electrically generated
Gamma Rays
Generated by the decay of unstable atoms
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Radiographic Testing
Source Radiation beam Image quality indicator
Test specimen
Radiographic Testing
Density - relates to the degree of darkness
Densitometer
Contrast - relates to the degree of difference Definition - relates to the degree of sharpness Sensitivity - relates to the overall quality of the radiograph
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Radiographic Sensitivity
7FE12
Radiographic Sensitivity
Radiographic Techniques
Single Wall Single Image (SWSI)
film inside, source outside
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Film Film
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Film IQIs are placed on the film side Source inside film outside (single exposure)
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Film IQIs are placed on the film side Source outside film outside (multiple exposure) This technique is intended for pipe diameters over 100mm
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A
ID MR11
Radiograph
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Radiograph
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Film
IQIs are placed on the source or film side Source outside film outside (multiple exposure) A minimum of two exposures This technique is intended for pipe diameters less than 100mm
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4
EN W10
Elliptical Radiograph
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Radiography
PENETRATING POWER Question:
What determines the penetrating power of an XX-ray ? the kilokilo-voltage applied (between anode & cathode)
Question:
What determines the penetrating power of a gamma ray ? the type of isotope (the wavelength of the gamma rays)
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Radiography
GAMMA SOURCES Isotope Iridium 192 Cobalt 60
Ytterbium Thulium Cesium
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Radiographic Testing
Advantages Permanent record Little surface preparation Defect identification No material type limitation Not so reliant upon operator skill Thin materials Disadvantages Expensive consumables Bulky equipment Harmful radiation Defect require significant depth in relation to the radiation beam (not good for planar defects) Slow results Very little indication of depths Access to both sides required
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Radiographic Testing
Comparison with Ultrasonic Examination ADVANTAGES good for nonnon-planar defects good for thin sections gives permanent record easier for 2nd party interpretation can use on all material types high productivity direct image of imperfections
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Radiographic Testing
Comparison with Ultrasonic Examination DISADVANTAGES
health & safety hazard not good for thick sections high capital and relatively high running costs not good for planar defects X-ray sets not very portable requires access to both sides of weld frequent replacement of gamma source needed (half life)
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Ultrasonic Testing
Main Features:
Surface and subsub-surface detection This detection method uses high frequency sound waves, typically above 2MHz to pass through a material A probe is used which contains a piezo electric crystal to transmit and receive ultrasonic pulses and display the signals on a cathode ray tube or digital display The actual display relates to the time taken for the ultrasonic pulses to travel the distance to the interface and back An interface could be the back of a plate material or a defect For ultrasound to enter a material a couplant must be introduced between the probe and specimen
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Ultrasonic Testing
Pulse echo signals A scan Display Digital UT Set,
Compression probe
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Ultrasonic Testing
initial pulse defect echo Back wall echo
10
20
30
40
50
Compression Probe
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CRT Display
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Ultrasonic Testing
UT Set A Scan Display
Angle Probe
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Ultrasonic Testing
initial pulse defect echo
defect
0 10 20 30 40 50
Skip
CRT Display
Full Skip
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CRT Display
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Ultrasonic Testing
Advantages Rapid results Both surface and subsub -surface detection Safe Capable of measuring the depth of defects May be battery powered Portable Disadvantages Trained and skilled operator required Requires high operator skill Good surface finish required Defect identification Couplant may contaminate No permanent record Calibration Required Ferritic Material (Mostly)
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Ultrasonic Testing
Comparison with Radiography ADVANTAGES good for planar defects good for thick sections instant results can use on complex joints can automate very portable no safety problems (parallel working is possible) low capital & running costs
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Ultrasonic Testing
Comparison with Radiography DISADVANTAGES no permanent record (with standard equipment) not suitable for very thin joints <8mm reliant on operator interpretation not good for sizing Porosity good/smooth surface profile needed not suitable for coarse grain materials (e.g., castings) Ferritic Materials (with standard equipment)
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Electro-magnet (yoke) DC or AC
Prods DC or AC
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Alternatively to contrast inks, fluorescent inks may be used for greater sensitivity. These inks require a UVUV-A light source and a darkened viewing area to inspect the component
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Penetrant Testing
Main features:
Detection of surface breaking defects only. This test method uses the forces of capillary action Applicable on any material type, as long they are non porous. Penetrants are available in many different types: Water washable contrast Solvent removable contrast Water washable fluorescent Solvent removable fluorescent Post Post-emulsifiable fluorescent
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Penetrant Testing
Step 1. PrePre-Cleaning Ensure surface is very Clean normally with the use of a solvent
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Penetrant Testing
Step 2. Apply penetrant After the application, the penetrant is normally left on the components surface for approximately 1515-20 minutes (dwell time). The penetrant enters any defects that may be present by capillary action.
