What is 0 dBm? Everyone who works with Telecom knows there is a relationship between Watts and dBm.

But if the Power is expressed in Watts, why we must know - and use - this relationship in our day-to-day?? Let's try to understand today in a simple manner, and discover why the use of decibels help us much. Watt (W) and miliWatt (mW) First of all, to understand what it means for example 0 dBm, we at least have to know the basic unit of power, the Watt. By definition, 1 Watt means 1 Ampere (A) current in 1 Volt (V) voltage, or in mathematical terms P = VA. It is interesting to note that the amount of power radiated by an antenna is very small in terms of Watts, but it is enough to reach several miles. Of course, in order to do the calculations by adding and subtracting, we must make the necessary conversions. But with the help of a calculator or Excel, is not that complicated. Decibels (dB) By definition, we have:

And as the signs are very small, is more common to refer to them in terms of prefix, such as military or milliwatts (mW), which means 1 / 1000 (one thousandth) of Watts. Mathematics Besides the signals were rather small, it - as well as other quantities of physics such as electricity, heat or sound propagate nonlinearly. It would be more or less like compound interest on a loan. Or brought into our world of engineers, imagine a cable for transmitting 100 watts, with a loss of 10% per meter. If the spread was linear, the final 10 meters would have no more power!

Sure, we say that working with logarithms (or decibels) is much easier - and the common good. But by the formulas above, still can not understand. So the best way to understand why we use dB (decibels), is seeing how they help us through a practical example. Consider a standard wireless link, where we have a transmitter (1) and a receiver (5), Antennas (3), Cables, Jumpers and Connectors (2) and Free Space (4).

Only it's not how it happens. In the first meters, have 10% less power, which is 90 watts. And this is the value that 'enter' on the cable until the next meter. Thus, the second meter, we would have 10% less of that power or 81 watts (= 90 - 9). Repeating this calculations, you see that in fact the power never reaches zero, as it would if calculations were linear. (At the end of the cable have actually 34.86 Watt)

Using real values, and without using the help of dB, let's do the math and see, from the transmitted power, how much power we have at receiver. So with dummy values, but close to reality, we have: Transmitter Power = 40 Watts Cables and connectors loss = - 0.5 (Half Power) Antenna Gain = 20 + times in the Power Free Space Loss = - 0 000 000 000 000 000 1 Power Note: This amount of loss in free space is quite big. And it is obtained based on distance and other factors. For now, just accept that it is a practical value of loss of RF for a given distance of our link. The link with the absolute values in Watt would then be as below.

To solve problems o deal with this - and make our lives easier - we need to know the logarithms. We saw this in school, but there are people who do not like to hear. The good thing is that we need not know much about them, just understand what they are. Just understand that if we transformed the magnitudes in logarithms, the calculations become addition and subtraction rather than multiplication and division.

We can work this way, of course. But you must agree that it is not very friendly. Now, if we use the proper conversion of power, gain and loss for dB, we can simply add and subtract.

It was so much easier, isn't it? Now we just need to know the formulas to do the conversions. Converting with Formulas in Excel Considering that the amount of wattage is in cell B3, the formula for convrting W in dBm is: = 10 * ( LOG10 ( 1000 * B3 ) ) And the formula to reverse - convert dBm to Watt, considering that our power in dBm is in cell B6 is: = 10 * ( LOG10 ( 1000 * B6 ) ) And as a result, we have calculated values.

With the corresponding values of dB and multiplier factor, we convert eg +46 dBm to mW. Answer: First, we expressed 46 values that we already know by heart. So 46 = 10 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 3 + 3 That is, we multiply the reference value (1 mW) for four times the factor of 10 and twice the factor of 2. What gives us 1mW x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 = 1 000 0 mW 1 000 0 mW x 2 x 2 = 40000 mW = 40 W Ie, + 46 dBm is equal to 40 watts. Conclusion Well, I think now you have given to see that when we do the calculations in dB everything is easier. Moreover, the vast majority of Telecom equipment has specifications of its units in dB (Power, Gain, Loss, etc.). In short, just use basic math to understand the values and reach the final figures. When we say that such a signal is attenuated by 3 dB, means that the final power is half the initial power. Likewise, if a given power is increased by 3 dB means twice the power. A good practice, irrespective of how you will work with the calculations is to store at least some values such as 0 dBm = 1 mWatt (our initial question), 30 dBm = 1 Watt, and in our example, 46 dBm = 40 Watt. So you can quickly learn, for example, the equivalent for the calculations. For example, 43 dBm = 46 dBm - 3 dB. That is, half the power of 46 dbm. Then, 43 dBm = 20 Watts! Just finally, in our example, the received power was - 84 dBm, remember?

Note that in case we are using the 1000 value in the formulas, for wearing the Watt, but we want the result in dBm. To calculate (convert) db to ratio, or ratio to db, the formulas do not include the value of 1000.

Calculations without using a calculator Of course, we will use calculators in the projects and programs such as Excel. But we also know how to do calculations (conversions) without using a calculator. If anyone tells you that the power is + 46 dBm, you need to know what that means in terms of Watts. For this, there are certain tricks that can be used to arrive at least an approximate match. For this, a good way is to memorize the equivalent to multiplying factors in dB, as in the table below (at least those that are in bold).

