What is SQL & What is Useful For Oracle ?

Using SQL you can communicate with the oracle server.

SQL has the following advantages:
* Efficient.
* Easy to learn and use.
* Functionally complete with SQL you can define , retrieve and manipulate data inthe tables.
* SQL is a command language for commuication with the oracle sever from any tool or application.

The Oracle Server Provides an open comprehensive and integrated approach to information management an oracle
server consists of an oracle database and an oracle instant every time a database is started in the System Global Area -
SGA is allocated and oracle background processes are also started the System Global Area is an area of memory used
for database information shared by the database users the combination of the background processes and memory
buffers is called and oracle instance.

SQL Statements

DQL - Data Querying Language

Select

DML - Data Manipulation Language

Insert , Update , Delete , Merge

DDL - Data Definition Language

Create , Alter , Drop , Truncate

DCL - Data Control Language

Grant , Revoke

TCL - Transaction Control Language

Commit , Rollback , Savepoint

For Set Line Write this Command

SQL> Set Lines 130 (Number n)

Projection - Choose the columns in a table that you want returned by your query.
Selection - Choose the rows in a table that you want returned by your query.
Joining - To bring together data that is stored in different tables by creating a link between them.

Select - Identifies what columns

From - Identifies which tables
* - Star Retrieves all data
; - Semicolon execution
eg:- Select * from Tab ;

Arithmetic Expressions
Low Priority High Priority
Add + Subtract - Multiply * Divide /

Create expressions with Number and Date by using Arithmetic Operators.

Same priority is evaluated from left to right.

Using Column Aliases

Alias - AS " "
eg:- Select last_name as "Name" , commission_pct comm from employees ;

Using Concatenation Operater

( || ) Two Vertical Bars
eg:- Select last_name||job_id as "employees" from employees ;

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Using Literal Character Strings
( ' ' ) Single Quotation Marks
eg:- Select last_name || ' is a ' || job_id as "Employees Details" from employees ;
eg:- Select last_name || ' :- Salary = ' || salary as " Monthly Salary " from employees ;

Using Eliminating Duplicate Rows

DISTINCT Keyword
eg:- Select Distinct Department_id,Job_id from employees ;

Using to Display Table Structure

Describe Desc
eg:- Describe employees
eg:- Desc employees

Using the Where Clause Where is Retrireing Selected Rows

Character Strings and Date Values are enclosed in single quotation marks
The default date Format is DD-MON-RR
Where condition(s) ;
eg:- Select employee_id, last_name, job_id, department_id
From employees
Where department_id = 90 ;
eg:- Select last_name, job_id, department_id
From employees
Where last_name = 'Whalen'
Where hire_date = '01 -jan-95'
Where salary >= 6000
Where expr operator value's ;

Using Comparison Conditions

> - Greater Than
>= - Greater Than or Equal To
= - Equal To
<= - Less Than or Equal To
< - Less Than
!= , ^= , <> - Not Equal To
eg:- Select * from employees where column_name all Comparison Conditions ;

Using Other Comparison Conditions

Between....And - Between two values inclusive
eg:- Select last_name, salary from employees
Where salary Between 2500 And 3500 ;

In ( Set ) - Match any of a list of values

eg:- Select employee_id, last_name, salary, manager_id from employees
Where manager_id in (100, 200, 201)
Where last_name in ('Hartstein','vargas') ;

Like % _ Escape - Match a character pattern is call wildcard characters

eg:- Select first_name from employees where first_name Like 'S%' ;
Select last_name from employees where last_name Like '_O%' ;
Select employee_id, last_name, job_id from employees Where job_id Like '%Sa\_%' escape '\' ;

Is Null - is a Null Value

Is Not Null - is a Null Value
eg:- Select last_name, manager_id from employees where manager_id is null ; // is Null
Select last_name, job_id, commission_pct from employees where commission_pct is Not Null ; // is Not Null

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Using Logical Conditions

And - Returns True If both compoent conditions are True

And Requires both conditions to be True.
eg:- Select employee_id, last_name, job_id, salary from employees
where salary >= 10000 and job_id Like '%man' ;

Or - Returns True If either compoent condition is True or False

Or Requires one condition True.
eg:- Select employee_id, last_name, job_id, salary
from employees where salary >= 10000 or job_id like '%Man%' ;

Not - Returns True If the following condition is False.

eg:- Select last_name, job_id from employees
Where job_id Not In ('IT_prog','St_Clerk','Sa_Rep')
Where job_id Not In ('Ac_Account','Ad_Vp')
Where salary Not Between 10000 And 15000
Where last_name Not Like '%A%'
Where commission_pct Is Not Null

Rules of Percedence

0 - Parenthese around the expressions you want to calculate first

1 - Arithmetic operators
2 - Concatenation operator
3 - Comparison conditions
4 - Is [Not] , Null , Like , [Not] In
5 - [Not] Between
6 - And Logical condition
7 - Or Logical condition
8 - Not Logical condition

Using Order by Asc/Desc

Sort rows with the order by clause order by :-

Asc : Ascending order default
Desc : Desceding order
There order by clause comes last in the select statment always at last.
eg:- Select last_name, job_id, department_id, hire_date from employees order by hire_date ;
eg:- Select employee_id, last_name, salary*12 annsal from employees order by annsal ;
eg:- Select employee_id, last_name, salary*12 annsal from employees order by 2 ;
eg:- Select last_name,department_id,salary from employees order by department_id,salary desc ;

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 SQL Functions
Two Type of SQL Functions

Single - Row Functions Multiple
È - Rows Functions
These Function operate on single row These Functions can manipulate groups
only and retruns one result per row. of rows to give one result per group of rows.