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Penetrant Testing
Step 3. Clean off penetrant the penetrant is removed after sufficient penetration time (dwell time). Care must be taken not to wash any penetrant out off any defects present
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Penetrant Testing
Step 3. Apply developer After the penetrant has be cleaned sufficiently, a thin layer of developer is applied. The developer acts as a contrast against the penetrant and allows for reverse capillary action to take place.
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Penetrant Testing
Step 4. Inspection / development time Inspection should take place immediately after the developer has been applied. any defects present will show as a bleed out during development time. After full inspection has been carried out post cleaning is generally required.
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Penetrant Testing
Fluorescent Penetrant Bleed out viewed under a UVUV-A light source
Penetrant Testing
Advantages
Simple to use Inexpensive Quick results Can be used on any nonnonporous material Portability Low operator skill required
Disadvantages
Surface breaking defect only little indication of depths Penetrant may contaminate component Surface preparation critical Post cleaning required Potentially hazardous chemicals Can not test unlimited times Temperature dependant
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Penetrant Testing
Comparison with Magnetic Particle Inspection ADVANTAGES easy to interpret results no power requirements relatively little training required can use on all materials DISADVANTAGES good surface finish needed relatively slow chemicals - health & safety issue
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Welding Inspector
Weld Repairs Section 16
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Weld Repairs
Weld repairs can be divided into 2 specific areas: Production repairs In service repairs
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Weld Repairs
A weld repair can be a relatively straight forward activity, but in many instances it is quite complex, and various engineering disciplines may need to be involved to ensure a successful outcome. Analysis of the defect types may be carried out by the Q/C department to discover the likely reason for their occurrence, (Material/Process or Skill related).
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Weld Repairs
A weld repair may be used to improve weld profiles or extensive metal removal: Repairs to fabrication defects are generally easier than repairs to service failures because the repair procedure may be followed The main problem with repairing a weld is the maintenance of mechanical properties During the inspection of the removed area prior to welding the inspector must ensure that the defects have been totally removed and the original joint profile has been maintained as close as possible
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Weld Repairs
In the event of repair, it is required:
Authorization and procedure for repair Removal of material and preparation for repair Monitoring of repair Weld Testing of repair - visual and NDT
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Weld Repairs
There are a number of key factors that need to be considered before undertaking any repair:
The most important - is it financially worthwhile? Can structural integrity be achieved if the item is repaired? Are there any alternatives to welding? What caused the defect and is it likely to happen again? How is the defect to be removed and what welding process is to be used? What NDE is required to ensure complete removal of the defect? Will the welding procedures require approval/reapproval/re-approval?
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Weld Repairs
Cleaning the repair area, (removal of paint, grease, etc) A detailed assessment to find out the extremity of the defect. This may involve the use of a surface or sub surface NDE method. Once established the excavation site must be clearly identified and marked out. An excavation procedure may be required (method used i.e. grinding, arcarc-air gouging, preheat requirements etc). NDE should be used to locate the defect and confirm its removal. A welding repair procedure/method statement with the appropriate welding process, consumable, technique, controlled heat input and interpass temperatures etc will need to be approved.
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Weld Repairs
Use of approved welders. Dressing the weld and final visual. A NDT procedure/technique prepared and carried out to ensure that the defect has been successfully removed and repaired. Any post repair heat treatment requirements. Final NDT procedure/technique prepared and carried out after heat treatment requirements. Applying protective treatments (painting etc as required). (*Appropriate means suitable for the alloys being repaired and may not apply in specific situations)
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Weld Repairs
What will be the effect of welding distortion and residual stress? Will heat treatment be required? What NDE is required and how can acceptability of the repair be demonstrated? Will approval of the repair be required if yes, how and by whom?
