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\
|
(
(
=
t D
x
c c c t x c
s s
2
erf 1 ) ( ) , (
0
(3)
where: c: concentration on chlorides, c
s
: concentration at the outer face and c
0
: initial
concentration in the concrete. The front of the ingress is defined by the critical value c =
c
crit
= 0.1 % of mass of concrete.
2. A simplified diffusion equation is set up for the depth x of chloride ingress. By this, all
constants in the equation of diffusion are rounded up into one single constant K:
( ) D c c c K x
crit s 0
, (4)
3. The constant K is calculated by solving the equation for the mean value x.
Using the mean value of 34 mm this results in K = 3810
3
[s
0.5
/ wt.-%].
Table B3.5: Example 3 - Values used for the diffusion calculations
Variable Distribution Mean value Standard Deviation
Surface chloride concentration
Critical chloride content
Initial chloride content
Eff. chloride diffusion coefficient (10C)
Eff. chloride diffusion coefficient (30C)
c
s
c
crit
c
0
D
1
D
2
Lognormal
Normal
Normal
Normal
Normal
1.0 [wt-%]
0.1 [wt-%]
0.01 [wt-%]
1.010
-12
[m
2
/s]
4.010
-12
[m
2
/s]
0.3 [wt-%]
0.025 [wt-%]
0.002 [wt-%]
0.110
-12
[m
2
/s]
0.410
-12
[m
2
/s]
Solving equation using distributions
The equation reads now as
( ) [ mass /% s 10 38
0
3
D c c c x
crit s
= ] (4)
Solving this equation using the same density distributions as used in the detailed probabilistic
solution (Table B3.5), yields results as shown in Figure B3.5. The slight skewness of the
resultant density distribution is neglected for indicating standard deviations.
EMPA Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research
Laboratory for Concrete and Construction Chemistry March 2004
CIB W080 / RILEM 175 - SLM: Service Life Methodologies
Engineering Design Methods: State of the Art 90
Fractile value required
The probability of exceeding the critical content c
crit
is set to 10% in Edvardsen and Mohr
[2000] Assuming a normal distribution, the value of the fractile of 90% is derived at by
adding = 1.28 standard deviations to the mean: s x x + =
90
. These results are also shown
in Figure B3.5 and are compared to the exact values of the original paper. The mean values
are identical as well as the standard deviation for Diffusion constant D
1
. For Diffusion
constant D
2
, the fractile value of this prediction exceeds the exact value by some 5%.
This accuracy is deemed to satisfy the needs of the customer, bearing in mind, that all input
values, although being set up as distributions, are still never perfectly exact.
Fractile of 10% exceedance
Diffusion
constant
Mean
value
Standard
deviation
Eng. Design
Method
Edvardsen and
Mohr 2000
D
1
D
2
34 mm
68 mm
12 mm
23 mm
49 mm
97 mm
49 mm
91 mm
x [mm] for D
1
x [mm] for D
2
Note: Densities shown are the results of 10
5
runs of a Monte Carlo simulation
Figure B3.5: Engineering design method: density distributions for the depth of chloride
ingress
EMPA Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research
Laboratory for Concrete and Construction Chemistry March 2004
CIB W080 / RILEM 175 - SLM: Service Life Methodologies
Engineering Design Methods: State of the Art 91
4. CONCLUSION AND OUTLOOK
4.1 Proposed Engineering Design Methods
After a review of the recent literature, an engineering design method (EDM) is proposed for
the calculation of the service life of buildings or components.
In order to calculate the service life, an equation containing the relevant factors at their
relevant levels has to be set up first. This equation may be derived from ISO 15686-1 or other
sources. It can be made up to specifically suit the problem to be solved.
In the equation for service life, density distributions instead of simple factors are used, thereby
greatly improving the information content and the relevance of the results. The intellectual,
mathematical and time wise input compared to the quite often elaborate original equations or
to a thorough stochastic design, is greatly reduced.
As opposed to using simple numerical factors in the original factor method, this approach
incorporates the use of probability density functions for factors as well as for the service life
of individual components to arrive at an overall estimate of a building systems service life.
These are established using reliable and understandable engineering techniques applied in a
systematic and straightforward manner.
By making the trail from input to results clearly understandable, fewer errors will occur and
fewer traps stepped into. Thus the engineering design method can be applied by the plain
engineer and yields nearly as good results as finely tuned sophisticated probabilistic models.