Characters
Number

Date
Conversion
General
Function_Name (arg1,arg2)

Functions

Character Functions General Functions Date Functions Number Functions

NVL Months_Between Round

NVL2 Add_Months Trunc
NULLIF Next_Day Mod
Coalesce Last_Day
Case To_Char
Decode To_Date
To_Number

Case-Manipulation Character Manipulation

Functions Functions
Lower Concat
Upper Substr
Initcap Length
Instr
Lpad | Rpad
Trim
Replace

Single-Row Functions
* Manipulate data items
* Accept arguments and return one value
* Act on each row returned
* Return one result per row
* May modify the data type
* Can be nested
* Accept arguments which can be a column or an expression Function_Name[(arg1,arg2,....)]
* Can be used in select, where, and order by clauses; can be nested.

In the Syntax :
Function_Name is the name of the function. arg1,arg2 is argument to be used by the function this can be represented
by a column name or expression.

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 Character Functions

Case Manipulation Functions

Lower - Converts alpha character values to lower case.

eg:- Select Lower(first_name) from employees ;

Upper - Converts alpha character values to upper case.

eg:- Select Upper(last_name) from employees ;

Initcap - Coverts alpfa character values to upper case for the first letter of each world, all other letters in lower case.
eg:- Select Initcap(job_id) from employees ;

Character Manipulation Functions

Concat - Joins values together (You are Limited to using two parameters with concat)
eg:- Select Concat(last_name,first_name) from employees ;

Substr - Extracts a string of determined length.

eg:- Select Substr(last_name,1,3) from employees ;

Length - Shows the length of a string as a numeric value.

eg:- Select Length(first_name) from employees ;

Instr - Finds numeric position of a named character.

eg:- Select Instr(last_name,'A') from employees ;

Lpad - Pads the character value right justified.

eg:- Select Lpad(salary,10,'*') from employees ;

Rpad - Pads the character value left justified.

eg:- Select Rpad(salary,10,'*') from employees ;

Trim - Trim heading or trailing character (or both) from a character string.
If trim_character or trim_source is a character literal, you must enclose it in sigle quotes.
eg:- Select Trim('H' from last_name) from employees ;

Replace - Replace the character from stringf which you want.

eg:- Select Replace(last_name,'A','O') from employees ;

Number Functions
Dual is a Dummy Table.

Round - Rounds values to specified decimal Round(45.926,2) --> 45.93

eg:- Select Round (45.923,2),
Round (45.923,0),
Round (45.923,-1)
From Dual ;

Trunc - Truncates values to sepcified decimal Trunc(45.926,2) --> 45.92

eg:- Select Trunc (45.923,2),
Trunc (45.923,0),
Trunc (45.923,-1)
From Dual ;

Mod - Returns remainder of division Mod (1600,300) --> 100

eg:- Select last_name, salary, Mod(salary,500) From employees
Where job_id = 'SA_Rep' ;

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Working With Dates
* Oracle Database Stores dates in an internal numeric format :-
Centurys - Years - Months - Days - Hours - Minutes - Seconds
* The default data display format is DD-MON-RR
* The default display input format for and date is DD-MON-RR.
Vaild oracle dates are between January 1,4712 B.C and December 31,9999 A.D
* This data is stored intenally as follows :-
Centurys - Years - Months - Days - Hours - Minutes - Seconds
19 94 06 07 5 10 43 :- June 7th, 1994 5:10:43 PM

Sysdate function will use for seeing Date and Time

You can use Arithmetic with Dates + - * /
eg:- Select Sysdate from Dual ;

Using Date & Time Functions

Months_Between - Number of months between two dates.

Months_Between ('01-sep-95','11-jan-99') => 19.774194

Add_Months - Add calendar months to date.

Add_Months ('11-jan-94',6) => '11-jul-94'

Next_Day - Next day of the date specified.

Next_Day ('01-sep-95','Friday') => '08-sep-95'

Last_Day - Last day of the month.

Last_Day ('01-feb-95') => '28-feb-95'

Fmt - If the format model Fmt is omitted, date is rounded to the Nearest Day.
All eg:-
Select employee_id,hire_date,
Months_Between (sysdate,hire_date) ,
Add_Months (hire_date,2) ,
Last_Day (hire_date)
From employees
Where hire_date like '%94%' ;

Assume Sysdate = ' 25-jul-95 ' ;

Round (sysdate,'month') => 01-aug-95

Round (sysdate,'year') => 01-jan-96

Trunc (sysdate,'month') => 01-jul-95

Trunc (sysdate,'year') => 01-jan-95

eg:- Select employees_id,hire_date,Round(hire_date,'month'),Trunc(hire_date,'month')

From employees where hire_date like '%97' ;
eg:- Select Trunc (sysdate - hire_date) as days,
Trunc (months_between(sysdate,hire_date)/12) as years,
Trunc (mod(months_between(sysdate,hire_date),12)) as months
From employees ;

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 Conversion Function
Data Types Conversion

Implicit Data Type Conversion Explicit Data Type Conversion

Varchar2 or Char To Number
Varchar2 or Char To Date
Number To Varchar2
Date To Varchar2

Explict Data Type Conversion Functions

FM : Has an element to remove padded blanks or suppress leading zeros. FX Modifer

To_Char ( Data , ' Format ' )

eg:- Select employee_id, To_Char(hire_date,'MM/YY') as Month_Hired from employees
Where last_name = 'Higgins' ;
eg:- Select last_name,To_Char(hire_date,'FmDD Month YYYY') as Hiredate from employees ;
eg:- Select last_name,To_Char(Hire_date,'Fmdd month yyyy fmHH:MI:SS Am') from employees ;