In this case, doesn't need memorizing. Just so you know which is equivalent to a very low power, but enough for a good example for GSM call. Everyone has heard at least. Many knows that a bad VSWR affects the performance of the Network. But what about you: do you know what it means, and why we need to know how to use these measures? Today we'll try to see a very simple way what is VSWR. VSWR To understand what is VSWR, we need to talk a little bit about signal propagation in radio frequency systems. Simply put, the radio frequency signals are driven by electric cables between transmitters / receivers to their respective antennas.

infiltration of water - half ends with the impedance mismatch. So, part of the signal which ideally should leave by the antenna, then returns reflected! Speaking in terms of the matching impedances, if the value of X, Y and Z are equal, we have the following.

By its definition, VSWR or Voltage Standing Wave Ratio is a ratio of peak voltage on the minimum amplitude of voltage of standign wave. It does not help much, does it? Okay, let's try to see how it relates ... In radio frequency systems, the characteristic impedance is one of the most important factors to consider. In our case this factor is typically 50 Ohms. This is a constructive parameter, ie is some characteristic determined by its construction. In the case of a cable for example, depends on the size of the inner and outer conductors, and the type of insulation between them. All components of a link - cables, connectors, antennas - are constructed to have the same impedance. When we insert an element in our system, we have what we call the Insertion Loss, which can be understood as something that is lost, taking into account what that actually went in and came out. And this loss occurs in two ways - by Attenuation especially on cable - and y Reflection. As for the attenuation along the cables, there's not much we can do. Part of the signal is lost along the cable by the generation of heat and also by unwanted radiated off the handle. This loss is characteristic of the same, and defined in terms of dB per lenght unit - the longer the cable is, the greater is the loss. This attenuation also increases with increasing temperature and frequency. Unfortunately, these factors are not much scope of our control, since the frequency is already preset by the system we use, and the temperature will be exposed to climatic variations of where the cable has to pass . The most we can do is try to use cable with less attenuation , ie, cableswith high quality materials used in its construction of the drivers internal and external and insulating dielectric . As a rule, the larger the diameter of the cable, the lower your attenuation. Typical values of diameters are 1/2 ", 7/8" and 1 5/8 ". The choice of coaxial cable for the system is a process that requires a very comprehensive analysis, taking into account its characteristics (is it softer, etc ...) and costs of several options of existing cables, necessary cable length - and the consequent loss that it will introduce, the loading of the tower or brackets where cables will be posted, among others.

Now with values close to the real impedance unmatched scenario, have the following.

If we consider an ideal transmission line, the VSWR would be 1:1, ie all the power to reach your destination, with no reflection (nothing lost).

And the worst means of transmission in the world, we would have infinite VSWR, ie all the power would be reflected (lost).

But the other form of loss that we have in our system, and can be controlled a bit more is the loss by reflection, ie loss of the signal, which has just returned, lost by the end where it was injected. For this reason we call the Return Loss. If there is any problem in the middle between the transmitter / receiver and antennas - such as a fold or

In practice It is clear that there is an ideal system, one that is not the worst in the world. What happens is that there are maximum VSWR that each application can accept. The typical value in our case is 1.5:1. So what are the problems that we can in a bad VSWR (very large)? Besides the power radiated effectively be much smaller than it should be, may also occur the burning of electronic components that have no protection for that unwanted reflected signal. So as basic recommendations: Avoid bending the cables to the fullest - making turns as smooth as possible - and tighten the connectors: isolating the system that does not suffer problems like water seepage or poeira. o In addition, the connectors and cables must be made by professionals, and

using professional equipment. It does not help tighten a connector evil feito. Use always the best quality components possible: no equipment is perfect, and even the processes of production glitches arise. The quality of the material and manufacturing process of the elements is paramount so as to achieve a better quality of sinal. Check that all elements of the system have the same impedance.

Tables and Graphs Is not the goal here to explain what are the standing waves, because understanding requires significant wave theory, but a simple and very interesting for you to see - and understand - as these waves are formed is shown on the site bessernet.com. Be sure to visit the link below. Enter a value of return loss, hit enter, and check! http://www.bessernet.com/Ereflecto/tutorialFrameset.ht m The magnitudes of reflection VSWR, Return Loss dB and Power Reflected% are related, and can be converted into one another, using the formulas or tables below. For the standing wave (please visit link above to understand first):

Here comes a good tip: Understand the return loss as 'How much weaker, in dB, the reflected unwanted signal is, compared with the transmitted signal? " In the case of 1.5:1, power is 14 dB below the original value, or 4% was lost. Note that a VSWR of 1.9:1 almost 10% of energy is lost! Conclusion To conclude, we can then understand the VSWR as an indicator of signal reflected back to the transmitter radio frequency, always taking the value 1 in the denominator. And the lower this index, the better! Thus, a radio frequency system with 1.4:1 VSWR is better than one with 1.5:1! And another with 1:1 VSWR would have a perfect impedance matching. In other words, occurs only in theory. Finally, the VSWR in a radio frequency system can be measured by special equipment. One of them, and well known, is the Master Site. With mode "Distance-To-Fault" you can identify the location of problems in a damaged system. Power measurements for af circuits are usually indicated in terms of decibels (dB) or decibels referenced to 1 milliwatt (dBm). Because the actual calculation of decibel measurements is seldom required, the following explanation

And for the power transmitted and reflected:

is somewhat simplified. Most test equipment is designed to measure and indicate decibels directly. This eliminates the need for you to perform complicated calculations. Nevertheless, a basic explanation of the decibel measurement system is necessary for you to understand the significance of dB readings and amplifier-gain ratings that are expressed in decibels. THE DECIBEL SYSTEM The basic unit of measurement in the system is not the decibel; it is the bel. The bel is a unit that expresses the logarithmic ratio between the input and the output of any given component, circuit, or system. The Timing Advance parameter is very important in many applications and procedures of the GSM system. Let us understand what it is today, and know its main uses. What is Parameter Timing Advance (TA) in GSM? The Timing Advance is a parameter that allows the GSM BTS to control the signal delays in their communication with the mobile. More specifically, is calculated by the delay of information bits in Data Access Burst received by BTS.