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Weld Repairs
The specification or procedure will govern how the defective areas are to be removed. The method of removal may be: Grinding Chipping Machining Filing Oxy Oxy-Gas gouging Arc air gouging
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Defect Excavation
ArcArc -air gouging
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Weld Repairs
Is welding the best method of repair? Is the repair really like earlier repairs? What is the composition and weldability of the base metal? What strength is required from the repair? Can preheat be tolerated? Can softening or hardening of the HAZ be tolerated? Is PWHT necessary and practicable? Will the fatigue resistance of the repair be adequate? Will the repair resist its environment? Can the repair be inspected and tested?
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Welding Inspector
Residual Stress & Distortion Section 17
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Residual stress
Residual stresses are undesirable because: they lead to distortion they affect dimensional stability of the welded assembly they enhance the risk of brittle fracture they can facilitate certain types of corrosion
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Residual Stresses
The heating and subsequent cooling from welding produces expansion and contractions which affect the weld metal and adjacent material. If this contraction is prevented or inhibited residual stress will develop. The tendency to develop residual stresses increases when the heating and cooling is localised. Residual stresses are very difficult to measure with any real accuracy. Residual stresses are self balancing internal forces and not stresses induced whilst applying external load Stresses are more concentrated at the surface of the component. The removal of residual stresses is termed stress relieving.
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Stresses
Normal Stress Stress arising from a force perpendicular to the cross sectional area
Compression
Tension
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Stresses
Shear Stress Stress arising from forces which are parallel to, and lie in the plane of the cross sectional area.
Shear Stress
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Stresses
Hoop Stress Internal stress acting on the wall a pipe or cylinder due to internal pressure.
Hoop Stress
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Residual Stresses
Residual stresses occur in welds in the following directions Along the weld longitudinal residual stresses Across the weld transverse residual stresses Through the weld short transverse residual stresses
Longitudinal
Residual stress
Heating and cooling causes expansion and contraction
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Residual stress
In case of a heated bar, the resistance of the surrounding material to the expansion and contraction leads to formation of residual stress
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Summary
1. Residual stresses are locked in elastic strain, which is caused by local expansion and contraction in the weld area. 2. Residual stresses should be removed from structures after welding. 3. The amount of contraction is controlled by, the volume of weld metal in the joint, the thickness, heat input, joint design and the materials properties 4. Offsetting may be used to finalise the position of the joint. 5. If plates or pipes are prevented from moving by tacking, clamping or jigging etc (restraint), then the amount of residual stresses that remain will be higher.
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Summary
6. The movement caused by welding related stresses is called distortion. 7. The directions of contractional stresses and distortion is very complex, as is the amount and type of final distortion, however we can say that there are three directions: a. Longitudinal b. Transverse c. Short transverse 8. A high percentage of residual stresses can be removed by heat treatments. 9. The peening of weld faces will only redistribute the residual stress, and place the weld face in compression.
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Types of distortion
Angular distortion
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Distortion
Angular Distortion
Transverse Distortion
Bowing Distortion
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Longitudinal Distortion
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Distortion
Factors which affect distortion Material properties and condition Heat input The amount of restrain The amount of weld metal deposited Control of distortion my be achieved in the following way: The used of a different joint design Presetting the joints to be welded so that the metal distorts into the required position. The use of a balanced welding technique The use of clamps, jigs and fixtures.
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Distortion
Distortion will occur in all welded joints if the material are free to move i.e. not restrained Restrained materials result in low distortion but high residual stress More than one type of distortion may occur at one time Highly restrained joints also have a higher crack tendency than joints of a low restraint The action of residual stress in welded joints is to cause distortion
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Distortion
Factors affecting distortion:
parent material properties amount of restrain joint design fit fit-up welding sequence
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Amount of restrain:
thickness - as thickness increase, so do the stresses high level of restrain lead to high stresses preheat may increase the level of stresses (pipe welding!)
FitFit -up:
misalignment may reduce stresses in some cases root gap - increase in root gap increases shrinkage
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Distortion prevention
Distortion prevention by prepre-setting
a) prepre-setting of fillet joint to prevent angular distortion b) prepre-setting of butt joint to prevent angular distortion c) tapered gap to prevent closure
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Distortion
PrePre -set or Offsetting: The amount of offsetting required is generally a function of trial and error.