To_Date ( Data , ' Format ' )

eg:- Select employee_id, To_Date(hire_date,'FmDD Mon YYYY) as Hiredate From employees
Where last_name = 'Higgins' ;

To_Number ( Data , ' Format ' )

eg:- Select employee_id, salary, To_Number(salary,'999.99') as Salary from employees ;

RR Date Format
Oracle have one main function saving date and time by oracle it self in century when you insert any record it take
default date and time but in other way like DD-Mon-RR is the format of oracle.
Day-Month-Century Year Hrs Min Sec .This DD-Mon-RR is Nice to by time zone also and it show the year in which
your are working like in 21 Century of 2009.
DD-Mon-RR
eg:- Select last_name, To _Char(hire_date,'DD-Mon-YYYY)
From employees
Where hire_date < To_Date ('01-Jan-90','DD-Mon-RR) ;
eg:- Select last_name, To_Char(hire_date,'DD-Mon-YYYY)
From employees
Where To_Date(hire_date,'DD-Mon-YY') < '01-Jan-1990' ;

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Format elements of vaild Date, Time and Number Formats :-

Date Format :

SCC or CC - Century; Server perfixes B.c Date with-

YYYY or SYYYY - Year; Server prefixes B.C Date with-
YY or YY or Y - Last Three, Two or One Digits of year
Y,YYY - Year with comma in this position
IYYY,IYY,IY,I - Four, Three, Two or One Digits year based on the ISO Standard
SYEAR or YEAR - Year spelled out; Server prefixes B.C Date with-
BC or AD - B.C./.D Indicator
B.C or A.D - B.C./A.D. Indicator with periods
Q - Quarter of year
MM - Month: Two Digit value
Month - Name of month padded with blanks to length of nice characters
Mon - Name of month, Three letter abbreviation
RM - Roman numeral month
WW or W - Week of Year or month
DDD or DD or D - Day of year, month or week
DAY - Name of day padded with blanks to a length of nine characters
DY - Name of day; Three letter abbreviation
J - Julian day; The number of days sinec 31 December
/ . , m- Punctuation is reproduced in the result
" of The " - Quoted string is reproduced in the result
TH - Ordinal number (for eg:- DDth for 4th)
SP - Spelled our number (for eg:- DDsp for Four)

Time Format :

AM or PM - Meridian indicator
A.M or P.M - Meridian indicator with period
HH or HH12 or HH24 - Hours of day or Hours (1-12) or Hours (0-23)
MI - Minute (0-59)
SS - Second (0-59)
SSSS - Second past minight (0-86399)

Number Fromat :

9 - Numeric position (Number of 9s determine display width) eg:- 9999 - 1234

0 - Display leading zeros eg:- 09999 - 001234
$ - Floating Dollar sign eg:- $99999 - $1234
L - Floating Local currency symbol eg:- L99999 - FF1234
. - Decimal point in position specified eg:- 9999.99 - 1234.00
, - Comma is position specified eg:- 99,999 - 1,234
MI - Minus sign to right (negative values) eg:- 99999MI - 1234-
PR - Parenthesize negative numbers eg:- 99999PR - <1234>
EEEE - Scientificnotation (format must specified four Es) eg:- 99.999EEEE - 1.234E+03
V - Multiply by 10n times (n=number of 9s after V eg:- 999v99 - 123400)
B - Display zero values as blanks, Not 0 eg:- B9999.99 - 1234.00

Page 8
Nesting Functions
* Single-row function can be nested to any level.
* Nested functions are evaluated from deepest level to the least deep level.

F3 ( F2 ( F1 ( Col , Arg1 ) , Arg2 ) , Arg3 )

Step1=Result1
Step2=Result2
Step2=Result3

eg:- Select last_name, NVL(To_Char(Manager_id),'No Manager') from employees

Where manager_id Is Null ;
eg:- Select To_Char(Next_Day(Add_Months(hire_date,6),'Friday')'fmday, month DDth, YYYY')
as "Next 6 Month Review" from employees order by hire_date ;

General Function

These function work with any Data type and pertain to using Null.

NVL - Converts a Null value to ab actual value.

eg:- Select last_name, salary, NVL(commission_pct,0),
(salary*12)+(salary*12*NVL(commission_pct,0)) as Ann_sal from employees ;
eg:- Select last_name, salary, commission_pct, (salary*12)+(salary*12*commission_pct)
as Ann_sal from employees ;

NVL2 - If expr1 is not null, NVL2 returns expr2 If expr1 is Null,NVL2 returns expr3.
The argument expr1 can have any data type.
eg:- Select last_name, salary, commission_pct, NVL2(commission_pct,'sal+com','sal') as Income
From employees Where department_id in (50,80) ;

NULLIF - Compares two expressions and returns Null if they are equal, or the first expression if theyare not equal.
Note:- The NULLIF Function is logically equivalent to the following case expression.
The case expression is discussea in a subsequent pages Case when expr1=expr2 Then Null else expr1 end
eg:- Select first_name, length(first_name) as "expr1", last_name, length(last_name) as "expr2",
NULLIF(length(first_name),length(last_name)) as Result from employees ;

COALESCE - Returns the first Non-Null expression in the expression list

eg:- Select last_name, COALESCE(commission_pct,salary,10) as comm from employees order by commission_pct ;
Note:- The advantage of the COALESCE functions over the NVL function is that the COALESCE function can take
multiple alternate values.

