TSDOS Phasor Transformer

Phasor, Transformer, and
Transmission Lines
Wei-Jen Lee, Ph.D., P.E.
Professor and Director
Energy Systems Research Center
The University of Texas at Arlington
1
Text Book: J. Duncan Glover, Mulukutla S. Sarma, and Thomas J.
Overbye, Power Systems Analysis and Design, Fifth Edition.
Cengage Learning
Introduction
2
A Typical Power System
3
Components of a Modern Power
System
Every power system has four major
components
Generation facilities
Power delivery system
Loads
Monitoring, protection, and control system

4
Challenges of Power System
Operation
Every Generation facility has its own limit.
Some generation facilities are difficult to
control.
Delivery systems also have limitations.
Loads are seldom constant
Since the power systems are dynamic in
nature, it is difficult, if not impossible, to
maintain optimal conditions of a power
system.

5
Notation - Power
Power: Instantaneous consumption of energy
Power Units
Watts voltage x current for dc (W)
kW 1 x 10
3
Watt
MW 1 x 10
6
Watt
GW 1 x 10
9
Watt
Installed U.S. generation capacity is about
900 GW ( about 3 kW per person)
Installed generation capacity in the ERCOT is
around 95GW (Including 10GW wind
generation)

6
Notation - Energy
Energy: Integration of power over time;
energy is what people really want from a
power system
Energy Units
Joule 1 Watt-second (J)
kWh Kilowatthour (3.6 x 10
6
J)
Btu 1055 J; 1 MBtu=0.292 MWh
U.S. electric energy consumption is about
3600 billion kWh (about 12,000 kWh per
person per year)

7
Power System Examples
North American Interconnected System
8
North American Interconnected System
9
MicroGrid (Isolated power system)
Intentional islanding operation of a power system
(Military campus, remote villages, and etc)
Airplanes and Spaceships
Ships and submarines
Automobiles: dc with 12 volts standard
Battery operated portable systems
10
AC versus DC Power System
With the flip of a switch at 3 p.m. on Sept. 4,
1882 at Pearl Station, Thomas Edison
ushered in the age of commercial electrical
power systems.
It was a DC MicroGrid and served 240
customers within one square miles.
Tesla's patents and theoretical work formed
the basis of modern alternating current
electric power (AC) systems.
11
Concept of Phasor
Since it is relative easy to change the voltage
level, majority of the power systems are AC
system (either 50Hz or 60Hz).
Since the relationship of the AC system is
based upon the phase difference between
two quantities, this evolves the concept of
phasor.
Goal of phasor analysis is to simplify the
analysis of constant frequency AC systems.
12
Instantaneous and RMS Values
The voltage and current of an AC system can
be expressed as:

The DC equivalent of an AC sinusoidal signal
is shown below: (RMS value)
) cos( * ) (
) cos( * ) (
max
max
i
v
t I t i
t V t v
u e
u e
+ =
+ =
2
) (
1
| |
max
0
2
V
dt t v
T
V V
T
RMS
= = =
}
13
Phasor Representation
Eulers Identity:
Phasor notation is developed by rewriting the
Eulers Identity:
u u
u
sin cos j e
j
+ =
] Re[ | | 2 ) (
) cos( | | 2 ) (
) (
v
t j
v
e V t v
t V t v
u e
u e
+
=
+ =
14
Phasor Representation
The RMS cosine-reference voltage and
current phasors are:
i
j
v
j
I e I I
V e V V
i
v
u
u
u
u
Z = =
Z = =
| | | |
| | | |
15
V/I Relationships of R, L, and C
16
Advantages of Phasor Analysis
0
2 2
Resistor ( ) ( )
( )
Inductor ( )
1 1
Capacitor ( ) (0)
C
Z = Impedance
R = Resistance
X = Reactance
X
Z = =arctan( )
t
v t Ri t V RI
di t
v t L V j LI
dt
i t dt v V I
j C
R jX Z
R X
R
e
e
|
|
= =
= =
+ =
= + = Z
+
}
Device Time Analysis Phasor
17
Complex Power
max
max
max max

( ) ( ) ( )
v(t) = cos( )
(t) = cos( )
1
cos cos [cos( ) cos( )]
2
1
( ) [cos( )
2
cos(2 )]
V
I
V I
V I
p t v t i t
V t
i I t
p t V I
t
e u
e u
o | o | o |
u u
e u u
=
+
+
= + +
= +
+ +
Power
18
Complex Power
max max
0
max max

1
( ) [cos( ) cos(2 )]
2
1
( )
1
cos( )
2
cos( )
= =
V I V I
T
avg
V I
V I
V I
p t V I t
P p t dt
T
V I
V I
u u e u u
u u
u u
| u u
= + + +
=
=
=
}
Power Factor
Average

P
Angle
ower
19
Complex Power
| |
*
cos( ) sin( )
P = Real Power (W, kW, MW)
Q = Reactive Power (var, kvar, Mvar)
S = Complex power (VA, kVA, MVA)
Power Factor (pf) = cos
If current leads voltage then pf is leading
If current
V I V I
V I
S V I j
P jQ
u u u u
|
+
+
=
=
=
lags voltage then pf is lagging
For simplicity, we will use V and I as RMS
values of voltage and current
20
Example
Instantaneous, real, and reactive power; power
factor.
The voltage v(t)=141.4*cos(et) is applied to a load consisting of
a 10-O resistor in parallel with an inductive reactance X
L
=eL =
3.77 O. Calculate the instantaneous power absorbed by the
resistor and by the inductor. Also calculate the real and reactive
power absorbed by the load, and the power factor
21
Example
factor.
The V/I relationship of resistor
22
Example
factor.
The V/I relationship of inductor
23
Example
factor.
The load voltage is
The resistor current is
The inductor current is
The total load current is
The Instantaneous power absorbed by the resistor is
24
Example
factor.
The Instantaneous power absorbed by the inductor
is

The real power absorbed by load is

The reactive power absorbed by load is

The power factor is

25
Example
Power triangle and power factor correction
A single-phase source delivers 100 kW to a load
operating at a power factor of 0.8 lagging. Calculate
the reactive power to be delivered by a capacitor
connected in parallel with the load in order to raise
the source power factor to 0.95 lagging.

