Chemical Formulas

Fig. 3.2 pg. 76 Chemical Equations

Chemical equations give a description of a chemical reaction. There are two parts to any equation: o reactants (written to the left of the arrow) and o products (written to the right of the arrow): 2H2 + O2 2H2O There are two sets of numbers in a chemical equation: o numbers in front of the chemical formulas (called stoichiometric coefficients) and o numbers in the formulas (they appear as subscripts). Stoichiometric coefficients give the ratio in which the reactants and products exist. The subscripts give the ratio in which the atoms are found in the molecule. o Example: H2O means there are two H atoms for each one molecule of water. o 2 H2O means that there are two water molecules present. Note: in 2H2O there are 4 hydrogen atoms present (two for each water molecule).

Balancing Equations
Fig. 3.4 pg.78 Chemical Equations

The law of conservation of mass demands that matter cannot be lost in any chemical reaction. Therefore, the products of a chemical reaction have to account for all the atoms present in the reactants. Consider methane reacting with oxygen: CH4 + O2 CO2 + H2O

Counting atoms in the reactants: 1 C; 4 H; and

2 O. In the products: 1 C; 2 H; and 3 O. It appears as though H has been lost and O has been created. To balance the equation, we adjust the stoichiometric coefficients: CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O.

Balancing and Categorizing Reactions

Text slide. Combination Reactions

Two or more reactants combine to form single product. Example: N2(g) + 3 H2(g) 2 NH3(g) Balancing: Balance atoms used in only one reactant substance first.

Decomposition Reactions

A pure substance reacts to form a mixture of products. Example: 2 HgO(s) 2 Hg(l) + O2(g) Balancing: Balance atoms used in only one product substance first.

Combustion Reactions

Reaction generates heat and light (ie. flame). Example: 2 Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2 NaCl(s) Balancing: Balance atoms which show up in only one product and reactant first. Balance oxygen last.

Formation of MgO
Fig. 3.6 pg. 81 Patterns of Chemical Reactivity

Combustion Reactions

Combustion is the burning of a substance in air. Example: C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(l): propane combusts to produce carbon dioxide and water.

Combination and Decomposition Reactions

Consider: 2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s). Since there are fewer products than reactants, the Mg has combined with O2 to form MgO. Note that the structure of the molecules has changed: Mg consists of closely packed atoms and O2 consists of disperse molecules. MgO consists of a lattice of Mg2+ and O2- ions. Consider: 2NaN3(s) 2Na(s) + 3N2(g) (the reaction which occurs in an air bag). Since there are more products than reactants, the sodium azide has decomposed into Na and nitrogen gas.

Reactions With O2
http://chem100a-9.chem.lsu.edu/matter/chap27/demos/dm27_015.mov Oxidizing Ability of Oxygen Gas

Oxygen is a very good oxidizing agent. In the process, oxygen is reduced to O2- ions. Burning magnesium ribbon produces MgO in the presence of oxygen: 2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s) 0 2+ In the above reaction Mg is oxidized to Mg . Steel wool reacts with oxygen to form brown iron(III) oxide. The iron in steel wool is oxidized by oxygen: 2Fe(s) + 3O2(g) 2Fe2O3(s) White phosphorus is oxidized by oxygen to white phosphorus pentoxide: P4(s) + 5O2(g) P4O10(s) Molten sulfur burns in oxygen with a bright blue flame. In the presence of oxygen, sulfur is oxidized to S4+ to form SO2(g).

Decomposition of HgO
http://chem100a-9.chem.lsu.edu/matter/chap27/demos/dm27_013.mov Decomposition of HgO

Red HgO (mercury(II) oxide or mercuric oxide) can be decomposed by heating it in air. The Hg2+ is reduced to Hg0. Mercury metal (Hg0) can be seen condensing on the walls of the test-tube. The O2- is oxidized to O2(g). o The presence of O2(g) is tested for by placing a glowing splint into the mouth of the test-tube. o The splint burns brightly in the oxygen gas.