Coditional Expressions

* Provide the use of IF-Then-Else within a SQL Statment

* Use Two Methods

Case Expression

Case expr When comparison_expr1 Then return

expr1 When comparison_expr2 Then return
expr2 When comparison_exprn Then return
expn Else else_expr
End
eg:- Select last_name,job_id,salary,
Case job_id When 'IT_Prog' Then 1.10*salary
When 'ST_Clerk' Then 1.15*salary
When 'SA_Rep' Then 1.20*salary
Else salary
End "Revised Salary" From employees ;

Page 9
Decode Function

Decode (column|expression,search1,result1[,search2,result2,....,][,default])
eg:- Select last_name, job_id, salary,
Decode (job_id, 'IT_Prog' , 1.10*salary ,
'ST_Clerk' , 1.15*salary ,
'SA_Rep' , 1.20*salary , salary ') "Revised Salary" From employees ;
eg:- Select last_name, salary,
Decode (Trunc(salary/2000,0),
0,0.00,
1,0.09,
2,0.20,
3,0.30,
4,0.40,
5,0.42,
6,0.44,
0.45) "Tax Rate"
From employees Where department_id = 80 ;

Displaying Data From Multiple Tables

Sometimes you need to use data from more than one tables.
To avoid a cartesian product, always include a vaild join condition in a where clause.
Cartesian product = 20 X 8 = 160 Rows
eg:- Select last_name, department_name from employees,departments ;
There will be created a cartesian product result.

Types of Joins
Oracle Proprictary Joins (8i & Prior): SQL:1999 Compliant Joins:
Equijoin = Cross Joins
Non Equijoin Between...And Natural Joins
Outer Join (+) Using Clasuse
Self Join Full or Two Side Outer Joins
Aribitray Joins Conditions For Outer Joins

Oracle Proprictary Joins (8i & Prior):

Equijoin
Note. Equijoin are also called simple joins or inner joins
eg:- Select table1.column, table2.column From table1 alias, table2 alias Where table1.column1 = table2.column2 ;
eg:- Select employee_id.emp,last_name.emp,department_id.dept,location_id.dept
From employees emp,departments dept
Where emp.department_id = dept.department_id ;
eg:- Select c.last_name,d.department_name,l.city
From employees e,departments d,locations l
Where e.department_id = d.department_id and d.location_id = l.location_id ;

Non Equijoins
Note. Retrieving records with non-equijoins
eg:- Select e.last_name,e.salary,j.grade_level From employees e,job_grades j
Where e.salary Between j.lowest_sal And j.highest_sal ;

Outer Joins
Note. The outer join operater si the plus sign(+)
eg:- Select e.last_name,e.department_id,d.department_name From employees e,departments d
Where e.department_id(+)=d.department_id ;

Self Joins
Note. Joining a table to it self
eg:- Select worker.last_name||' Works for '||manager.last_name From employees worker,employees manager
Where worker.manager_id = manager.employee_id ;
Page 10
SQL:1999 Compliant Joins:
Use a Join to query Data from more than one table.
Select table1.column,table2.column
From table1
[Cross Join table2] |
[Natural Join table2] |
[Join table2 Using (column_name)] |
[Join table2 On (table1.column_name = table2.column_name)] |
[Left | Right | Full Outer Join table2 On (table1.column_name = table2.column_name)] ;

Cross Joins
Note. The cross join clause produces the cross-product of two tables this is the same as a cartesian product between
the two tables.
eg:- Select last_name,department_name
From employees
Cross Join department ;

Natural Joins
Note. The Natural Joins clause is based on all columns in the tables that have the same name. The join can happen only
on columns having the same names and data types in both the tables. But if the columns have the same name,but
different data types, then the Natural Join syntax causes an error.
eg:- Select department_id,department_name,location_id,city
From departments Natural Join locations ;

Joins with the Using clause

Note. If sereral columns have the same names but the data types do not match, the Natural Join clause can be modified
with the using clause to specify the columns that should be used for an equijoin.
eg:- Select e.employee_id,e.last_name,d.location_id
From employees e Join departments d using (department_id) ;

Creating Three-way Joins with the On Clause.

eg:- Select employee_id,city,department_name
From employees e
Join departments d
On d.department_id = e.department_id
Join locations l
On d.location_id = l.location_id ;

Left Outer Join

eg:- Select e.last_name,e.department_id,d.department_name
From employees e
Left Outer Join department d
On (e.department_id = d.department_id) ; // like a plus sign (+)

Right Outer Join

eg:- Select e.last_name,e.department_id,d.department_name
From employees e
Right Outer Join department d
On (e.department_id = d.department_id) ; // like a plus sign (+)

Full Outer Join

eg:- Select e.last_name,e.department_id,d.department_name
From employees e
Full Outer Join department d
On (e.department_id = d.department_id) ;

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Group Functions
What are Group Functions ?
Group Function operate on sets of rows to give one result per group.These sets may be the whole table or the table
split into group
Group Functions
Group by Having AVG
Count
Max
Min
Stddev
Sum
Variance

eg:- Select [column,] group function (column),...

From table
[Where condition]
[Group by column]
[Order by column] ;

Using Group Function

AVG - Average value of n,ignoring null values

eg:- Select AVG(salary) from employees ;

Count - Count number of all rows in table there are

eg:- Select Count(*) from employees ;

Max - Maximum value in any datatype

eg:- Select Max(salary) From employees ;

Min Miniman value in any datatype

eg:- Select Min(salary) From employees ;

Stddev Standard deviation in only numerice

eg:- Select Stddev(salary) Form employees ;

Sum Sum in only numerice

eg:- Select Sum(salary) From employees ;

Variance Variance in only numerice

eg:- Select Variance(salary) From employees ;

Note. You can use Distinct keyword in this function. All group function ignore Null values in the column
you can use other like NVL , NVL2 etc...