26
Example
Before compensation

After compensation

27
Example
Required amount of compensation

28
RMS and Instantaneous values
When voltages and currents are discussed in
this text, lowercase letters such as v(t) and
i(t) indicate instantaneous values, uppercase
letters such as V and I indicate rms values,
and uppercase letters in italics such as V and
I indicate rms phasors. When voltage or
current values are specified, they shall be
rms values unless otherwise indicated.
29
Single-Phase and Three-Phase
Power System
Single-phase power system
Single-phase-three wire system
Three-phase system
30
Advantages of Three-Phase Power
System
More power per kilogram of metal from a
three-phase machine.
Power delivered to a balanced three-phase
load is constant at all time, instead of pulsing
as it does in a single-phase system.
More power can be delivered.
Total line losses are reduced.
31
Three-Phase Power System
A three-phase generator consists of three
single-phase generators with voltages of
equal amplitudes and phase differences of
120
0
.
32
Balanced Three-Phase Power
System
We can used three
single-phase system
differing in phase angle
by 120
0
to represent a
balanced three-phase
system.
The current flowing to
each load can be found
as

V
I
Z
=
33
System
Therefore, the currents flowing in each
phase are.

0
0
0
0
120
120
240
240
A
B
A
V
I I
Z
V
I I
Z
V
I I
Z
u
u
u
u
u
u
Z
= = Z
Z
Z
= = Z
Z
Z
= = Z
Z
34
System
We will form a three-phase circuit by
connecting the return path of three-single
phase load together.

35
System
The current flows through the neutral
conductor is equal to zero.

0 ) 240 ( ) 120 ( = Z + Z + Z = + + =
o o
C B A N
I I I I I I I u u u
36
A and Y Connection of Three-
Phase Power System
There are two types of connections in
three-phase circuits: Y and A.
37
Phase Power System
General Relations Between Circuit
Quantities.
| |
|
| |
3
2
3
3
3
2
3
30 3 3
* 30 3
30 3
3
30
3
30
30 3
*
3
30
S
V
S
V
V
I
V
I
V
Z
V
S
Z
V I
I
Connection
S
V
S
V V
I
V
Z
Connection Y
o
LL LL
o
LL
L
o
LL LL
LL
o
LL
o
L
o
LL LL
o
LL
L
LN
Y
Z
= Z =
Z
= =
Z
= =
Z
=
A
Z
=
Z
= =
A
A
A
A
38
Phase Power System
Phase quantity: voltages and currents in a
given phase.
Line quantity: voltages between the lines
and currents in the lines connected to the
generators or loads.

39
Power of a Balanced Three-Phase
Power System
For a balanced Y-connected load with the
impedance Z
|
= ZZu
0
:
0
0
( ) 2 sin
( ) 2 sin( 120 )
( ) 2 sin( 240 )
an
bn
cn
v t V t
v t V t
v t V t
e
e
e
=
=
=
0
0
( ) 2 sin( )
( ) 2 sin( 120 )
( ) 2 sin( 240 )
a
b
c
i t I t
i t I t
i t I t
e u
e u
e u
=
=
=
40
Power of a Balanced Three-Phase
Power System
The instantaneous power is:

The total power on the load is
| |
0
0
( ) cos cos(2 )
( ) cos cos(2 240 )
( ) cos cos(2 480 )
a
b
c
p t VI t
p t VI t
p t VI t
u e u
u e u
u e u
=
(
=

(
=

u cos 3 ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( VI t P t P t P t P
c b a total
= + + =
41
Power Relationship
Phase quantities in each phase of a Y- or
A-connection:
Real Power:
Reactive Power:
Apparent Power:
2
3 cos 3 cos P V I I Z
| | |
u u = =
2
3 sin 3 sin Q V I I Z
| | |
u u = =
2
3 3 S V I I Z
| | |
= =
42
Power Relationship
Line quantities of a Y-connection load:
Power consumed by a load:
Relationship between line quantities and
phase quantities:

Power:
3 cos P V I
| |
u =
3
L LL
I I and V V
| |
= =
3 cos
LL L
P V I u =
43
One-Line Diagram and A-Y
Conversion
44
Power Transformer
45
Ideal Transformer
For an ideal transformer, the following are
assumed:
The windings have zero resistance; therefore,
the I
2
R losses in the windings are zero.
The core permeability
c
is infinite, which
corresponds to zero core reluctance.
There is no leakage flux; that is, the entire flux
u
c
is confined to the core and links both
windings.
There are no core losses.
46
Ideal Transformer
For an ideal transformer, whatever goes
in should come out:
47
Ideal Transformer
For an ideal transformer, whatever goes
in should come out:
48
Example of an Ideal Transformer
A single-phase two-winding transformer is
rated 20 kVA, 480/120 V, 60 Hz. A source
connected to the 480-V winding supplies
an impedance load connected to the 120-
V winding. The load absorbs 15 kVA at
0.8 pf lagging when the load voltage is
118V:
49
50
Solution:
The complex power at load is

The load current is
The load impedance is

The load impedance referred to the 480-V
winding is
51
Equivalent Circuit of a Practical
Transformer
A practical transformer:
The windings have resistance.
The core permeability
c
is finite.
The magnetic flux is not entirely confined to the core.
There are real and reactive power losses in the core.
52
Equivalent Circuit of a Practical
Single Phase Transformer
The equivalent circuit of a transformer.