The Mole
Text slide. The Mole

Best way to think about a mole is a large number (6 x 1023) of objects. Mole is like dozen or gross or K (bytes of data) or Meg or Gig Mole defined so that a mole of 12C atoms weighs exactly 12 g. A mole of natural carbon atoms weighs a little more than 12 g because some of the C atoms in a natural sample (about 1%) are heavier than 12C atoms (ie. 13C atoms). Whatever a mole of identical objects weighs in g, one single object weighs exactly the same amount in amu. o The amu scale designed to weigh individual atoms & molecules o The gram scale designed to weigh macroscopic quantities of chemicals o One 12C atom weighs exactly 12 amu (a mole weighs 12 g). o One 13C atom weighs approximately 13 amu (neutrons & protons have slightly different masses).

Stoichiometric Calculations
Fig. 3.10 pg. 90 The Mole

Interconverting Masses, Moles, and Number of Particles

Look at units: mass (g) moles (mol) molar mass (g/mol) number of particles 6.022 x 1023 mol-1 (Avogadro's number). Note: g/mol x mol = g (i.e., molar mass x moles = mass), and mol x mol-1 = a number (i.e., moles x Avogadro's number = molecules). To convert between grams and moles, we use the molar mass. To convert between moles and molecules, we use Avogadro's number.

Determination of Mass Percent

Fig. 3.12 pg. 94 Empirical Formulas from Analyses Combustion Analysis

Empirical formulas are routinely determined by combustion analysis. A sample containing C, H, and O is combusted in excess oxygen to produce CO2 and H2O. The amount of CO2 gives the amount of C originally present in the sample. The amount of H2O gives the amount of H originally present in the sample. (Watch stoichiometry: 1 mol H2O contains 2 mol H.) The amount of O originally present in the sample is given by the difference in the amount of sample and the amount of C and H accounted for. More complicated methods can be used to quantify the amounts of other elements present, but they rely on analogous methods.

Calculation of Empirical Formulas

Fig 3.11 pg. 93 Empirical Formulas from Analyses

Recall: empirical formula = relative number of atoms in the molecule. There are two directions: o start with mass % of elements (empirical data), calculate formula, or o start with the formula and calculate the empirical mass % elements. If we have the mass % of elements, assume we start with 100 g of sample.

Then the mass % = number of grams of each element in 100 g of sample. From these masses, the number of moles can be calculated (knowing the atomic weight from the periodic table). The lowest whole number ratio of moles is the empirical formula. If we have the empirical formula, we know how many moles of each element are present in one mole of same. Then we use molar masses to convert to grams of each element. Divide the grams of element by grams of 1 mole of sample to get the fraction of each element in 1 mole of sample. Multiply each fraction by 100 to convert to a percent.

Molecular Formula from Empirical Formula

The empirical formula (relative ratio of elements in the molecule) may not be the molecular formula (actual ratio of elements in the molecule). Example: ascorbic acid (vitamin C) has empirical formula C3H4O3. The molecular formula is C6H8O6. To get the molecular formula from the empirical formula, we need to know the molecular weight, MW. Ratio of molecular weight (MW) to (empirical) formula weight (FW) must be a whole number.

Empirical Formula Tables

Text slide. Empirical Formula Tables Calculate the empirical formula of a compound that is 40.0% C, 6.7% H, and 53.3% O by mass. C mass (g) moles . . . . . . MM (g/mol) . least moles . H . . . . O

rel. moles . . . If atom quantities given in percentages assume 100 g sample. Convert atom quantities to grams if some other mass unit given. If atom quantities given in moles leave mass and MM rows blank.