4.2 Further Developments
The method as proposed has been applied so far to a few examples only. It is hoped that for
distinct fields of application, standard equations and factors can be defined, together with, for
each climate, the respective input data.
These tools will help to make service life design a standard engineering technique thus
fulfilling the requirements set by owners or the European Commission [CPD 1988].
4.3 Research Needs
Further research is needed, to identify the relevant parameters governing the service life of
structures of all kinds of materials, as well as to set up workable mathematical relations for the
application of the engineering design method.
EMPA Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research
Laboratory for Concrete and Construction Chemistry March 2004
CIB W080 / RILEM 175 - SLM: Service Life Methodologies
Engineering Design Methods: State of the Art 92
REFERENCES
Aarseth, L.I., Hovde, P.J. (1999): Stochastic approach of the factor method for estimating
service life, 8DBMC, pp. 1247-1256.
Abu-Tair, A.I., McParland, C., Lyness, J.F., Nadjai, A. (2002): Predictive models of
deterioration rates of concrete bridges using the factor method based on historic
inspection data, 9DBMC, paper 262.
Abraham, D.M., Wirahadikusumah, R. (1999): Development of prediction models for sewer
deterioration, 8DBMC, pp. 1257-1267.
Aikivuori, A.M. (1999): Critical loss of performance what fails before durability, 8DBMC,
pp. 1369-1376.
Ansell, A, Racutanu, G., Sundquist, H. (2002): A Markov approach in estimating the service
life of bridge elements in Sweden, 9DBMC, paper 142.
Brandt, E., Wittchen, K.B., Faist, A., Genre, J.L. (1999): EPIQR A new surveying tool for
maintenance and refurbishment, 8DBMC, pp. 1576-1584.
Breitenbchner, R., Gehlen, C., Schiessl, P., Van den Hoonard, J., Siemes, T. (1999): Service
life design of the Western Scheldt tunnel, 8DBMC, pp. 3-15.
Bauproduktegesetz und Verordnung ber Bauprodukte (Swiss Law and regulation on building
products), Berne, 01 January 2001.
CPD (1988): Construction Products Directive, European Community Council 89/106/EWG
updated 93/68/EWG.
De Brito, J., Branco, F.A. (1998): Road bridges functional failure costs and benefits,
Canadian Journal of Engineering, nr. 2, April 1998, pp. 261-270.
Dotreppe, J-C. (1999): Degradation mechanisms and service life of concrete slabs of
composite bridges, 8DBMC, pp. 16-27.
DuraCrete Manual (2000): The European Union, Brite EuRam III, contract BRPR-CT95-
0132, Project BE95-1347, Report no. BE95-1347/R17, May 2000.
Edvardsen, C., Mohr, L. (2000): Designing and Rehabilitating Concrete Structures:
Probabilistic Approach (DuraCrete), proc. CANMET/ACI 2000, Intl. Conference on
Durability of Concrete, pp. 1193-1208.
Enright, M.P., Frangopol, D. M. (1998): Service life prediction of deteriorating concrete
bridges, Journal of Structural engineering, Vol. 124, No. 3, March 1998, pp. 309-317.
Estes, A.C., Frangopol, D. M. (1999): Repair optimisation of highway bridges using system
reliability approach, Journal of Structural Engineering, vol. 125, No. 7, July 1999, pp.
776-775.
EMPA Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research
Laboratory for Concrete and Construction Chemistry March 2004
CIB W080 / RILEM 175 - SLM: Service Life Methodologies
Engineering Design Methods: State of the Art 93
Faber, M.H., Gehlen, C. (2002): Probabilistischer Ansatz zur Beurteilung der Dauerhaftigkeit
von bestehenden Stahlbetonbauten, Beton und Stahlbetonbau 97, Heft 8, pp. 421-429.
Fagerlund, G. (1999): Service life with regard to frost attack a probabilistic approach, proc.
8DBMC, pp. 1268-1279.
Flintsch, G.W., Zaniewski, J.P., Medina, A. (1997): Remaining service life analysis
Implementation in the ADOT pavement management system, Infrastructure condition
assessment: Art, science, and practice, Boston, Massachusetts, Aug 25-27, 1997, ISBN
0-7844-0267-1, ASCE, 592 p., pp. 131-140.
Florentzou, F., Brandt, E., Wetzel, C. (1999): Medic a method for predicting residual
service life and refurbishment investment budgets, 8DBMC, pp. 1280-1288.