The equivalent circuit of a transformer when R
2

and X
2
are referred to winding 1 side.
53
Finding Parameters of a Practical
The parameters of a transformer can estimated
through open circuit and short circuit tests.
Short circuit test
Procedure: Applied rated short circuit at high voltage side
while the low voltage side is short.
Purpose: Identify copper loss (R
1
, X
1
, R
2
, and X
2
)
Open circuit test
Procedure: Applied rated voltage at low voltage side while
the high voltage side is open.
Purpose: Identify core loss (G
c
and B
m
)

54
Lets use an example to illustrate the process.
A single-phase two-winding transformer is rated 20
kVA, 480/120 volts, 60 Hz.
Short-circuit test: Rated current at rated frequency is
applied to the 480-volt winding with the 120-volt
winding shorted.
Test Results: V
1
=35 volts, P
1
=300 W
Open-circuit test: Rated voltage is applied to 120V,
with 480V terminal open.
Test Results: I
2
=12 A, P
2
=200 W

55
Short-circuit test:
56
Open-circuit test:
57
Discussion
Allocate the impedance of primary and secondary
windings.
In general, you can divide X
eq
equally for equivalent
reactance of primary and secondary windings.
Perform DC resistance testing to establish the equivalent
DC resistance ratio between primary and secondary
windings and allocate the R
eq
accordingly.
58
Polarity of the Transformer
59
Per Unit System

Quantity in per unit =

Quantity in percent = (Quantity in per
unit)*100
Quantity of Value Base
Quantity Actual
60
Advantages
More meaningful when comparing different
voltage levels
The per unit equivalent impedance of the
transformer remains the same when referred
to either the primary or the secondary side
The per unit impedance of a transformer in a
three-phase system is the same, regardless
the winding connection
The per unit method is independent of
voltage changes and phase shifts through
transformers
61
Advantages
Manufacturers usually specify the impedance
of the equipment in per unit or percent on the
base of its nameplate ratings
Also, the base value is always a real number.
Therefore, the angle of the per-unit quantity
is the same as the angle of the actual
quantity
The per unit impedance values of various
ratings of equipment lie in a narrow range
62
Selection of the Base
VA, V, I, and Z are four power quantities
One has to select two base quantities and
derive the other two.
Usually the base voltage V
baseLN
and base
complex power S
base1|
are selected for either
a single-phase circuit or for one phase of a
three-phase circuit.
The per-unit values for current and
impedance can then be derived.
63
Selection of the Base
64
Per Unit Representation of a
Transformer
A single-phase two-winding transformer is
rated 20 kVA, 480/120 volts, 60 Hz.
The equivalent leakage impedance of the
transformer referred to the 120-volt winding,
denoted winding 2, is Z
eq2
=0.0525/78.13
o
O.
Using the transformer ratings as base
values, determine the per-unit leakage
impedance referred to winding 2 and referred
to winding 1.
65
Transformer
Solution
The values of S
base
, V
base1
, and V
base2
are from the
transformer ratings

The base impedance on the 120-volt side of the
transformer is

The per-unit leakage impedance referred to
winding 2 is
66
Transformer
Solution
If Z
eq2
is referred to winding 1

The base impedance on the 480-volt side of the
transformer is

The per-unit leakage reactance referred to
winding 1 is

67
Transformer
The per-unit leakage impedance remains
unchanged when referred from winding 2 to
winding 1.
Form the per unit point of view transformer
voltage ratio is 1:1 (Rated to rated)
68
Base Conversion
To convert a per-unit impedance from old
to new base values, use.

or

69
Example One: Base Conversion
A 50-MVA, 34.5:161 kV transformer with
10% reactance is connected to a power
system where all the other impedance values
are on a 100 MVA, 34.5 or 161 kV base. The
reactance of the transformer under new base
is:
2 . 0 *
50
100
* 1 . 0
2
) (
2
) (
) (
= =
new base
old base
new pu
KV
KV
Z
70
Example Two: Base Conversion
A generator and transformer, as shown
below, are to be combined into a single
equivalent reactance on a 100 MVA, 110 kV
(high voltage side) base.

71
Example Two: Base Conversion
The transformer is operated at 3.9 kV tap.
New base voltage at high side is 110 kV.
The base voltage at low side is:
110*3.9/115 = 3.73 kV

514 . 1 364 . 0 15 . 1
364 . 0
73 . 3
9 . 3
*
30
100
* 1 . 0
15 . 1
73 . 3
4
*
25
100
* 25 . 0
) ( ) (
2
2
) (
2
2
) (
= + = + =
= =
= =
new Xfer new gen eq
new Xfer
new gen
Z Z Z
Z
Z
72
Three Phase Transformer
The American standard for marking three-
phase transformers substitutes H1, H2, and H3
on the high-voltage terminals and X1, X2, and
X3 on the low-voltage terminals in place of the
polarity dots.
The ANSI/IEEE standard for transformers
states that the high voltage should lead the low
voltage by 30
o
with Y-A or A-Y banks.

73
There are nine possible configurations for
three-phase transformer.
No Phase Shift: Y Y, Y
G
Y, Y Y
G
, Y
G
Y
G
, and
A A.
With Phase Shift: A Y, A Y
G
, Y A, and Y
G
A.
When describing the configuration of a
transformer, it is typical to mention the
configuration of windings closer to the source
first.