With some values we have tabulated the table below.

Recalling a little: GSM uses TDMA with sequential designated timeslots to allow different users sharing the same frequency. A burst represents the physical content of a timeslot and can be of 5 types: Normal, Frequency Correction, Synchronization, Access or Dummy. Each burst can carry bits of different types: Information, Tail, Training Sequence. We have eight timeslots, each user transmits within 1 / 8 of that time, periodically. The arrival time in each slot is then known. Users are randomly located around the station, a closer and more distant, yet we can consider the propagation environment as being the same for everyone. So if we know the time and speed that the signal travels, we calculate the distance! And how to use this parameter, not only to just check how far we are from BTS? Applications A major application of this parameter, you control the time at which each mobile can transmit a burst of traffic within a timeslot in order to avoid collisions of transmissions of the other adjacent users.

So, for example during a test drive, we can measure how far we are from the BTS through the value of TA. He does not give us the position exta, but gives an accurate range of 550 meters. Controlling interference by continually adjusting the TA, we have less data loss, and improve the quality of our signal . As this is a parameter directly related to distance, it is natural that the TA is also used in locating applications. Another good application is the handover control. Imagine you have a cell that uses two concentric bands. You can set as a condition to allow the handover from one band to another. More specifically: if you have a cell with 850/1900, you can set the band 850 as BCCH, and 1900 only to traffic. The TA threshold to control the terminal so it does not make for the 1900 handover if you're far from the BTS.

Extended Range Despite the limitation of the GSM standard is 35 km as we speak, you can enable a feature that allows the TA is greater than 63. For this, the station receives the uplink signal in two adjacent timelots, instead of just one. What is Antenna? If we only ask about the device, you'll know for sure to define what is an antenna, or at least have ever seen it. We also know that changing conditions or characteristics, for example targeting them, they improve the communication link. But if someone asked to describe what is an antenna technically speaking, how would you describe its work? That's what we'll talk about today.

The TA signal is transmitted in the SACCH as a number between 0 and 63, in units of bit periods (3.69 microseconds). If the signal travels at 300 meters per microsecond, each TA is a distance of approximately 1100 meters. Because this is the distance round, each increase in the value of TA corresponds to a distance 550 between the mobile and BTS. For example, TA = 0 means that the mobile is up to 550 meters from the station, TA = 1 means it is between 550 and 1100 meters, TA = 2, from 1100 to 1650 meters and so on.

Basics Before we begin to define the antenna work, we need to learn (or remember) some basic concepts. By understanding these concepts, it will be much easier to understand how antennas works. Wavelength Radio waves (electromagnetic) is physical, of which we highlight the frequency. We know it is not easy viewing. So let's make our first analogy: imagine a drop of water falling on the flat surface of a bucket of water.

The maximum distance allowed by the TA between the MS and BTS is 35 km (GSM 850 / 900) * 63 or 550 meters.

After the droplet hits the water at rest, we can see the waves formed. In telecom we specifically describe the pattern of sine waves, the wavelength is distance between two peaks.

To better understand the polarization of waves, let's see some examples, in which we highlight only the E component electric field. (Remember though that there are always a magnetic field 90 degrees to the electric field).

Mathematically, the wavelength () is defined by the speed with which the wave propagates (c) divided by frequency (f) thereof. = c / f wavelength (): is represented by the Greek letter ; speed (c): Considering that our waves propagate in air, we can consider as the speed of light in vacuum - c - 300,000,000 m / s (which may be represented by 300M m / s); frequency (f): frequency of the signal will be using. For example, on a 900 MHz system, we have: = (300 Mm / s) / (900 MHz) = 0.33333 ... or 33.33 cm. Polarization When we talk about electromagnetic waves, another important concept is the polarization, ie what the plan of the electrical component in which the wave propagates. Ok, started to complicate things? So let's try to explain better. Electromagnetic waves are composed of two planes vertical and horizontal. These plans represent the electric and magnetic fields. These components are always orthogonal, vectors off by 90 degrees. They vary in phase or zero - degrees of electrical phase shift. The propagating speed (also vector) for these two fields in turn spreads in 90 degrees of the two. The following figure helps us visualize these vectors.

And see how looks the wave (the electric component E) for Cross polarization - a combination of vertical and horizontal polarizations, electrically in phase.

Let's stop here, our artistic ability (?!?) limits us! But a wave with Circular polarization (electric component E) - a combination of two polarized waves - one vertical and one horizontal, electrically out of phase by 90 degrees, but with the same magnitude, it would "more or less" as we draw down. Surely the real wave is at least less "shaky."

As an example of antenna with Circular polarization we have Helical Antennas or Cross Yagi with Circular polarization (left or right), better known as RHCP (Right Hand Circular Polarization) and LHCP (Left Hand Circular Polarization). We'll see more of their applications in due course. Antennas Okay, after briefly introducing some basic concepts, let's talk about antennas. By definition, an antenna is a device designed to transmit or receive electromagnetic energy, matching these sources of energy and the space. Also often called radiant systems. Note that the same device can be used to transmit or receive. Let's start by looking at a simplified representation of a system for transmission and reception.