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Distortion prevention
Distortion prevention by prepre-bending using strongbacks and wedges
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Distortion
Clamping and jigging: The materials to be welded are prevented from moving by the clamp or jig the main advantage of using a jig is that the elements in a fabrication can be precisely located in the position to be welded. Main disadvantage of jigging is high restraint and high levels of residual stresses.
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Distortion prevention
Distortion prevention by restraint techniques a) use of welding jigs
Distortion prevention
Distortion prevention by restraint techniques c) use of strongbacks with wedges
Distortion prevention
Distortion prevention by design Consider eliminating the welding!!
Distortion prevention
Distortion prevention by design consider weld placement
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Distortion prevention
The volume of weld metal in a joint will affect the amount of local expansion and contraction, hence the more weld deposited the higher amount of distortion
Preparation angle 60o
Preparation angle 0o
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Distortion prevention
Distortion prevention by design use of balanced welding
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Distortion prevention
Distortions prevention by design Allowances to cover shrinkage
- Transverse Shrinkage
Fillet Welds 0.8mm per weld where the leg length does not exceed 3/4 plate thickness Butt weld 1.5 to 3mm per weld for 60 60 V joint, depending on number of runs - Longitudinal Shrinkage Fillet Welds 0.8mm per 3m of weld Butt Welds 3mm per 3m of weld
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Distortion prevention
Distortion prevention by fabrication techniques tack welding
a) tack weld straight through to end of joint b) tack weld one end, then use backback -step technique for tacking the rest of the joint c) tack weld the centre, then complete the tack welding by the backback-step technique
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Distortion prevention
Distortion prevention by fabrication techniques back to back assembly
a) assemblies tacked together before welding b) use of wedges for components that distort on separation after welding
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Distortion prevention
Distortion prevention by fabrication techniques
use of stiffeners
control welding process by: - deposit the weld metal as quickly as possible - use the least number of runs to fill the joint
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Distortion prevention
Distortion prevention by welding procedure reduce the number of runs required to make a weld (e.g. angular distortion as a function of number of runs for a 10 mm leg length weld)
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Distortion prevention
Distortion prevention by welding procedure control welding techniques by use balanced welding about the neutral axis control welding techniques by keeping the time between runs to a minimum
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Distortion prevention
Distortion prevention by welding procedure
Distortion prevention
BackBack -step welding technique 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
1.
4.
2.
5.
3.
6.
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Distortion prevention
Distortion - Best practice for fabrication corrective techniques
using tack welds to set up and maintain the joint gap identical components welded back to back so welding can be balanced about the neutral axis attachment of longitudinal stiffeners to prevent longitudinal bowing in butt welds of thin plate structures where there is choice of welding procedure, process and technique should aim to deposit the weld metal as quickly as possible; MIG in preference to MMA or gas welding and mechanised rather than manual welding in long runs, the whole weld should not be completed in one direction; backback-step or skip welding techniques should be used
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c) box fabrication
Length of wedge = two-thirds of the plate width Width of wedge (base) = one sixth of its length (base to apex)
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Welding Inspector
Heat Treatment Section 18
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Heat Treatment
Why?
Improve mechanical properties Change microstructure Reduce residual stress level Change chemical composition
How?
Flame oven Electric oven/electric heating blankets induction/HF heating elements
Global
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Where?
Local
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Heat Treatments
Many metals must be given heat treatment before and after welding. The inspectors function is to ensure that the treatment is given correctly in accordance with the specification or as per the details supplied.