74
Schematic representation of a Y
G
Y
G
three-
phase transformer.
75
Schematic representation of a Y
G
A

three-
phase transformer.
76
Per unit equivalent circuit of three-phase
transformers.
77
Three-Winding Transformer
Three-winding transformers are connected to
one source and two loads.
78
Z
12
: per-unit leakage impedance measured
from winding 1; with winding 2 shorted and
winding 3 open
Z
13
winding 2 open
Z
23
winding 1 open

79
We can be used to evaluate the per-unit series
impedances Z
1
, Z
2
, and Z
3
of the three-winding
transformer equivalent circuit from the per-unit
leakage impedances Z
12
, Z
13
, and Z
23
.
Z
12
= Z
1
+ Z
2

Z
13
= Z
1
+ Z
3

Z
23
= Z
2
+ Z
3

Z
1
= (Z
12
+ Z
13
- Z
23
)/2
Z
2
= (Z
12
+ Z
23
Z
13
)/2
Z
3
= (Z
13
+ Z
23
Z
12
)/2
80
Per Unit Impedance of a Single-
Phase Three-Winding Transformer
The ratings of a single-phase three-winding
transformer are:
winding 1: 300 MVA; 13:8 kV
The leakage reactances, from short-circuit
tests, are:
X
12
: 0.10 per unit on a 300-MVA; 13:8-kV base
X
13
X
23

81
Winding resistances and exciting current are
neglected.
Calculate the impedances of the per-unit
equivalent circuit using a base of 300 MVA and
13.8 kV for terminal 1
82
Solution
S
base
= 300 MVA is the same for all three terminals.
The specified voltage base for terminal 1 is V
base1
=
13:8 kV.
The base voltages for terminals 2 and 3 are then
V
base2
= 199:2 kV and V
base3
= 19:92 kV.
Base Conversion
83
Solution
84
Autotransformer
85
Autotransformer
Pros and Cons of autotransformer
Pros
The autotransformer has smaller per-unit leakage
impedances than the usual transformer; this results in both
smaller series voltage drops.
The autotransformer also has lower per-unit losses (higher
efficiency), lower exciting current, and lower cost if the turns
ratio is not too large.
Cons
The electrical connection of the windings allows transient
overvoltages to pass through the autotransformer more
easily. 86
Autotransformer
Example
A single-phase two-winding 20-kVA, 480/120-volt
transformer of is connected as a 120V/600V
autotransformer. Determine (a) the kVA rating, and
(c) the per-unit leakage impedance (The original
leakage impedance of the transformer is )
87
Autotransformer
Solution
As a normal two-winding transformer rated 20 kVA,
the rated current of the 480-volt winding is I
2
= I
H
=
20000/480 = 41.667 A. As an autotransformer, the
480-volt winding can carry the same current.
Therefore, the kVA rating S
H
= E
H
I
H
= 600*41.667 =
25 kVA.
88
Autotransformer
Solution
As an autotransformer, the leakage impedance in
ohms is the same as for the normal transformer,
since the core and windings are the same for both.
However, the base impedances are different.

Therefore
89
Transformer with Off-Nominal Turn
Ratio
Two transformers with different turn ratio are
connected in parallel.
Other example: On-load or off-load tap changer
transformer
90
Ratio
For a transformer that V
1rated
and V
2rated
satisfy
V
1rated
= a
t
*V
2rated

The selected voltage bases satisfy V
base1
=
b*V
base2
. Define c = a
t
/b.
Then it can be represented as two transformers
in series.
91
Ratio
The per unit model of the transformer

Set up equations for two-port circuit
92
Ratio
Where
93
Ratio
t circuit representation for real c.
94
Transmission System
95
Transmission System
Transmission line design consideration
An overhead transmission line consists of
conductors, insulators, support structures, and, in
most cases, shield wires.
Other factors of consideration: Electrical,
Mechanical, Environmental, and Economic
96
Conductors
Conventional Conductors
ACSR (Aluminum conductor steel reinforced) has
been in service for more than 80 years.
In the last 15 to 20 years, the AAAC
(homogeneous all-aluminum alloy conductor) has
become quite popular, especially for National Grid
in the UK where it is now the standard conductor
type employed for new and refurbished lines.
97
Conductors
High Temperature Conductors
Research in Japan in the 1960s produced a
series of aluminum-zirconium alloys that resisted
the annealing effects of high temperatures.
These alloys can retain their strength at
temperatures up to 230 C
The most common of these alloysTA1, ZTA1
and XTA1are the basis of a variety of high
temperature conductors.
98
Conductors
Emerging Conductor Technologies
ACFR: Aluminum conductor carbon fiber
reinforced from Japan makes use of the very-low
expansion coefficient of carbon fiber.
ACCR: Aluminum Conductor Composite
Reinforced from 3M.
Also in the United States, two more designs
based on glass-fiber composites are emerging.
Aluminum conductor composite core (ACCC),
Composite reinforced aluminum conductor (CRAC).
Aluminum Conductor Steel Supported (ACSS) 99
Insulator
Insulators for transmission lines above 69 kV
are typically suspension-type Insulators.
100
Support Structures
Transmission lines employ a variety of
support structures.
101
Shield Wires
Shield wires located above the phase
conductors protect the phase conductors
against lightning.
They are usually high- or extra-high-strength
steel, Alumoweld, or ACSR with much
smaller cross section than the phase
conductors.
102
Transmission Line Parameters
Resistance
The dc resistance of a conductor at a specified
temperature T is
103
Resistance
In English units, conductor cross sectional area is
expressed in circular mils (cmil). One inch equals
1000 mils and 1 cmil equals t/4 sq mil.
A circle with diameter D in has an area