So depending on how the signal coupling is done - the antenna is oriented - we have a definition of polarization. If the transmitter is such that the wave is completely in the vertical plane (Electrical plane E), then we have Vertical polarization. If the wave is in the horizontal plane (Magnetic plane B), we have Horizontal polarization. There are other types of polarization, as Cross polarization and Circular polarization (right and left), that actually are combinations of vertical and horizontal polarizations, and also the phase differences. The concept of polarization is very important in antennas, mainly because when a signal is transmitted in one polarization must be received in the same polarization, otherwise we will have an attenuation (loss), known as crosspolarization.

The original information is changed, for example through some kind of modulation and treatment, and still conveyed or guided by a cable to the antenna. The antenna then radiates this information by the medium (air) until it reaches the other antenna, which in this case will make receiving the signal, making it still the way the cable to the

device that will make such demodulation (and other treatments), recovering the original information. Note: Just as an example, we are not considering existing losses. Sure, but how the antenna works? How she radiates the information? To understand this, we need a little atomic review! Calm down, let's just talk about atoms: Atoms are the smallest possible share of any chemical element. All that exists is made up of elements. Put simply, most of them are formed by the atoms: protons, electrons and neutrons. At the core of the atom have the neutrons and protons. The electrons stay moving around this nucleus, like cars on a trajectory as in a crazy race.

So now we can conclude: the transmission antennas convert the electrical current (electrons) into electromagnetic waves (photons), and the reception do the reverse - convert electromagnetic waves (photons) into electrical current (electrons). The information is preserved because the antenna acts as a transducer matching conductors that generate these fields. For example in the transmission, the electromagnetic field corresponds to a specific voltage and alternating current. In the reception, the same reference voltage and alternating current is induced.

An attraction (positive-negative) is what makes it possible that all elements exist.

A Simple Antenna Further, consider the representation of the simplest type of antenna: a dipole antenna. As the name suggests, is an antenna with two poles. It is a model of the antenna easy to make, and consists of two pieces of wire of equal length, separated from each other by a center insulator and may have an insulator on each end to attach it to a support. In the figure below is an example of a dipole antenna (insulators shown in red in figure).

But what does this have to do with the antenna? The antennas are usually made with metallic materials (aluminum / brass). These metals are formed by atoms. When all the atoms are brought together - to form the metal, then we have a set of free electrons. And when this series of free electrons is subjected to an electric voltage (electric field), they begin to move and vibrate. When electrons vibrate from one side to another antenna, they create an electromagnetic radiation in the form of radio waves. Let's use this example to talk about antennas, but now we're basically with simple question, but that many people can NOT explain: "How can there be a current flowing in antenna, if both parts are open? This runs totally against what we learn, where have current, we need a closed circuit, no?" To answer this, we again return to the familiar concepts of electrical circuits. You must remember the concept of capacitance (C), defined through the use of capacitors. And there is a kind of unavoidable capacitance that arises between compontent always close to each other on the circuit - and often unwanted: parasitic capacitance. Only in our case, this capacitance is what allows the antenna to work!

Pause: Are You caughting up how energy is radiated by the antenna? Well then you've got it all. Because now, just the opposite happens. The electromagnetic radio waves that leave the transmitting antenna travel through the medium, eg air, and reach the other antenna - reception. The effect of electromagnetic field reaching the other antenna is to make the free electrons vibrate in the same - which now generates an electric current corresponding to what was sent from the transmitting antenna.

At high frequency, the parasitic capacitance between the two arms of the antenna has a low impedance, and represents the current return path.

In short: a tuned antenna can be considered as an RLC circuit - with resistance R, inductance (L) and capacitance (C)!

It is clear that a non-resonant antenna also works - transmit and receive. But it needs a more powerful transmitter (because a smaller part of the input energy will be present at the output). And for the same reason, you need a receiver with a sensitivity much higher. So: the system efficiency will be much lower! Wavelength X Length of Antenna Just to finish by today, you should remember what we taught to be the resonance of the antenna physical size must be multiple of its wavelength. Let's try to understand why exactly this value? As always, let's remember more concepts... Remember that an electrical circuit - which we has also mentioned that a tuned antenna acts as an RLC circuit - the Voltage (Potential Difference): in a Short Circuit is equal to Zero; in an Open Circuit is Maximum. Well, the antenna end, we have an Open Circuit - so the point with the Highest Voltage. And considering the two ends - one with the maximum positive voltage and one with the maximum negative voltage - we have the center point with Zero voltage.

It's beginning to be clear? Note: You may wonder: "And in the case of antennas with only one arm?" Do not worry, the antenna will always seek a reference plane to act as "ground", such as a metal rod next.

From what was shown, we can say that every antenna requires two parts to radiate energy. And that energy is proportional to the dipole current. Okay so far? After many pauses for further explanations, let's continue talking about further concepts. Resonance Recalling what we have seen so far, the electric waves in antennas usually have a fixed wavelength. We also saw that an antenna can be considered as an RLC circuit, where definition of these features are given by the environment where the antennas are, and their physical properties - especially its size. Ready for another term? So here we go: Resonance! In general, resonance is the phenomenon that occurs in a particular frequency where we have a maximum possible transfer of energy. In the case of antennas, so there to be resonance, its size (physical length) must be a multiple of its wavelength. In this case, we will have a main frequency where the antenna delivers the maximum amount of energy possible - resonant. And the larger the size (length) of elements of the antenna, the lower the resonant frequency. In more technical terms, we have the resonance frequency where the inductive and capacitive reactances cancel each other out - we have a purely resistive impedance. This distance between the end and the central point is the distance between the point of maximum voltage (yellow circle in figure) and point of zero voltage (green circle in figure) - and is a quarter wavelength !