Creating Group Function

Group by Function is Divide rows in a table into smaller groups by using the group by clause

Using the Group by clause

eg:- Select department_id, AVG(salary) From employees Group by department_id ;
eg:- Select department_id,job_id,Sum(salary) From employees Group by department_id,job_id ;

Using the Having clause

Use the Having clause to restrict Groups
eg:- Select department_di,Max(salary) From employees
Group by department_id Having Max(salary) > 10000 ;

Note. Column aliases are used for the queries.

Page 12
Subquery can be wirten single-row and multiple-row sub queries.
eg:- Select select_list From table Where expr operater (Select select_list From table) ;
eg:- Select last_name From employees Where salary >
(Select salary From employees Where last_name = 'Abel' ) ;

Type of Subqueries
Note. The outer and inner queries can get data from defferent tables.

Single-Row Subquery Return only one row.

Use Single-row comparison operators (< , <= , = , >= , > , <>)
eg:- Select last_name, job_id From employees
Where job_id = (Select job_id From employees Where employee_id = 141) ;

Multiple-Row Subquery Return more than one row.

Use Mutiple-row comparison operators (IN , ANY, ALL)
eg:- Select last_name, salary, department_id From employees
Where salary IN (Select Min(salary) From employees Group by department_id) ;
eg:- Select employee_id, last_name, job_id, salary From employees Where salary < Any
(Select salary From employees Where job_id = 'IT_Prog') and job_id <> 'IT_Prog' ;

Substitution Variables
Temporarily Store Values
- Single Ampersand (&)
- Double Ampersand (&&)
- Define Command
Pass Variable values between SQL Statements Dynamically alter headers and footers

Using the (&) Substitution Variable

Use a variable prefixed with an Ampersand (&) to prompt the user for a value.
eg:- Select employee_id, last_name, salary, department_id From employees Where employee_id = &employee_num ;
Note. You can use also in caharacter and date values like '&first_name' or '&date'

Defining Substitution Variables

Define Variable = Values
Define and Undefine Commands
eg:- Define job_title = IT_Prog
Undefine job_title
sp2 0135: sysmbol job_title is undefined
eg:- Select employee_id, last_name, salary, department_id From employees Where employee_id = &employee_num ;
Define employee_num = 200
Note. If i will not put any value inside that variable it will take define value.

Using the && Substitution Variables

Using the Double Ampersand (&&) If you want to rouse the variable value without prompting the user each time.
eg:- Select employee_id, last_name, job_id, &&column_name
From employees
Order by &column_name ;
The same thing will pass to order by when will you enter the value.

Using the Verify Command

Use the verify command to toggle the display of the substitution variable, before and after iSQL*Plus replaces
substitution variables with values.
eg:- Set Verify No
Select employee_id,last_name,salary,department_id From employees
Where employee_id = &employee_num ;
employee_num = 200
Old 3: Where employee_id = &employee_num
New 3: Where employee_id = 200
Set Verify Off

Page 13
Use Set Commands to control current session
eg:- Set system_variable values
To see all set variable values, use the show all Command
eg:- Show All
eg:- Ttitle No/Off
Ttitle 'string'
Btitle 'string'

Data Manipulating Language

Data Manipulating Language (DML) is a core part of SQL when you want to add, update or delete data in the
database, you execute a DML Statement, A collection of DML Statement that from a logical unit of work is called a
transaction (TCL).

DML Data Manipulating Language

- Insert Delete -
- Merge Update -

Insert
Insert into table [(column[,column...])]
Values (values[,value...]) ;
eg:- Insert into employees
( employee_id, first_name , last_name, email, phone_number,
hire_date, job_id, salary, commission_pct, manager_id, department_id )
Values ( 113, 'Louis', 'Popp', 'Lpopp', ' 515.124.4569', sysdate, 'Ac_Account', 6900, Null, 205, 100 ) ;
Insert statement with a subquery
eg:- Insert into sales_reps (id,name,salary,commission_pct)
Select employee_id,last_name,salary,commission_pct From employees Where job_id like '%Rep%' ;
Note. Do Not use the Values Clause.
eg:- Insert into copy_emp Select * From employees ;

The Update Statement

Modify existing rows with the update statement
Update
Update table_name Set column = value [,column = value,... ] [Where condition(s)] ;
Specific row or rows are modified if you specify the where clause.
eg:- Update employees Set department_id = 70 Where employee_id = 113 ; // 1 rows updated
All rows in the table are modified if you omit the where clause.
eg:- Update copy_emp Set department_id = 110 ; // 22 rows updated
Updating two columns with a subquery update employee 114's job and salary to match that of employee 205
eg:- Update employees Set job_id = (Select job_id From employees Where employee_id = 205),
salary = (Select salary From employees Where employee_id = 205)
Where employee_id = 114 ; // 1 row updated
error :- Update employees Set department_id = 55 Where department_id = 110 ;
update * employees
error at line 1:
ORA 02291: integrity constraint (hr.empl_dept_pk)
violated parent key not found