Heat Treatments
PrePre -heat treatments
are used to increase weldability, by reducing sudden reduction of temperature, and control expansion and contraction forces during welding
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Time
Heating
Soaking
Cooling
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At PWHT temp. the yield strength of steel reduced so that it it is not strong enough to give restraint. Residual stress reduced to very low level by straining (typically < ~ 0.5% strain)
Temperature ( (C)
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Heat Treatment
Recommendations
Provide adequate support (low YS at high temperature!) Control heating rate to avoid uneven thermal expansions Control soak time to equalise temperatures Control temperature gradients - NO direct flame impingement! Control furnace atmosphere to reduce scaling Control cooling rate to avoid brittle structure formation
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Disadvantages:
Gas furnace heat treatment Limited to size of parts
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Disadvantages:
High equipment cost Large equipment, less portable
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Disadvantages:
Elements may burn out or arcing during heating
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Welding Inspector
Cutting Processes Section 19
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Welding
Brazing
Cutting
Gouging
Heating
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Straightening
Blasting
Spraying
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Regulators
Flashback arrestors
Flashback - recession of the flame into or back of the mixing chamber
SAFETY SAFETY SAFETY Normal flow Reverse flow Built-in check valve stops reverse flow Flashback
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Cut too slow - top edge is melted, deep groves in the lower portion, heavy scaling, rough bottom edge
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Cut too fast pronounced break in the drag line, irregular cut edge
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Preheat flame too low deep groves in the lower part of the cut face
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Nozzle is too high above the works - excessive melting of the top edge, much oxide
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Irregular travel speed - uneven space between drag lines, irregular bottom with adherent oxide 590 of 691
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OFW/C advantages/disadvantages
Advantages: 1) No need for power supply, portable 2) Versatile: preheat, brazing, surfacing, repair, straightening 3) Low equipment cost 4) Can cut carbon and low alloy steels 5) Good on thin materials
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Disadvantages: 1) High skill factor 2) Wide HAZ 3) Safety issues 4) Slow process 5) Limited range of consumables 6) Not suitable for reactive & refractory metals
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Cutting Processes
Plasma arc cutting Uses high velocity jet of ionised gas through a constricted nozzle to remove the molten metal Uses a tungsten electrode and water cooled nozzle High quality cutting High intensity and UV radiation EYES !
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Welding Inspector
Arc Welding Safety Please discuss Section 20
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Safety
Electrical safety Heat & Light
Visible light UV radiation - effects on skin and eyes
Fumes & Explosive Gasses Noise levels Fire Hazards Scaffolding & Staging Slips, trips and falls Protection of others from exposure
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Welding Inspector
Weldability Of Steels Section 21
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Weldability of Steels
Definition
It relates to the ability of the metal (or alloy) to be welded with mechanical soundness by most of the common welding processes, and the resulting welded joint retain the properties for which it has been designed. is a function of many interinter-related factors but these may be summarised as: Composition of parent material Joint design and size Process and technique Access
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Weldability of Steels
The weldability of steel is mainly dependant on carbon & other alloying elements content. If a material has limited weldability, we need to take special measures to ensure the maintenance of the properties required Poor weldability normally results in the occurrence of cracking A steel is considered to have poor weldability when: an acceptable joint can only be made by using very narrow range of welding conditions great precautions to avoid cracking are essential (e.g., high preheat etc)
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Chromium (Cr): For creep resistance & oxidation (scaling) resistance for
elevated temperature service. Widely used in stainless steels for corrosion resistance, increases hardness and strength but reduces ductility.
typically ~ 1 to 9% in low alloy steels
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Niobium (Nb): (Nb): a grain refiner, typically~ 0.05 05% % Vanadium (V): (V): a grain refiner, typically ~ 0.05 05% % Titanium (Ti): (Ti): a grain refiner, typically ~ 0.05 05% % Copper (Cu): (Cu): present as a residual, (typically < ~ 0.30 30%) %)
added to weathering steels (~ 0.6%) to give better resistance to atmospheric corrosion
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Classification of Steels
Mild steel (CE < 0.4)
Readily weldable, preheat generally not required if low hydrogen processes or electrodes are used Preheat may be required when welding thick section material, high restraint and with higher levels of hydrogen being generated C-Mn, medium carbon, low alloy steels (CE 0.4 to 0.5) Thin sections can be welded without preheat but thicker sections will require low preheat levels and low hydrogen processes or electrodes should be used Higher carbon and alloyed steels (CE > 0.5) Preheat, low hydrogen processes or electrodes, post weld heating and slow cooling may be required