or

where 1000 D mil = d mil
104
Resistance
Resistivity depends on the conductor metal.
Annealed copper is the international standard for
measuring resistivity .
Conductor resistance depends on the following
factors:
Spiraling
Temperature
Frequency (skin effect)
Current magnitudemagnetic conductors
105
Resistance
106
Resistance
Resistivity of conductor metals varies linearly over
normal operating temperatures according to
107
Inductance: Solid Cylindrical Conductor
The inductance of a magnetic circuit that has a
constant permeability can be obtained by
determining the following:
Magnetic field intensity H, from Amperes law.
Magnetic flux density B (B = H).
Flux linkages .
Inductance from flux linkages per ampere (L = /I).
108
For simplicity, assume that the conductor
is sufficiently long that end effects are neglected,
is nonmagnetic ( =
0
= 4t x10
-7
H/m)
has a uniform current density (skin effect is neglected)
109
Amperes law states that
The magnetic field inside the conductor
Select the dashed circle of radius x < r
110
Flux Density B

The differential flux du per-unit length of conductor in
the cross-hatched rectangle of width dx shown in
previous figure (du = B
x
dx Wb/m)
Computation of the differential flux linkage d in the
rectangle is tricky since only the fraction (x/r)
2
of the total
current I is linked by the flux.
111
Integrating the d from x = 0 to x = r determines the total
flux linkages l
int
inside the conductor.

The internal inductance L
int
per-unit length of conductor
due to this flux linkage is then

112
The magnetic field outside the conductor
Select the dashed circle of radius x > r shown in Figure
as the closed contour that encloses the entire current I.
113
The magnetic field outside the conductor
Integrating d between two external points at distances
D
1
and D
2
from the conductor center gives the external
flux linkage
12
between D
1
and D
2
.
114
The total flux
P
linking the conductor out to
external point P at distance D is the sum of the
internal flux linkage and the external flux linkage
from D
1
= r to D
2
= D.
where
115
Inductance: Solid Cylindrical
Conductor
Finally, consider the array of M
solid cylindrical conductors shown
below:

The flux linkage
kPk
, which links
conductor k out to point P due to
current I
k
is:
116
The flux linkage
kPm
, which links conductor k out
to P due to I
m
is:
Assume D
km
>>r
117
Rearrange the equation:

Replace I
M
with
118
Let
k
equal the total flux linking conductor k out to
infinity:

119
Inductance: Single-phase two-wire
where
120
121
Total inductance

If conductors X and Y are the same
122
Inductance: Three-phase three-wire with
equal spacing
123
Inductance: Composite conductors
124
Since only the fraction (1/N) of the total conductor
current I is linked by this flux, the flux linkage
k
of
(the current in) subconductor k is

The total flux linkage of conductor x is
125
Using ln A
o
= o ln A and ln A
k
= ln A
k
, we can
rewrite the previous equation as

The Inductor
126
D
xy
is called the geometric mean distance or GMD
between conductors x and y.
D
xx
is called the geometric mean radius or GMR of
conductor x
Similarly, for conductor y,.
127
Example
For a single-phase multiple conductor circuit
shown below, find
GMR, GMD, and Inductance
128
Solution
For N=3 and M=2, GMD and GMR can be
expressed as:
129
Solution
expressed as:
130
Solution
expressed as:
131
Solution
expressed as:
132
Solution
expressed as:
133
Transposition
If the spacings between phases are unequal, then
balanced positive-sequence flux linkages are not
obtained from balanced positive-sequence
currents. Balance can be restored by exchanging
the conductor positions along the line, a technique
called transposition.
134
Transposition
The total flux linking the phase a conductor while it
is in position 1 is

Similarly, the total flux linkage of this conductor
while it is in positions 2 and 3 is
135
Transposition
The average of the above flux linkages is
136
Transposition
The average inductance of phase a is

Defining

Then,
137
Bundle conductors
If the conductors are stranded and the bundle
spacing d is large compared to the conductor
outside radius, each stranded conductor is first
replaced by an equivalent solid cylindrical
conductor with GMR = D
S
. Then the bundle is
replaced by one equivalent conductor with GMR =
D
SL
.

138
Bundle conductors
Two-conductor bundle.

Three-conductor bundle

Four-conductor bundle

139
Series Impedances: Three-phase line with
neutral conductors and earth return

If the phase currents are not
balanced, there may be a return
current in the grounded neutral wires
and in the earth.
A classic paper by Carson shows
that the earth can be replaced by a
set of earth return conductors
located directly under the overhead
conductors
140
Each earth return conductor carries the negative of
its overhead conductor current, has a GMR
denoted D
kk
, distance D
kk
from its overhead
conductor, and resistance R
k
given by:

where is the earth resistivity in ohm-meters and f is frequency in hertz.
141
Earth resistivities and 60-Hz equivalent conductor
distances are shown in the table. It is common
practice to select = 100 Om when actual data are
unavailable
142
Series Impedances calculation
First, renumber the overhead conductors from 1 to
(3 + N), beginning with the phase conductors, then
overhead neutral conductors.
The sum of the currents in all the conductors is
zero

the flux linking overhead conductor k is
143
Series Impedances calculation
Convert the flux linkage in matrix format: = LI.
Where

When k = m, D
kk
is the GMR of conductor k. When
k m, D
km
is the distance between conductors k
and m.
144
Circuit representation of a 1-meter section
series-phase impedances
145
Using this circuit, the vector of voltage drops
across the conductors is
where L is given in previous slide and R is a (3 + N) x (3 + N) matrix
of conductor resistances.
146
Our objective now is to reduce the (3 + N)
equations to three equations
147
The diagonal elements of this matrix are