Page 14
The Delete Statement
You can remove existing rows from a table by using the delete statement.
Delete [From] table_name [Where Condition(s)] ;
Deleting rows from a table specific rows are deleted if you specify the where clause.
eg:- Delete From departments Where department_ name = 'Finance' ;
1 row deleted
All rows in the table are deleted if you omit the where clause.
eg:- Delete From copy_emp ;
22 rows deleted
Deleting rows based on another table use subqueries in delete statements to remove rows from a table based on values
from another table.
eg:- Delete From employees Where department_id =
(Select department_id From departments Where department_name like '%Public%') ;
1 row deleted.
Deleting rows integrity constraint error
error:- Delete From departments Where department_id 60 ;
Delete From * departments
error at line 1:
ORA 02292: Integrity constraint (Hr.emp_dept_fk)
Voilated child record found

Using a Subquery in an Insert Statement

Insert into (Select employee_id, last_name, email, hire_date, job_id, salary, department_id From employees
Where department_id = 50 with check option)
Values (99998,'smith','james',to_date('07-jun-99','DD-Mon-RR'),'ST_clerk',500) ; 50
error:- Insert into * error at line 1:
ORA 01402: View with check option where clause violation.

Using Explicit Default Values

Default with Insert

Insert into departments (department_id,department_name,manager_id)
Values (300,'Engineering',Default) ;
Note. If no default values for the correspading column has been specified, oracle set the column to Null value.

eg:- Update departments Set manager_id = Default Where department_id = 10 ;

The Merge Statment

* Provides the ability to conditionally update or Insert data into a database table.
* Performs an update the row exites, and an Insert if it is a new row
- Avoids separate updates
- In creases performance and case of use
- Is useful in data warehousing appliactions
The merge Statement you can conditionally insert or updata rows in a table by using the merge statement.
syntax:
Merge Into table_name table_alias
Using (table|view|sub_query) alias
On (join conditions)
When Matched Then
Update Set
col1 = col_val1,
col2 = col2_val
When Not Matched Then
Insert (column_list)
values (column_values) ;

Page 15
Merging Rows
Insert or Update rows in the copy_emp table to match th employees.
eg:- Create Table copy_emp as Select * From employees ;
Delete From copy_emp ;
Merge Into copy_emp c
Using employees e
On (c.employee_id = e.employee_id)
When Matched Then
Update Set
c.first_name = e.first_name,
c.last_name = e.last_name,
c.email = e.email,
c.phone_number = e.phone_number,
c.hire_date = e.hire_date,
c.job_id = e.job_id,
c.salary = e.salary,
c.commission_pct = e.commission_pct,
c.manager_id = e.manager_id,
c.department_id = e.department_id,
When Not Matched Then
Insert Values ( e.cemployee_id, e.first_name, e.last_name, e.email, e.phone_number,
e.hire_date, e.job_id, e.salary, e.commission_pct, e.manager_id, e.department_id ) ;
Select * From copy_emp ;

Transaction Control Language

You can control the logic of transaction by using the Commit, Savepoint and Rollback Statement.
TCL Transaction Control Language
Commit Savepoint Rollback

Commit end the current transaction by making all pending data changes permanet

Savepoint Name marks a savepoint with in the current transaction

Rollback rollbsck ends the current transaction by discarding any changes and or savepoints created after the
savepoints to which you are rolling back if you omit the to savepoints clause the rollback statement rolls
back the entire transations. As savepoints are logical, there is no way to list the savepoints you have created.
Note. Savepoint is not ANSI Standard SQL .

Controlling Transactions
Savepoint, Commit and Rollback with only DML Statment Insert, Update, Delete, Merge.

Time Commit
Transaction
Delete Statement
Savepoint A
Insert Statement
Update Statement
Savepoint B
Insert Statement
Commit

Commit Rollback Rollback Rollback

it will save to savepoint B to saveepoint A it will full Rollback
save all changes it will Rollback it will Rollback
savepoint B up to savepoint A

Page 16
eg:- Select * From employees ;
Insert into departments Values(290,'corporate Tax',Null,1700) ;
1 row inserted
Delete From employees
Where employee_id = 9999 ;
1 row deleted
Commit ;
commit complete
or
Rollback ;
rollback complete

Creating and Managing Tables Database Object

Objects Description
Table => Basic unit of storage; composed of rows and columns Data stores
View => Logically represents subsets of data from one or more tables subset of data from one or mare table.
Sequence => Numeric value generator
Index => Improves the performance of some queries
Synonym => Gives alternative names to objects

DDL Data Defination Language

Create Alter
Drop Truncate
Table Basic unit of storage composed of rows and columns Data stores

The Create Table Statement

You Moust Have Varchar2
- Create Table Privilage Varchar
- A Storage Area Char
Number
Create Table [schema.] table (column datatypes [Defailt expr] [,...]) ;
You specify
Table name column name, column datatype, and column size
What is schema referencing aother user's table, A sehema is a collection of object schema object are the logical
Structure that directly refer to data in a database, schema object include tables, views, synonyms, sequences, stored,
procedures, indexes, clusters and database links.
If a table does not belog to the user, the ower's name must be prefired to the table. For example if there is a schema
named user_b, and user_b has an employees table then specify the following to redrive data from that table.
eg:- Select * From user_b.employees ;
The Default Option
* Specify a default value for a column during an insert
eg:- , , , , hire_date Date Default Sysdate, . . . .
* Literal values expressions, or SQL Function are legal values
* Anthor columns name or a pseudo column are illegal values
* The default datatype must match the columns datatypes.