Most antennas are used in its resonance frequency. That's because when we turn from this resonance frequency, the reactances levels give rise to parameters that may jeopardize the operation, for example the SWR, as explained in another tutorial. The impedance of the antenna ceases to be purely resistive, with a complex impedance - in both meaning of the word, which gets her an unwanted behavior.

Properties and Types of Antennas After our brief summary, focused mainly on the functioning of the antennas, we can proceed with several other concepts, types of antennas, etc.. Some concepts - for example Impedance - were also mentioned, but were not well described. But for today, our tutorial is already extended too much , and is also very difficult to absorb more knowledge than what was exposed here, at once. So lets take this supplement ,as well as continuing the subject of antennas, for the next tutorials. Much remains to be said, many questions to be eliminated. Hopefully you have managed to understand at least some of the basics of antennas. Now, do you have a minute? Before we finish, and IF you liked the article, or other articles in telecomHall, we would like to make just one request, is it okay?

With a simple gesture, you can help us to improve more and more, bringing each week tips, tools, tutorials and everiything more that really are worth reading for Telecom & IT. So, we would ask to help us simply by sharing with your friends. To facilitate it, follows links that let you do this quickly and easily: Conclusion Today we had a first approach on antenna, an undeniably important subject, and a essential system for the good performance of any network. As always in a more informal way, we try to flow explanations in a simplified manner, as a matter of course is a foundation for other studies and further refinements as necessary. New tutorials on the subject will be published in due course, always with a focus ever deeper. What is Frequency Hopping - FHSS? We can define Frequency Hopping as a communication scheme between a transmitter and a receiver. There are several concepts involved, such as spread spectrum modulation and switching frequency according to a known standard. Frequency Hopping (FH) is widely used for example in GSM Networks, so let's understand a little more about it today.

should make the change at the same time, ie, following a pattern known to both. Bringing this idea to the torpedo, it sufficed for the transmitter in the vessel and receiver in the torpedo altered (or jumped) from one frequency to another in a synchronized manner. That is, just that the receiver at the torpedo know what are the positions where the transmitter frequency will jump! And if any of these frequencies are suffering interference? Well, we still have other channels in the sequence of jumps, from where information can be retrieved! Like any great invention, note that the idea is simple. Definition Well, after a brief history, I hope you have understood the idea behind FH. After the initial contribution of inventors, the idea was perfected, and is now used in various systems such as GSM, as already mentioned. FH has mainly the purpose of avoiding interference, and we'll see how he gets it. In FH, the information is spread over a bandwidth much larger than is required for its transmission. For this, it is divided into several channels of lower bandwidth. Knowing the sequence of jumps that must be followed, the receiver and transmitter jump through these channels.

First, a Brief History But before we talk about FH: does who invented it? Several people competes for this title, as the German Johannes Zenneck in 1908 through his company: Telefunken. He shares the title with a Polish inventor, who also exposed the idea. But particularly, I like the exotic version, where a beautiful actress (yes) Hedy Lamar, along with her neighbor George Antheil were also responsible, in the Second World War time. Hedy was married to a German arms manufacturer. Issues like security, especially how to send text messages using a signal that could not be interfered with by the enemy naturally came to mind. If you send a torpedo controlled by a continuous signal, the signal can be identified by the enemy, which in turn can insert a high noise and shoot it down. Once at the piano the composer George played a note, and Hedy repeated on another scale. It was then that she realized it was possible to establish a communication by changing the communication channel, just for this, they

This is a pseudo-random sequence, and that's what makes the FH also secure, since unwanted receivers can not intercept the signal because they do not know the sequence. The only thing they see are noises of short duration. For each application with its full range of frequency, it is defined as bandwidth, hop number, and maximum average time that each frequency must be busy. We should also stress that in FH do not need continuous bands. In scenarios where the available bandwidth is limited and not contiguous, the spectrum can be better used (Actually, this is more a feature comparison between narrowband x broadband systems ).

FH in GSM Speaking specifically about the GSM now, we'll finally understand how the interference is avoid. To do so, as always, let us take an example of a network with 10 MHz bandwidth. As the channel of GSM is 200 kHz, we have 50 channels available. Remember that each GSM channel has 8 time slots, and considering Full Rate we have 8 users.

It may seem to many channels, but believe me, a major planning challenge is to spread these channels in a GSM network avoiding interference problems. To illustrate, suppose a network with 100 sectors each BTS 3: we have 300 sectors, and only 50 frequencies. Naturally, the channels must be reused, which inevitably result in the same channels used in different sectors. And there we have the co-channel interference, a major problem to be solved, especially in dense GSM networks. Not only the problem of co-channels, we also have the problem of multipath, compounded by the fact that GSM band is narrow. A signal can leave the transmitter, and due to obstacles, be reflected in a way that will eventually interfere with the original signal that arrives at the receiver, since this signal is out of phase, because it had to 'travel' more. And it is especially in these cases that FH helps us. For clarity, consider an sector with channels A and B. Hardly all slots of all channels are in use all the time. Even if a particular slot of channel A is also in use in another sector co-channel interference, chances are that another slot of channel B are not! That's what FH does: changes the frequencies and slots of the call!

First, the transmitter sends a request (1) to start the FH through the control channel. The receiver, after receiving this request sends a base number (2) back. The transmitter then uses that number, calculates and sends the series of frequencies (3) to be used. With this list of frequencies, the receiver returns a synchronization signal (4) in the first frequency of the list. Thus, communication between the two is established (5).