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Process Cracks
Hydrogen Induced HAZ Cracking (C/Mn steels) Hydrogen Induced Weld Metal Cracking (HSLA steels). Solidification or Hot Cracking (All steels) Lamellar Tearing (All steels)
steels)
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Cracking
When considering any type of cracking mechanism, three elements must always be present: Stress Residual stress is always present in a weldment, through unbalanced local expansion and contraction Restraint Restraint may be a local restriction, or through plates being welded to each other Susceptible microstructure The microstructure may be made susceptible to cracking by the process of welding
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Cracks
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Susceptible Microstructure
(Martensite)
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Hydrogen is the smallest atom known Hydrogen enters the weld via the arc Source of hydrogen mainly from moisture pickpick-up on the electrodes coating, welding fluxes or from the consumable gas
Water vapour in the air or H2 in the shielding gas Oxide or grease on the plate H2 H2 H2 Moisture on the electrode or grease on the wire
H2
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Hydrogen crack
H2
H2
H2 diffuses to in HAZ
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Heat input (Kj/mm) = Amps x Volts x arc time Run out length x 103 (1000)
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Hydrogen Scales
List of hydrogen scales from BS EN 1011:part 2. Hydrogen content related to 100 grams of weld metal deposited. Scale A Scale B Scale C Scale D Scale E
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Weldability
Solidification Cracking
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Solidification Cracking
Solidification Cracking
Also referred as
Hot Cracking: Occurring at high temperatures while the weld is hot Centerline cracking: cracks appear down the centre line of the bead. Crater cracking: Small cracks in weld centers are solidification cracks
Steel types: High sulphur & phosphor concentration in steels. Susceptible Microstructure: Columnar grains In direction of solidification
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Solidification Cracking
Factors for solidification cracking
Columnar grain growth with impurities in weld metal (sulphur, phosphor and carbon) The amount of stress/restraint Joint design high depth to width ratios Liquid iron sulphides are formed around solidifying grains. High contractional strains are present High dilution processes are being used. There is a high carbon content in the weld metal
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Solidification Cracking
Sulphur in the parent material may dilute in the weld metal to form iron sulphides (low strength, low melting point compounds) During weld metal solidification, columnar crystals push still liquid iron sulphides in front to the last place of solidification, weld centerline. The bonding between the grains which are themselves under great stress and may now be very poor to maintain cohesion and a crack will result, weld centerline.
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Shallow, wider weld bead On solidification the bonding between the grains may be adequate to maintain cohesion and a crack is unlikely to occur
Deep, narrower weld bead On solidification the bonding between the grains may now be very poor to maintain cohesion and a crack may result
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Solidification Cracking
Precautions for controlling solidification cracking
The first steps in eliminating this problem would be to choose a low
dilution process, and change the joint design Grind and seal in any lamination and avoid further dilution???? Add Manganese to the electrode to form spherical Mn/S which form between the grain and maintain grain cohesion As carbon increases the Mn/S ratio required increases exponentially and is a major factor. Carbon content % should be a minimised by careful control in electrode and dilution Limit the heat input, hence low contraction, & minimise restraint
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Solidification Cracking
Precautions for controlling solidification cracking
The use of high manganese and low carbon content
fillers
Minimise the amount of stress / restraint acting on the
Solidification Cracking
Solidification cracking in Austenitic Stainless Steel
particularly prone to solidification cracking large grain size gives rise to a reduction in grain boundary area with high concentration of impurities Austenitic structure very intolerant to contaminants (sulphur, phosphorous and other impurities). High coefficient of thermal expansion /Low coefficient of thermal conductivity, with high resultant residual stress same precautions against cracking as for plain carbon steels with extra emphasis on thorough cleaning and high dilution controls.
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Cracks
Lamellar Tearing
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Lamellar Tearing
Factors for lamellar tearing to occur Cracks only occur in the rolled plate ! Close to or just outside the HAZ ! Cracks lay parallel to the plate surface and the fusion boundary of the weld and has a stepped aspect.
Low quality parent materials, high levels of impurities Joint design, direction of stress The amount of stress acting across the joint during welding under very low levels of stress
Lamellar Tearing
Susceptible joint types combined with susceptible rolled plate used to make a joint. High stresses act in the through thickness direction of the plate (know as the short transverse direction). T, K & Y joints normally end up with a tensile residual stress component in the through thickness direction.