Createing Table
eg:- Create Table dept ( deptno number(2), dname varchar2(14), loc varchar2(13) ) ;
Table Created.
Confirm Table Creation
Describe dept

Tables in the Oracle Database

* User Tables :
- Are a collection of tables created and maintained by the user
- Contain user informations
* Data Dictionary :
- Is a collection of table created and maintained by the oracle srever
- Contain database information
Page 17
Data dictionary tables are owaned by the sys user. The base tables are rarely accessed by the user beause the
information in them is not easy to understand. Therfore, users typically access data dictionary views information stored
in the data dictionary includes names of the oracle server users, privileges granted to users, database object names, the
constraints, and auditing information.
There are four categories of data dictionary views; each categories has a distinct prefix that refliects its interded use.

Prefix Description
User_ - These views contain information about object owned by the user.

All_ - These views contain information about all of the tables (object tables and relational tables) accessible to the
user.

DBA_ - These views are restircted views which can be accessed only by user who have been assigned the DBA role.

V$ - These views are dynamic performance views database server performance, memory and locking

eg:- Select table_name From user_tables ; // See the names of tables owened by th users.
eg:- Select Distinct object_type From user_objects ; // View distinct object types owned by the users.
eg:- Select * From user_catalog ; // View tables views,synonyms and sequences owned by the users.

Data Types
Prefix Description
Varchar(size) Variable length character data
Char(size) Fixed length character data
Number(p,s) Variable length numeric data
Date Data & Time Jan 1,4712,BC and Dec 31,9999,AD
Long Variable legth character data up to 2 Gigabytes
Clob Character data up to 4 Gigabytes
Raw and Long Raw Raw binary data
Blob Binary data up to 4 Gigabytes
Bfile Binary data stored in an external file up to 4 Gigabytes
RowID A-64 base number system representing the unique
Note. A long column is not copied when a table is created using a sub query.

Date & Time Data types

New Date & Time enhancements with oracle 9i
* New Date & Time data types have been introduced
* New data type storage is available
* Enhancements have been made to time zones and local time zone
Prefix Description
Timestamp Data with fractional seconds
Interval Year to Month Stored as an interval of years and months
Interval Day to Second Stored as an interval of days to hours minutes and seconds

* The Timestamp datatype is an extension of the date data type.

* It stores the year, month and day of the date data type, plus hours, minute and second values as well as fractional
second value.
* The timestamp data types is specified as following:
Timestamp [(Fractional_seconds_precision)] :- 17-Jan-87 12.00.00.00000 AM
eg:- Create Table Time ( No_id Number(2), Name Varchar2(15), DateTime Timestamp(7) ) ;

Page 18
 Timestamp with time zone data type
* Timestamp with Time Zone is a variant of timestamp that includes a time zones displacement in its value.
* The Time Zone displacement is the difference, in hours and minutes, between local time and UTC.
Timestamp [(Fractionl_seconds_precision)] with Time Zone
eg:- Timestamp '1999-04-15 8:00:00 -8:00'
Timestamp '1999-04-15 11:00:00 -5:00'
Timestamp '1999-04-15 8:00:00 US/Pacific' ;

Timestamp with local time data type

* Timestamp with local time zone is another variant of timestamp that includes a time zone displacement in its value.
* Timestamp with local time zone datatype is specified as followns:
Timestamp [(Fractional_seconds_precision)] with local Time Zone

Interval year to month data type

* Interval year to month stores a period of time using the year and month date & time fields
Interval year to month data type
Interval year [(year_precision)] to month
eg:- Interval '123-2' year(3) to month
Interval '123' year(3)
Interval '300' month(3)

Interval day to second data type

* Interval day to second stores a period of time in terms of day, hours, minutes and seconds
Interval day [(day_precision)] To second [(Fractionl_seconds_precision)]
eg:- Interval '4 5:12:10:222' day to second(3)

Creating a table by using a subquery

* Create a table and insert rows by combining the create table statement and the As Subquery option.
Create Table table_name [(column,column...)] As Subquery ;
eg:- Create Table dept80
As Select employee_id, last_name, salary*12 annsal, hire_date
From employees
Where department_id = 80 ;
Desc dept80

The Alter Table Statement

Add Modify Drop

Use the Alter table statement to add, modify or drop columns.

* Alter Table table_name Add (column datatype [Default expr] [,column datatype]...) ;

* Alter Table table_name Modify (column datatype [Default expr] [,column datatype]...) ;

* Alter Table table_name Drop (column ) ;

Note. If a table already contains rows when a column is added, then the new column is initially null for all the rows.

Use the Add clause to Add columns

eg:- Alter Table dept80 Add (job_id varchar2(9)) ;
Table Altered.
You can change a columns datatype , size and default value
eg:- Alter Table dept80 Modify (last_name varchar(30)) ;
Table Altered.
Use the Drop column clause to drop columns you no longer nedd from the table
eg:- Alter Table dept80 Drop column job_id ;
Table Altered.

Page 19
The Set Unused option
* You use the set unused option to mark one or more columns as unused.
* You use the Drop unused columns option to remove the columns that are marked as unused.
Alter Table table_name Set Unused (column) ;
Alter Table table_name Set Unused column, column ;
Alter Table table_name Drop unused columns ;
eg:- Alter Table dept80 Set Unused (job_id) ;
eg:- Alter Table dept80 Drop Unused job_id ;

Dropping a Table
* All data and structure in the table is deleted.
* Any pending transaction are committed.
* All indexes are dropped.
* You connot roll back the drop table statement.
Drop Table table_name ;
eg:- Drop Table dept80 ;
Table Dropped.
Changing the Name of an object
* To change the name of a table,view,sequence or synonym you execute the rename statement
Rename dept To detail_dept ;
Table Renamed.