Thus, each user runs a much lower risk of suffering cochannel interference. In other words, a channel can be suffering interference, but we have other channels in the sequence of jumps that may be no interference! When the network uses FH, and moves our call slot to slot, and frequency to frequency, the interference is turns into a random effect. We still, as we speak, the problems of multipath. And the idea is basically the same. By jumping from one frequency to another, the user suffers the effects of multipath problem by a very small periods of time. (Remember we use narrow bands!) In both cases, whether co-channel interference or multipath fading, there are the error correction algorithms, which achieve the most efficient way to clean and recover the original signal. FH Basic Algorithm Finally, we see a simplified diagram showing the steps involved in establishing a communication using FH.

Disadvantages And what are the disadvantages of FH? Like any spread spectrum communication, we need a bigger band than would be necessary if it were used only a single frequency to carry the signal. Furthermore, whenever a communication is established, it takes a significant time, to establish sync between the receiver and transmitter. Anyway, the advantages outweigh these points. Conclusion We now know the simple idea of frequency hopping, a spread-spectrum modulation scheme, where it is possible to establish a communication over a single logical channel, based upon the timing of changes (jumps) in frequency among them, following a pseudo-random sequence known by both. As a result, using the FH have a signal more robust interference resistant, and secure - to be very difficult to intercept. How to Run a RF Site Survey (Tips and Best Practices) From all the tasks that a telecommunication professional has, one of the most important is the RF Design. Mainly because this task results in physical changes in the network, by modifying or adding new sites and/or equipment. Based on the settings (and needs) of the current network, several areas - from Planning to Marketing and Optimization - may require changes to the these settings, that will define the future of the network. Once defined the area of the new sites, another extremely important task is the collection of candidate points, ie points close to the places defined as ideal, and can have a New Site Deployed.

And that part of the project is what we call the 'Site Survey' - also with other common variations such as 'RF Survey', 'RF Site Survey' or 'Wireless Survey'.

Equipments The first important input comes from Planning, where we define the equipment to be installed. It's important to emphasize that it is necessary to know the characteristics of the equipment, and how they can be installed. Knowing for example their dimensions, if they can be installed on the top of towers, how many antennas are needed, will it be a BTS or Booster/Repeater, etc.. Predictions From the definition of equipment, we then spent some time on theoretical calculations, where we'll set the location for our site. For this, we must use Signal Propagation Prediction tools. These tools, when properly adjusted, give us a very close notion to what we can achieve. Of course not accurately predictions do not reflects exactly what will be achieved in practice, but serve as an excellent 'reference'. A well-adjusted prediction tool is one that brings results close to what we find when collect data, as in 'Drive Tests'. This adjustment can be done through the use of different 'Propagation Models' for different areas (urban, suburban, etc. ...).

Note: For simplicity, from now on in this tutorial we'll refer to as just 'Site Survey'. If we don't run it properly - like choosing 'bad' points - the worst consequences range from an overall bad system performance (compared to what it could be), to cases where we need more sites/equipment to meet the requirements of the same region. In other words, implies in loss of CAPEX, OPEX and Poor Network Quality! It's more than enough to try to run it in a best possible way, no? Unfortunately, this is a kind of task that can't be learned from theory, and its success depends heavily on the experience of his executioners. In addition, there too little specific reference material on this subject available. Therefore, we'll now try to share some of the best practices of it, as a step by step guide. As always we'll be following the Hunter Methodology to organize all of our work procedures. So let's go?

Note: All telecomHall articles are originally written in Portuguese. Following we translate to English and Spanish. As our time is short, maybe you find some typos (sometimes we just use the automatic translator, with only a final and 'quick' review). We apologize and we have an understanding of our effort. If you want to contribute translating / correcting of these languages, or even creating and publishing your tutorials, please contact us: contact.

Before the Survey As in any task to be performed, the 'Site Survey' should be first of all well-planned, so that its execution, as best as possible. Therefore, it is advisable to follow some basic procedures, or some tasks that are common and necessary: a preanalysis before any 'Site Survey'. Before heading to the 'Site Survey' region, it is extremely important to make a complete analysis of that region. For this, all available resources should be used: Aerial Photos, Google Earth, Maps, etc... Important: Always take the printed data with you: the areas of interest highlighted, with a longer zoom and a smaller one, especially in the focus area.

The better the resolution of your bases, the greater the accuracy. However, the processor uses more resources, and takes longer to run. For a fairly good approximation, we recommend that you use at least a resolution of 30 meters, available for free download at NASA website. Other features such as 'Building Heights' - ie, the heights of existing buildings also greatly improve the accuracy of the result, but are more difficult - and expensive - to obtain. But remember that regardless of their 'reliability' of the predictions, the most important is the 'comparison' between the candidate points. That is, even if the prediction tool does not provide perfect results just as real, is always valid to use it at least for 'comparisons' among the predictions of candidate points. Drive Tests Another excellent way to check for new items is the analysis of 'Drive Test'.

In an ideal world, if it were possible to have a detailed 'Drive Test' in the entire interest area, we'd have no need for prediction tools, as we would have a true and complete coverage knowledge, thus knowing where it needs to be improved. Unfortunately, it is not possible for many reasons, but we can use the already available 'Drive Tests' as a supplement to the analysis - even to validate the results obtained with the prediction. Therefore it is important to have quick and easy access to Drive Tests processed data, for example using files already processed in Mapinfo and/or Google Earth.