Lamellar Tearing
Critical area Critical area
Critical area
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Lamellar Tearing
Modifying a corner joint to avoid lamellar tearing
Susceptible
NonNon -Susceptible
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Lamellar Tearing
Precautions for controlling lamellar tearing
The use of high quality parent materials, low levels of impurities The use of buttering runs A gap can be left between the horizontal and vertical members enabling the contraction movement to take place Joint design selection Minimise the amount of stress / restraint acting on the joint during welding Hydrogen precautions
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Lamellar Tearing
Crack type: Location: Steel types: Microstructure: Occurs when: High contractional strains are through the short transverse direction. There is a high sulfur content in the base metal. There is low through thickness ductility in the base metal. There is high restraint on the work
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Lamellar tearing Below weld HAZ High sulphur & phosphorous steels Lamination & Segregation
The results are given as a STRA value Short Transverse Reduction in Area
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Lamellar Tearing
Restraint
Lamellar tear
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Welding Inspector
Practical Visual Inspection Section 22
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G.A.L.
S.T.D. 16mm
10mm
G.A.L.
S.T.D. 16mm
5 6
Internal alignment
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Pipe Inspection
Remember in the CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspectors examination your are required to conduct a practical examination of a pipe test weld, complete a thumb print sketch and a final report on your findings
Time allowed 1 hour and 45 minutes The code is nominated e.g API 1104
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Welding Inspector
Application & Control of Pre heat Section 23
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Welding Temperatures
Definitions Preheat temperature
is the temperature of the workpiece in the weld zone immediately before any welding operation (including tack welding!) normally expressed as a minimum Interpass temperature
is the temperature in a multi multi-run weld and adjacent parent metal immediately prior to the application of the next run normally expressed as a maximum
Parameters to be measured: welding current preheat/interpass arc voltage temperature travel speed force/pressure shielding gas flow rate humidity
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Welding Temperatures
Point of Measurement
BS EN ISO 13916 t < 50 mm A = 4 x t but max. 50 mm the temperature shall be measured on the surface of the workpiece facing the welder
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Welding Temperatures
Point of Measurement
BS EN ISO 13916 t > 50mm A = 75mm minimum the temperature shall be measured on the face opposite to that being heated allow 2 min per every 25 mm of parent metal thickness for temperature equalisation
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Combined Thickness
The Chilling Effect of the Joint
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Combined Thickness
The Chilling Effect of the Joint
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Combined Thickness
Combined chilling effect of joint type and thickness.
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Welding Inspector
Calibration Section 24
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Use of PAMS
Wire feed speed monitoring
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Use of PAMS
Shielding gas flow rate monitoring
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Summary
a welding power source can only be calibrated if it has meters fitted the inspector should check for calibration stickers, dates etc. a welding power source without meters can only be validated that the control knobs provide repeatability the main role is to carryout in process monitoring to ensure that the welding requirements are met during production
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Welding Inspector
Macro/Micro Examination Section 25
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Macro Preparation
Purpose To examine the weld crosscross-section to give assurance that: The weld has been made in accordance with the WPS The weld is free from defects
Specimen Preparation
Full thickness slice taken from the weld (typically ~10 ~10mm mm thick) Width of slice sufficient to show all the weld and HAZ on both sides plus some unaffected base material One face ground to a progressively fine finish (grit sizes 120 to ~ 400) 400) Prepared face heavily etched to show all weld runs & all HAZ Prepared face examined at up to x10 x10 (& usually photographed for records) Prepared face may also be used for a hardness survey
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Micro Preparation
Purpose To examine a particular region of the weld or HAZ in order to:to: To examine the microstructure Identify the nature of a crack or other imperfection Specimen Preparation A small piece is cut from the region of interest
(typically up to ~ 20mm x 20mm)
The piece is mounted in plastic mould and the surface of interest prepared by progressive grinding (to grit size 600 or 800) Surface polished on diamond impregnated cloths to a mirror finish Prepared face may be examined in asas-polished condition & then lightly etched Prepared face examined under the microscope at up to ~ x 600
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approval test
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Macro
Visual examination for defects Cut transverse from the weld Ground & polished P400 grit paper Acid etch using 55-10% nitric acid solution Wash and dry Visual evaluation under 5x magnification Report on results
Micro
Visual examination for defects & grain structure Cut transverse from a weld Ground & polished P1200 P1200 grit paper, 1 m paste Acid etch using 1-5% nitric acid solution Wash and dry Visual evaluation under 100100 -1000 1000x x magnification Report on results
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Metallographic Examination
Macro examination
Micro examination
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