Frangopol, D.M. and Hitoshi, F., Eds. (2001): US-Japan Workshop on Life-Cycle Cost
Analysis and Design of Civil Infrastructure Systems, Proceedings, Honolulu, Hawaii,
ISBN 0-7488-0571-9, 323 p., 2001.
Frohnsdorff, G.J.C., Martin J.W. (1996): Towards prediction of building service life: The
standards imperative, 7DMBC, pp. 1417-1428.
Frohnsdorff, G.J.C. (1996): Predicting the service lives of materials in construction, 4
th
Materials Engineering Conference: Materials for the new millennium, Washington
DC, ISBN 0-7844-210-8, 1776 p., pp. 38-53, ASCE, Nov 10-14 1996.
Helland, S. (1999): Assessment and prediction of service life of marine structures, a tool for
performance based requirements? Workshop by Duranet on "Design and durability of
concrete", Berlin, June 1999.
Hong, H.P. (2000): Assessment of reliability of aging reinforced concrete structures, Journal
of Structural Engineering, December 2000, pp. 1458-1465.
Hovde, P.J. (2002): The factor method for service life prediction from theoretical evaluation
to practical implementation, 9DBMC, paper 232.
ISO 15686-1:2000, Buildings and constructed assets - Service life planning- Part 1: General
principles, International Standard Organisation, Geneva.
ISO 15686-2:2001, Buildings and constructed assets: Service life planning, Part 2 Service
life prediction procedures, International Standard Organisation, Geneva.
Jernberg, P., Sjstrm, C., Lacasse, M.A (1997): State-of-the-Art-Report, Materials and
Structures, Suppl. 196 March 1997, p 22-25.
Jernberg, P. (1999): Overview and notional concepts on performance and service life,
8DBMC, pp. 1417-1425.
Kaempfer, H.W., Berndt, M., Voigtlaender, G. (2002): Estimation of residual service life for
existing sewerage systems, 9DBMC, paper 164.
Lair, J., Le Teno, J.F., Boissier, D. (1999): Durability assessment of building systems,
8DBMC, pp. 1299-1308.
Lair J., Chevalier J.L., Rilling J. (2001): Operational methods for implementing durability in
service life planning framework, CIB World Building Congress. Wellington, paper
INF 11, 10 p., April 2001.
EMPA Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research
Laboratory for Concrete and Construction Chemistry March 2004
CIB W080 / RILEM 175 - SLM: Service Life Methodologies
Engineering Design Methods: State of the Art 94
Lair, J., Le Teno, J.F., Chevalier, J.L., Boissier, D. (2000): Service life prediction under
uncertainty as a criteria for decision-making, Eds. Mangin, J.C., Miramond, M., 2nd
Conference on Decision Making in Urban and Civil Engineering, 2 volumes, 1270 p.,
Lyon, 20-22 November 2000.
Leira, B., Lingard, J., Nesje, A., Sind, E., Saegrov, S. (1999): Degradation analysis by
statistical methods, 8DBMC, pp. 1436-1446.
Liang, M.T., Wu, J.H., Liang, C.H. (2001): Multiple layer fuzzy evaluation for existing
reinforced concrete bridges, Journal of Infrastructure Systems, 4 December 2001, p
144-159.
Lounis, Z., Lacasse, M.A., Siemes, A.J.M., Moser, K. (1998): Further steps towards a
quantitative approach to durability design, proc. Materials and Technologies for
Sustainable Construction, Construction and Environment, CIB World Building
Congress, Gvle, Sweden, pp. 315-324.
Masters, L.W., Brandt, E. (1989): Systematic methodology for service life prediction of
building materials and components, Materials and Structures, Sept 1989, pp. 385-392.
McNerney, M.T., McCullough, B.F., Stokoe, K.H., Lee, N., Bay, J., Wilde, J. (1997):
Prediction of remaining life on airport pavements, Airfield Pavement Conference,
Seattle, Washington, ASCE, ISBN 0-7844-0286-8, 392 p., pp. 77-93.
Moser, K. (1999): Towards the practical evaluation of service life Illustrative application of
the probabilistic approach, 8DBMC, pp. 1319-1329.
Moser, K., Edvardsen, C. (2002): Engineering design methods for service life prediction,
9DBMC, 12p.
Naus, D. (2000): Life prediction and aging management of concrete structures, D. Naus, Ed.,
International RILEM Workshop, Cannes, France.