Limiting Reagents
http://chem100a-9.chem.lsu.edu/matter/chap26/animate1/an26_001.mov Limiting Reagents

The amount of product obtained can be limited by the limiting reagent. The limiting reagent is completely consumed in the reaction. ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Consider Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq)

Amount of hydrogen gas determined by amounts of zinc and HCl used. Suppose we have 2.5 x 10-3 mol of Zn added to 5.0 x 10-3 moles of HCl: o g Zn = 2.5 x 10-3 mol x 65.39 g/mol = 0.164 g Zn = 164 mg Zn. o mol Zn required to react with 5.0 x 10-3 mol of HCl = 2.5 x 10-3 mol Zn x (2 mol HCl/1 mol Zn) = 2.5 x 10-3 mol HCl. o Since we have exactly the stoichiometric amount of HCl required to react with the 164 mg of zinc, there is no limiting reagent. o mol of H2 expected = 2.5 x 10-3 mol Zn x (1 mol H2/1 mol Zn) = 2.5 x 10-3 mol H2. o At 1 atm of pressure and 298 K, PV = nRT will give the volume of hydrogen gas: V = (2.5 10-3 mol x 0.08206 L.atm/mol.K 298 K) / 1 atm = 0.061 L = 61 mL. The hydrogen gas is collected in a gas buret (the pressure is equalized by an equalizing bulb containing red fluid). If half the amount of zinc is used, 1.2 x 10-3 mol (82 mg) and the same amount of HCl (5.0 x 10-3 mol HCl), the zinc is the limiting reagent. All the zinc is consumed and 1.2 x 10-3 mol of H2(g) (30.5 mL) are expected. If we add 3.1 x 10-3 mol of zinc (200 mg) to 5.0 x 10-3 mol of HCl, then 2.5 x 10-3 mol of hydrogen (61 mL) are produced. o There is more Zn than required in the reaction, so zinc is present in excess. HCl is the limiting reagent.

Limiting Reagents
Fig. 3.15 pg. 100 Limiting Reactants

It is not necessary to have all reactants present in stoichiometric amounts. Often, we have one or more reactants present in excess. Therefore, at the end of reaction, those reactants present in excess will still be in the reaction mixture.

The one or more reactants which are completely consumed are called the limiting reactants. Consider 10 H2 molecules mixed with 7 O2 molecules to form water. o The balanced chemical equation tells us that the stoichiometric ratio of H2 to O2 is 2 to 1: 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l) This means that our 10 H2 molecules require 5 O2 molecules (2:1). Since we have 7 O2 molecules, our reaction is limited by the amount of H2 we have (the O2 is present in excess). So, all 10 H2 molecules can (and do) react with 5 of the O2 molecules producing 10 H2O molecules. At the end of the reaction, 2 O2 molecules remain unreacted.

Stoichiometric Calculations
Fig. 3.13 pg. 97 Quantitative Information from Balanced Chemical Equations

The balanced chemical equation gives the number of molecules that react to form product. We can interpret this as the ratio of number of moles of reactant which are required to give the ratio of number of moles of product. These ratios are called stoichiometric ratios. It is important to realize that the stoichiometric ratios are the ideal proportions in which reactants are needed to form products. The real ratio of reactants present in the laboratory need to be measured (in grams and converted to moles). The ratio of grams of reactant cannot be directly related to the grams of product. To get grams of product from grams of reactant: o convert grams of reactant to moles of reactant (use molar mass), o convert moles of one reactant to moles of other reactants and products (use the stoichiometric ratio in the balanced chemical equation), o convert moles back into grams for desired product (use molar mass).

Stoichiometry Tables
Text slide. Stoichiometry Tables

In reaction given below how many grams of NO form when 2.25 g of NH3 reacts with 3.75 g of O2? Which reactant is the limiting reactant? Which is the excess reactant? How much excess reactant remains when reaction is complete? ..........................4 NH3(g) ..+ ..5 O2(g)....4 NO(g).. +.. 6 H2O(g)..+..xcess react mass (g) MM(g/mol) . moles . coefficient . 2.25 g . . . 3.75 g . . . . . . . . . . . .

equiv's . . . . . Build stoichiometry table around balanced reaction. Divide to work down table; muliply to work up table. Work across table only along equivalents row. Extra columns for "other" info (ie. "actual" yield, excess reactant, etc.)