The off diagonal elements of this matrix are

Partition the matrix
where
148
Solve the matrix

Z
P
is a 3x3 matrix

149
If the line is completely transposed

where

150
Electric Field and Voltage: Solid
Cylindrical Conductors
The capacitance between conductors in a
medium with constant permittivity c can be
obtained by determining the following:
Electric field strength E, from Gausss law
Voltage between conductors
Capacitance from charge per unit volt (C = q/V)
151
Gausss law states that the total electric flux
leaving a closed surface equals the total charge
within the volume enclosed by the surface.
The normal component of electric flux density
integrated over a closed surface equals the
charge enclosed:
where D
denotes the normal component of electric flux density, E

denotes the normal component of electric field strength, and ds denotes
the differential surface area.
152
Electric field lines originate from positive charges
and terminate at negative charges.
A solid cylindrical conductor with
radius r and with charge q coulombs
per meter (assumed positive in the
figure), uniformly distributed on the
conductor surface.
For simplicity, assume that the
conductor is (1) sufficiently long that
end effects are negligible, and (2) a
perfect conductor (that is, zero
resistivity, = 0).
153
Inside the perfect conductor, Ohms law gives E
int

= J = 0. That is, the internal electric field E
int
is
zero.
To determine the electric field outside the
conductor, select the cylinder with radius x > r
and with 1-meter length as the closed surface for
Gausss law.
Due to the uniform charge distribution, the
electric field strength E
x
is constant on the
cylinder
154
There is no tangential component of E
x
, so the
electric field is radial to the conductor.

For a conductor in free space
155
Concentric cylinders surrounding the conductor
are constant potential surfaces. The potential
difference between two concentric cylinders at
distances D
1
and D
2
from the conductor center
is.
156
Now apply this equation to the array of M solid
cylindrical conductors shown below:
157
Assume that each conductor m has a charge q
m

C/m uniformly distributed along the conductor.
The voltage V
kim
between conductors k and i due
to the charge q
m
acting alone is

Using superposition, the voltage V
ki
between
conductors k and i due to all the charges is
where D
mm
= r
m
when k = m or i = m
158
Capacitance: Single-phase two-wire line
Assume that the
conductors are energized
by a voltage source such
that conductor x has a
uniform charge q C/m and,
assuming conservation of
charge, conductor y has an
equal quantity of negative
charge -q.
159
Using D
xy
= D
yx
= D, D
xx
= r
x
, and D
yy
= r
y
.

For 1-meter length, the capacitor between conductors
is
160
If the two-wire line is supplied by a transformer with a
grounded center tap, then the voltage between each
conductor and ground is one-half of the line to line
voltage (Assume r
x
= r
y
).
161
Capacitance: Three-phase, three-wire and
equal spacing
To determine the positive-sequence capacitance,
assume positive-sequence charges q
a
, q
b
, q
c
such
that q
a
+ q
b
+ q
c
= 0. Using D
aa
= D
bb
= r, and D
ab
=
D
ba
= D
ca
= D
cb
= D, we can rewrite the equation
162
Capacitance: Three-phase, three-wire and equal
spacing
Similarly,
163
spacing
For balanced positive-sequence voltages

Therefore,
164
spacing
Therefore,

and
165
Capacitance: General forms
For a complete transpose line, the line to neutral
capacitance can be expressed as:

where
166
For a three-phase balanced system with bundle
conductors:
q
a
+ q
b
+ q
c
= 0 for a balanced system. Assume that the
conductors in each bundle, which are in parallel, share the
charges equally.
Also assume that the phase spacings are much larger than
the bundle spacings.
167
conductors:
Using the following configuration (Three-phase, two
conductors per bundle) as example.
168
conductors:
169
For transposed line

where

Similarly

D
eq
is the geometric mean of the distances between
phases
170
Shunt Admittances: Line with neutral conductors
and earth return

Single conductor and earth plane
The effect of the earth plane is
described as follows. Consider a
single conductor with uniform charge
distribution and with height H above
a perfectly conducting earth plane,
as shown in Figure. When the
conductor has a positive charge,
an equal quantity of negative charge is induced on the earth.
The electric field lines will originate from the positive charges on
the conductor and terminate at the negative charges on the
earth. Also, the electric field lines are perpendicular to the
surfaces of the conductor and earth.
171
Shunt Admittances: Line with neutral conductors
and earth return

Earth place is replaced by image conductor
Now replace the earth by the
image conductor which has the
same radius as the original
conductor, lies directly below the
original conductor with conductor
separation H
11
= 2H, and has an
equal quantity of negative charge.
Therefore, the voltage between
any two points above the earth is
the same in both figures.
172
Example: Capacitance on single-
phase line
If a 20 miles of single-phase line operating at
20kV and 60 Hz consists of two 4/0 12-strand
copper conductors with 5 ft spacing between
conductor centers, determine the line-to-line
capacitance in F and the line-to-line admittance
in S.

173
phase line
Solution
The outside radius of a 4/0 12-strand copper
conductor is 0.023 ft.

174
phase line (Consider earth)
For the same single phase line as the previous
example with18-ft average line height. Determine
the effect of the earth on capacitance. Assume a
perfectly conducting earth plane.
175
Solution
The earth plane is replaced by a separate image
conductor for each overhead conductor with proper
charge.
176
Solution
The voltage between conductors x and y is
177
Solution
The line to line capacitor is

Using D = 5 ft, r = 0.023 ft, H
xx
= 2H = 36 ft, and H
xy
=
36.346 ft.
178
Shunt Admittances: General form

For the three-phase line with N
neutral conductors shown in
Figure, the perfectly
conducting earth plane is
replaced by a separate image
conductor for each overhead
conductor that carry opposite
charge.
179
The voltage V
kk
between any conductor k and its
image conductor k is

where D
kk
= r
k
and D
km
is the distance between
overhead conductors k and m. H
km
is the distance
between overhead conductor k and image conductor m.