Open Drive Tests available in the region of interest and take a time to save a few more images, which can be very useful in the field - so print it. Once the analysis is done (Prediction, 'Drive Test', and others that are possible) we can start the process of 'Site Survey'. What is the Purpose? When someone asks you to run a 'Site Survey', the purpose of it is already known, or in other words, the need for improvements that led to the deployment process of this new site: Quality Coverage Capacity While the 'Site Survey' should always try to meet all purposes, one always stands out, or it have more priority and this should be taken into account when running it. In other words: for example, if the goal is to increase coverage, you should look for a place with the best sight in all directions of interest. But if the goal is capacity, focus on that, and look for points that will solve this problem.

Such points are recorded in a proper report, following the processes and documents of each company, and should also rank some priority for each point (the best for the worst indicated). This is because, maybe the first indicated point has a problem, as an owner that don't want to rent, transmission problems, unavailability of infrastructure, etc.. Moreover, the more points allow a better margin for trading in the area responsible for this engagement. To avoid these problems, it is interesting that the 'Site Survey' be conducted togheter with the areas of RF, Transmission, and Infrastructure, Contract and other that apply. We know however that it is always almost impossible, so it is up to the professional who carries out, alert to all these aspects. For example, if you work in the RF area, and running it alone, why do not note the name and telephone number of the owners of each point? Your colleagues from Contract area say Thank You, not to mention that the process will be streamlined. What equipment to bring with? Generally we notice the importance of something only when we need it - but don't have it available! This applies also to the 'Site Survey'. Imagine arriving at a remote location over 100 km from any urban center, and realize you forgot to buy new batteries for the camera! This can be very frustrating - not to mention one that is 'suffering' and unnecessary work! So we can at least make sure to bring as much equipment as they apply to the kind of 'Site Survey' to be done! There is not a mandatory rule about what equipment to take, but here's a little 'Check List' with the main equipment desired and/or necessary. As always, everything depends on your need - like the 'Survey' type, Region, etc.. GPS: for location coordinates. In GPS you can also enter the points of your network sites and use them as a reference, especially in rural locations. Camera: for photos. Batteries: for the Camera. Keys and Locks Secrets: for both your company and competitors, when their sites can be shared (let's talk about this later). Binoculars: to view other distant points, such as possible transmission sites. Compass: orientation of azimuths. Phones with Test Mode enabled: to check the signal. Proper Climbing Equipment: if you need to climb a tower.

Concepts The basic concepts of the 'Site Survey' are very simple, and it is worth only noting is intended for you to indicate one or more points as possible candidates. These points candidates must be within a region known as 'Search Ring'. Although the name suggests, this polygon can be any shape, even a square.

Small Notepad: for quick notes, that fits in your pocket. Template printed with key data to be collected: Use one sheet for each candidate, to record all relevant and necessary information. As mentioned, this list is not complete, as you may have other more specific equipment according to your needs, you can extend it as according to your needs. Photos Now running the 'Site Survey', a very important part is referring to taking Photos. Remember that when you are at field, you have a clear vision and complete understanding of the region. However, when you come back to the office, the situation changed dramatically. It gets worse if you are gathering photos from several 'Site Surveys'. You run a serious risk of forgetting the reference for some photos, wasting your work, and worse, degrading the quality of the final analysis and reports. When you take panoramic shots, it is important to know the orientation of each photo. To achieve this in the field, first, with the compass, identify where the North is (0 degrees). And make markings on the floor as possible - in the dust of the ground, with a stone, etc..

interest - you will not want to get to the office and realize that more than half of the photos useful area is the Sky! See for example the two photos below. Were taken in the same direction, only the second did not bother to lower the Sky.

It is easy to see which one gives us more information, don't you agree? Although it seems obvious, it's a mistake many people do when taking their first 'Site Surveys' photos. Overview It is also common to some beginner designers the problem of 'Limited Vision'. At the region of interest, they are directed to a point where the project's goal is 'reached'. And stop there! No matter how good the analysis in the office, nothing replaces field verification. However, this check should be done as long as possible. Suppose for example you are looking for points on the tops of buildings for a given project. From below (street level), you find some possible candidates, and climbs one of them. From the top of this building, you see a good vision to cover the region, and decides that this is the point indicated without going the other buildings! So don't do it - do not be 'lazy': go to 'all' buildings! Often, points that seem to provide the 'same' coverage happens to be better than others when you have a broader view of what they all can provide. Avoiding the 'Limited Vision' you have another way of viewing the site: the 'Big Picture'. In 'Search Ring' as shown below, with only two buildings as candidates, which one would you put as most suitable?

So when you take the photos, just follow the guidelines. Mark down the positions from 0 degrees to 360 degrees divided by 45 to 45 degrees, and take photos.

Another good tip is to always take pictures of reference, when you began and ended a sequence - for example as shown above. Simply looking at the picture, choose the point closest to the center - and not that far away from the area of interest. Of course, the figure is illustrative, and various other factors must be taken into account in this decision, but in general, not having a limited vision, and get a macro view always helps to get the best result. Site Sharing

When shooting, also remember to leave only a 'small' part of Sky appearing. Remember that what matters is the area of

An increasingly common issue today is the sharing of infrastructure between operators. This sharing includes antennas. There are companies that specialize in 'Site Sharing', ie companies that have their own infrastructure (such as Towers) and provide for those have interest, via rental payment for example. It is interesting to know beforehand all the possible points of share, eg by plotting these points in Google Earth, getting a clearer picture of which site can be useful for a project - you zoom to the new site region, and see available options.