Nireki, T. (1996): Service Life Design, Construction and Building Materials, nr. 5, July 1996,
p. 403-406.
Quillin, K.C., Somerville, G., Hooper, R., Nixon, P. (2002): A framework for service life
design of concrete structures, 9DBMC, paper 128.
Radojicic, A, Bailey, S.F., Brhwiler, E. (2001): Probabilistic models of cost for the
management of existing structures, US-Japan Workshop on Life-Cycle-Cost Analysis
and Design of Civil Infrastructure Systems, Hawaii, ISBN 0-7844-0571-9, ASCE, pp.
251-270.
Raj, R. (2000): An interdisciplinary framework for the design and life prediction of
engineering systems, Journal of Engineering Materials and Technology-Transactions
of ASME, July 2000, pp. 348-354.
Rudbeck, C. (2002): Service life of building envelope components: Making it operational in
economical assessment, Construction and Building Materials, pp. 83-89, March 2002.
SIA 160: Actions on Structures (1989), Swiss Association of Engineers and Architects,
Zrich.
Siemes, T., Edvardsen, C. (1999): DuraCrete: Service life design for concrete structures,
8DBMC, pp. 1343-1356.
Siemes, T, de Vries, H. (2002): Overview of the development of service life design for
concrete structures, 9DBMC, paper 261.
EMPA Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research
Laboratory for Concrete and Construction Chemistry March 2004
CIB W080 / RILEM 175 - SLM: Service Life Methodologies
Engineering Design Methods: State of the Art 95
Stewart, M.G. (2000): Optimisation of durability design specifications for RC structures,
Structures Congress: Advanced Technology in Structural Engineering, Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, ISBN 0-7844-0492-5, ASCE, section 21, chapter 2, May 8-10, 2000.
Strand, S.M., Hovde, P.J. (1999): Use of service life data in LCA of building materials,
8DBMC, pp. 1948-1958.
Teply, B., Novak, D., Kersner, Z., Lawanwisut, W. (1999): Deterioration of reinforced
concrete: probabilistic and sensitivity analyses, Acta Polytecnica and 8DBMC, pp.
1357-1366.
Thoft-Schristensen, P. (1997): Estimation of the service life time of concrete bridges,
Structures Congress XV: Building to Last, ISBN 0-7844-0229-9, Portland, Oregon,
1736 p., pp. 248-252, April 13-16 1997, ASCE.
VaP 1.6 for Windows (1996): Short course in Variables Processing, ETH (Swiss Federal
School of Engineering) Zrich, Manual 13 p. in English; Papers 33 p. and Examples
22 p. in German.
Vu, V.A.T., Stewart, M.G. (2002): Service life prediction of reinforced concrete structures
exposed to aggressive environments, 9DBMC, paper 119.
Wiseman, A., Kyle, B.R. (1999): Service life prediction and economic assessment of parking
garage options, 8DBMC, pp. 1493-1505.
Abbreviations and database
ASCE: American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, Virginia, www.pubs.asce.org
Brite-EuRam project DuraCrete: Selected publications.
CIB World Building Congress 1998: Materials and technologies for sustainable construction,
Gvle, Sweden, M. Lacasse, ed., NRC, Ottawa, Canada.
CIB World Building Congress 2001: Performance in product and practice, CD by Building
research association of New Zealand (BRANZ), Eds., New Zealand.
7DBMC: Proceedings of the 7
th
international conference on the Durability of Building
Materials and Components, Sjstrm Ch., Ed., Stockholm, Sweden, E and FN Spon,
London, 19-23 May 1996.
8DBMC: Proceedings of the 8
th
international conference on the Durability of Building
Materials and Components, Lacasse and Vanier, Eds. NRC research press Ottawa,
Canada, 30 May 3 June 1999.
9DBMC: Proceedings of the 9
th
international conference on the Durability of Building
Materials and Components, Burn S. CSIRO ed., on CD ROM, ISBN 0-943-06828-7,
Brisbane, Australia, 17-19 March 2002.
SL/AM IT CD ROM, containing the full papers of the 8DBMC and the abstracts of all earlier
DBMC conferences back to 1DBMC in 1978, Lacasse and Vanier, Eds. NRC research
press Ottawa, Canada, 1999.
EMPA Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research
Laboratory for Concrete and Construction Chemistry March 2004
International Council for Research and Innovation in Building and
Construction
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