180
By symmetry, the voltage V
kn
between conductor k
and the earth is one-half of V
kk
.

where (k = a; b; c; n1; n2; . . . ; nN) and (m = a; b; c; n1;
n2; . . . ; nN)
Since all the neutral conductors are grounded to the
earth
,
V
kn
= 0 for k = n1; n2; . . . ; nN.

181
In matrix form

182
The elements of the (3 + N) X (3 + N) matrix P are

where (k = a; b; c; n1; n2; . . . ; nN) and (m = a; b; c; n1;
n2; . . . ; nN)
The matrix can then be partitioned into

183
The matrix can be rewritten into

or
where
184
For a complete transposed line

where
185
Electric Field at Conductor
Surfaces and at Ground Level
When the electric field strength at a conductor
surface exceeds the breakdown strength of air,
current discharges occur.
This phenomenon, called corona, causes
additional line losses (corona loss),
communications interference, and audible noise.
When line capacitances are determined and
conductor voltages are known, the conductor
charges can be calculated.
186
Then the electric field strength at the surface of
one phase conductor, neglecting the electric
fields due to charges on other phase conductors
and neutral wires is

where r is the conductor outside radius
187
For bundled conductors with N
b
conductors per
bundle and with charge q C/m per phase, the
charge per conductor is q/N
b
and

This is the average value for an individual
conductor in a bundle.
188
For the arrangement shown in the figure, the
maximum electric field strength at the surface
of one conductor due to all charges in a bundle
can be obtained by the vector addition of
electric fields.
189
Two-conductor bundle (N
b
= 2)

Three-conductor bundle (N
b
= 3)

Four-conductor bundle (N
b
= 4)

190
Although the electric field strength at ground
level is much less than at conductor surfaces
where corona occurs, there are still capacitive
coupling effects.
Charges are induced on ungrounded
equipment such as vehicles with rubber tires
located near a line.
If a person contacts the vehicle and ground, a
discharge current will flow to ground.
191
Transmission-line heights are designed to
maintain discharge currents below prescribed
levels for any equipment that may be on the
right-of-way. Table shows examples of
maximum ground level electric field strength.
192
As shown in Figure, the ground-level electric
field strength due to charged conductor k and its
image conductor is perpendicular to the earth
plane, will be:
193
Parallel Circuits on Three-Phase
Lines
There are mutual inductive and capacitive
couplings between the two circuits if two
parallel three-phase circuits are close together.
When calculating the equivalent series
impedance and shunt admittance matrices,
these couplings should not be neglected unless
the spacing between the circuits is large.
194
Lines
Consider the double-circuit line shown below.
Since both are connected in parallel, they have
the same series-voltage drop for each phase.
Following the same procedure as described
before, we can write 2(6 X N) equations.
195
Lines
After lumping the neutral voltage drop into the
voltage drops across the phase conductors,
and eliminating the neutral and earth return
currents, we obtain:

Solving

where E
P
is the vector of phase-conductor voltage
drops (including the neutral voltage drop), and I
P1

and I
P2
are the vectors of phase currents for lines
1 and 2. Z
P
is a 6 X 6 impedance matrix
196
Lines
Adding I
P1
and I
P2
and solving for E
P

Z
Peq
is the equivalent 3 X 3 series phase
impedance matrix of the double circuit line. The
matrices Y
B
and Y
C
account for the inductive
coupling between the two circuits.

where
197
Lines
Similar procedure can be used to obtain the
shunt admittance matrix.
Following the same idea, we can write (6 + N)
equations. After eliminating the neutral wire
charges, we obtain

where V
P
is the vector of phase-to-neutral voltages, and q
P1
and q
P2
are the
vectors of phase-conductor charges for lines 1 and 2. C
P
is a 6 X 6 capacitance
matrix that is partitioned into four 3 X 3 matrices C
A
, C
B
, C
C
, and C
D

198
Lines
Adding q
P1
and q
P2
.
where
199
Transmission Lines: Steady State
Operation
200
Medium and Short Line
Approximation
It is convenient to represent a transmission line
by the two-port network shown below.
The relation between the sending-end and
receiving-end quantities can be written as:
201
or
Approximation
A, B, C, and D are parameters that depend on
the transmission-line constants R, L, C, and G.
The ABCD parameters are, in general, complex
numbers. A and D are dimensionless. B has
units of ohms, and C has units of Siemens.
The circuit in previous figure represents a short
transmission line, usually applied to overhead
60-Hz lines less than 80 km (50 miles) long.
Only the series resistance and reactance are
included. The shunt admittance is neglected.
202
Approximation
The circuit applies to either single-phase or
completely transposed three-phase lines
operating under balanced conditions.
We can derive the two-port circuit and rewrite
the matrix
203
Approximation
For medium-length lines, typically ranging from
80 to 250 km (50 to 150 Miles) at 60 Hz, it is
common to lump the total shunt capacitance
and locate half at each end of the line. Such a
circuit, called a nominal t circuit.
204
Approximation
Following the basic circuit theory to obtain the
ABCD parameters of the nominal t circuit.
205
Approximation
Rewrite the equations into matrix form.