What data to Collect? Keep on hand a notebook and a pen. Remember that information is always important, even though at first glance do not appear to be. Always conduct the 'Site Survey' as if it were not you the person who will do the final documentation, that is, collect as much data as possible. So the reports will be made with the greatest amount of detail, which as we saw, can make the difference between a good and a bad Final Deployed Project. Arriving back in the office Finally, when arriving at the office, detach all data (Photos, 'Drive Tests'...) in proper place, especially as indicated in the tutorial on Folder Structure for Telecom. Remember also to make the observations, and especially, rename photos to the most relevant names. Never procrastinate: you'll end up forgetting some details, you can be sure.

Moreover, it is necessary to know the premises for sharing that your company have. That is, the priority you need to know: Choose to share in the first place, whenever possible, in order to speed up the process; Try to set the most exclusive points, indicating only share a last resource. This represents more spending, but may be the company's strategy and therefore must be followed. 'Roof Tops' If the 'Site Survey' is conducted in an urban area with buildings as possible candidates, it is essential that you go up into several, as much as possible. In this case, mainly applies the criterion of Limited Vision and Macro Scenario, as seen above.

Conclusion So, that's it. Hopefully you have clarified your questions and doubts about conducting a 'Site Survey', and have learned some of the best practices adopted by professionals. As we have seen, this is a very important task, affecting directly and indirectly various aspects of the network, including financial. In all other activities in both areas of Telecom and IT, the challenge is to get the best results, achieving the goals and objectives. For it is very important have organization and planning before any task, knowing clearly where to obtain or extract the necessary information for analysis viability. Note that this is just what we always talk in the Hunter Methodology. So, continue trying to follow this methodology in all other activities of your daily work, taking advantage of the tips presented here and in other Sections and Tutorials. Thus, in no time you will gain knowledge as the best professionals have! And if you liked this tutorial (or any other), we always count on your support in helping the disclosure, for example by sharing using links below. By Sharing, you motivate us to continue to write more tutorials like this! What is HSN and MAIO in GSM? Today let's understand what are the parameters MAIO and HSN in a GSM network. The terms MAIO and HSN are also often used, but many people are confused about it's planning. That's right, HSN and MAIO are used in frequency planning of a GSM network, and know them well naturally will lead us to better results. Quickly: The HSN is used to define the hopping sequence from one frequency list, and MAIO is used to set the initial frequency on this list. It did not help? So come on and try to understand better ... Note: The goal here is not to teach HSN and MAIO planning, since this task involves many possible configurations and scenarios, which would escape the scope of our tutorial. The main goal today is to understand, in a planning already deployed, what they mean values MAY HSN and assigns.

If Repeaters... In the case of 'Site Survey' for the installation of Repeaters, remember to bring extra equipment to measure directed signal, ie, an antenna 'Yagi' (with known model and gain), a cable to connect to the phone, and of course, a phone that matches that cable. Take a printed table (like the one below), to record the relevant data for each scenario.

Frequency Hopping e MA List To understand how HSN and MAIO are used in planning, we first need to know some brief concepts. Frequency Hopping or FH: one of the great advantages of the GSM system, in the constant search to reduce interference. More on the FH due to a new tutorial. MA List: set of frequencies (channels) assigned to a particular sector, ie are those channels that can be used to attend calls from users. To illustrate, let's consider a sector with 4 TRX, where the first TRX is used for BCCH and the others are TCH TRX.

MAIO planning is straightforward if the number of TRX is small compared to the length of the sequence of hopping. For example, MAY 0 means that the TRX should use the first frequency, or f1.

The MA List with the channels of traffic then would be:

HSN e MAIO Sure, with the example in mind, let us return to our parameters. First, the definition of HSN: Hopping Sequence Number. It is a number that defines the frequency hopping algorithm, and can vary from 0 to 63, ie there are 64 hopping algorithms to be used in GSM.

GSM Automatic Frequency Planning Tools The concept of HSN and MAIO is important, and when the number of TRX and frequencies is small, we can even do planning 'byt hand'. However, the best way - and always recommended - is to use network planning tools suitable for this purpose, as the AFP, from Optimi, or Ultima Forte, from Scheme. These tools can be configured with measurements collected from the network (via BSS and / or Drive Test ), and with predictions (calculations) built in that allow the creation of a Interference Matrix. Based on this matrix, along with other algorithms, it allow a better design of parameters based on such critical conditions in traffic load and access. According to characteristics of each sector, they then provide the final planning, including the possibility of simulations. Conclusion Knowing the concept of HSN and MAIO we can use them correctly in our plans, and/or do audits of our existing networks. For example, in two hopping sequences, if we have the same HSN and different MAIO, we guarantee that they never overlap, or in other words, are orthogonal. Another conclusion is that two channels with different HSN, but with the same MA List and at the same time slot, will interfere with 1 / n of bursts, where n equals the number of different frequencies in the hopping sequence. This conclusion is somewhat more complex to see, and is due to feature pseudo randomly from HSN. So if you have interest, deepen their studies of MAY and HSN. Otherwise, just understand that it is why we say that the Frequency Hopping somehow averages the interference across the network.

If HSN is zero, the frequency hopping sequence is cyclic, ie without changes. If HSN is greater than zero, then frequencies vary pseudorandomly. When we enabled the Hopping - our case - all TRX in the SAME SECTOR has the SAME HSN. And if the we have 1x1 SFH it is recommended to have the SAME HSN for ALL SECTORS of the BTS. In our example, the MA List is small - just three frequencies. The size of the MA List should be taken into account in the planning of HSN: HSN should be the designated so as to minimize the average probability of collision, according to the designated MAIOs. And how MAIO's are designed? Well, first defining MAIO: Mobile Allocation Index Offset. It's MAIO that designate the initial position of frequency among the frequencies available in MA List, that list with the frequency hopping. It is the frequency that TRX uses so get hopping.