Note that for both the short and medium-length
lines, the relation AD - BC = 1 is verified. Note
also that since the line is the same when
viewed from either end, A = D.
206
Approximation
Summary of Medium and Short Line
Representation.
207
Approximation
Summary of Medium and Short Line
Representation.
208
Approximation
Voltage Regulation

The percent VR is the percent voltage
regulation, |V
RNL
| is the magnitude of the no-
load receiving-end voltage, and |V
RFL
| is the
magnitude of the full load receiving-end
voltage.
209
Approximation
In addition to voltage regulation, line loadability
is an important issue. Three major line-loading
limits are: (1) the thermal limit, (2) the voltage-
drop limit, and (3) the steady-state stability limit.
210
Transmission Line Differential
Equations
Though we have used lumped model for
medium and short transmission lines, the R, L,
and C of line parameters are uniformly
distributed along the length of the line. The
circuit shown below is the better way for
transmission line representation.
211
G is usually neglected for
overhead 60-Hz lines
Equations
From basic circuit theory:
212

Equations
A
1
and A
2
are integration constants and

Using
213
Z
c
is the characteristic impedance
and is the propagation constant
Equations
Lets evaluate the integration constants A
1
and
A
2
through the boundary conditions.
At x = 0, the receiving end of the line, the receiving
end voltage and current are:

214

Equations
Substitute these values into V(x) and I(x).

215
Equations
Use the hyperbolic functions cosh and sinh.

216
+
where
Equations
The propagation constant is a complex
quantity with real and imaginary parts denoted
o and | ( = o + j| m
-1
).

217
Equations
ABCD parameters for short, medium, long, and
lossless lines.

218
Example: Exact Transmission Line
Model
A three-phase 765-kV, 60-Hz, 300-km,
completely transposed line has the following
positive-sequence impedance and admittance:

Assuming positive-sequence operation,
calculate the exact ABCD parameters of the
line. Compare the exact B parameter with that
of the nominal t circuit.

219
Model
Solution
220
Model
Solution
221
Model
Solution
222
Model
Solution

The B parameter for the nominal t circuit is
223
Equivalent t Circuit for Long
Transmission Line
Many computer programs used in power
system analysis and design assume circuit
representations of components.
It is therefore convenient to represent the
terminal characteristics of a transmission line
by an equivalent circuit.
224
Transmission Line
The circuit shown
below is called an
equivalent t circuit. It
is identical in
structure to the
nominal p circuit
except that Z and Y
are used instead of Z
and Y.
225
Transmission Line
The ABCD parameters of the equivalent t
circuit, which has the same structure as the
nominal t, are
226
Lossless Line
It is easier to use lossless line (R = G = 0) to
explain the concept of surge impedance,
wavelength, surge impedance loading, voltage
profiles, and steady-state stability limit.
227
Surge Impedance
For a lossless line,

The characteristic impedance Z
c
, commonly called
surge impedance for a lossless line, is pure real -
that is, resistive. The propagation constant = j| is
pure imaginary
228
and
where
Wavelength
A wavelength is the distance required to
change the phase of the voltage or current by
2t radians.
For a lossless line
229
and
Wavelength
V(x) and I (x) change phase by 2t radians
when x = 2t/|. Denoting wavelength by .

is the propagation velocity of voltage
and current waves along a lossless line. This is
around 3X10
8
m/sec for overhead lines. For
60Hz system, the wavelength is around
5000km.
230
Surge Impedance Loading
Surge impedance loading (SIL) is the power
delivered by a lossless line to a load resistance
equal to the surge impedance Z
c
.
231
At SIL, the voltage profile is flat. That is, the
voltage magnitude at any point x along a
lossless line at SIL is constant.
232
233

The complex power flowing at any point x
along the line is
234
The real power flow along a lossless line at
SIL remains constant from the sending end to
the receiving end. The reactive power flow is
zero.
At rated line voltage SIL of a line is V
2
rated
/Z
c
.
235
This table shows surge impedance and SIL
values for typical overhead 60-Hz three-
phase line.
Voltage Profile
236
Since line loadings are changing constantly.
the voltage profiles of the line do not maintain
constant.
Steady State Stability Limit
237
The equivalent t circuit can be used to obtain
an equation for the real power delivered by a
lossless line.
Assume that the voltage magnitudes V
S
and
V
R
at the ends of the line are held constant.
Also, let o denote the voltage-phase angle at
the sending end with respect to the receiving
end.
238
From circuit theory

The complex power S
R
delivered to the
receiving end is
239
The real power is

240
P
max
represents the theoretical steady-state
stability limit of a lossless line.
It is convenient to express the steady-state
stability limit in terms of SIL

241
Transmission line loadability curve

Maximum Power Flow
242
For lossy lines, their ABCD parameters are

The receiving end current is

Maximum Power Flow
243
The complex power delivers to the receiving
end is
Maximum Power Flow
244
The theoretical maximum real power
delivered (or steady-state stability limit)
occurs when o = u
Z
.
Line Loadability
245
In practice, power lines are not operated to
deliver their theoretical maximum power.
Typical loadability is based on the voltage-
drop limit V
R
/V
S
>0:95 and on a maximum
angular displacement of 30 to 35
o
across the
line (or about 45
o
across the line and
equivalent system reactances) to maintain
stability during transient disturbances.
Line Loadability
246
Note that for short lines less than 80 km long,
loadability is limited by the thermal rating of
the conductors or by terminal equipment
ratings, not by voltage drop or stability
considerations.
Reactive Compensation
247
Inductors and capacitors are used on
medium-length and long transmission lines to
increase line loadability and to maintain
voltages near rated values.
It can be either series or shunt
compensation.
Reactive Compensation
248
Following devices are used in reactive power
compensation:
Capacitor
Inductor
Static Var Compensator (FC-TCR or SC-TCR)
STATCOM
TCSC

TSDOS Phasor Transformer

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TSDOS Phasor Transformer

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Phasor, Transformer, and

denotes the normal component of electric flux density, E

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