Truncating a Table
* The Truncate Table statement
- Removes all rows from a table
- Releases the storage space used by that table
Truncate Table detail_dept ;
Table Truncated.
* You connot roll back row removal when using Truncate.
* Alternatively, you can remave rows by using the delete statement.

Adding Comments to a Table

* You can add comments to a table or column by using the comment statement.
eg:- Comment On Table employees Is 'Employee Information' ;
Comment Created.
* Comment can be viewed through the data dictionary views
- All_Col_Comments
- User_Col_Comments
- All_Tab_Comments
- User_Tab_Comments
Comment On Table table_name | column table.column Is 'Text' ;

Including Constraints
What are Constraints ?
* Constraints enforce rules at the table level.
* Constraints prevent the deletion of a table if there are dependencies.
* The Following constraints types are vaild
Code Constraints Description
NNK Not Null Specifies that the column connot contain a null value.
UK Unique Specifies a column or combination of columns whose values must be unique for all rows
in the table.
PK Primary Key Uniquely identifies each row of the table.
FK Foreign Key Establishes and enforeces a foreign key relationship between the column and a column of the
refernced table.
Check Specifies a condition that must be true.
Note.
* Name a constraint or the oracle server generates a name by using the sys_cn format.
* View a constraint in the data dictionary.
* You con view the constrants defined for a specific table by lookig at the User_Constraints data dictionary table.

Page 20
Defining Constraints
Create Table [Schema.] table
( column datatype [ Default [ column_constraint ] , expr ] .... [ table_constraint ] [ ,... ] ) ;
eg:- Create table employees ( employee_id Number(6),
first_name Varchar(20),.... job_id Varchar2(10) Not Null
Constraint emp_emp_id_pk primary key (employee_id) ) ;
* Column constraints level column [Constraint constraint_name] constraint_type,
* Table constraint level column,.... [constraint constraint_name] constraint_type(column,....),

The Not Null Constraint

Is defined at the column level System Will Give
Create Table employees(employee_id Number(6), Default Name
last_name Varchar2(25) Not Null,
salary Number(8,2), User Given
commission_pct Number(2,2), Name
hire_date Date Constraint emp_hire_date_nn Not Null ;

The Unique Constraint

* Defined at either the table level or the column level :
Create Table employees( employee_id Number(6),
last_name Varchar2(25) Not Null,
email Varcher2(25),
salary Number(8,2),
commission_pct Number(2,2),
hire_date Data Not Null,.....
Constraint emp_email_uk Unique (email) ;

The Primary Kry Constraint

* Defined either the table level or the column level :
Create Table departments( department_id Number(4),
department_name Varchar2(30)
Constraint dept_name_nn Not Null,
manger_id Number(6),
location_id Number(4),
Constraint dept_id_pk Primary Key (department_id) ) ;
Note. A Unique Index is automatically created for a primary key column.

The Foreign Key Constraint

* Defined at either the table level or the column level :
Create Table employees( employee_id Number(6),
last_name Varchar2(25) Not Null,
email Varchar2(25),
salary Number(8,2),
commission_pct Number(2,2),
hire_date Date Not Null,....
department_id Number(4),
Constraint emp_dept_fk Foreign Key (department_id)
References departments (department_id),
Constraint emp_email_uk Unique(email) ) ;
Note. Foreign Key constraint can be defind at the column or table constraint level.
A composite Foreign Key must be created by using the table level defination.

Foreign Key Constraint Keyworkds

* Foreign Key : Defines the colums in the child table at the table constraint level.
* References : Identifies the table and column in the parent table.
* On Delete Casdade : Deletes th dependent rows in the child table when a row in the parent tables is deleted.
* On Delete Set Null : Converts dependent foreign key values to null.
Note. Without the on delete cascade or the on delete set null options the rows in the parent table cannot be deleted
if is referenced in the child table.

Page 21
The Check Constraint
* Defines a condition that each row must satisfy
* The following expressions are not allowed :
- References th Currval , Nextval , Level and Rownum pseudocolumns.
- Calls th Sysdate , UID , User and UserENV Functions.
- Queries that refer to other values in other rows.
......, salary Number(2)
constraint emp_salary_min Check (salary > ) ,.......

Adding a Constraint
Use the Alter Table statements
* Add or Drop a constraint, but not modify it structures.
* Enable or Disable constraints.
* Add a Not Null constraint by using the modify clause.
Alter Table table_name
Add [constraint constraint_name] type (columns) ;
Note. You can define a Not Null column only if the table is empty or if the column has a value for every row.

Add a Foreign Key

Alter Table employees
Add Constraint emp_manager_fk
Foreign Key (manager_id)
References employees (employee_id) ;

Dropping a Constraint
* Remove the manager constraint from the employees table
eg:- Alter Table employees
Drop Constraint emp_manager_fk ;
* Remove the Primary Key
eg:- Alter Table departments
Drop Primary Key Cascade ;

Alter Table table_name

Drop primary key | unique [column] |
Constraint constraint_name [Cascade] ;

Disabling Constraints
* Execute the Disable clause of the Alter Table statement to deactivate an integrity constraint.
* Apply the cascade option to disable dependent intergrity constraints.
eg:- Alter Table employees
Disable Constraint emp_emp_id_pk Cascade ;

Enabling Constraints
* Activate an integrity constraint currently disabled in the table definition by using the Enable clause
eg:- Alter Table employees
Enable Constraint emp_emp_id_pk ;

Cascading Constraints
* The cascade constraints clause is used along with the drop columns clause.
* The cascade constraints clause drops all referntial integrity constraints that refer to the primary and unique key
defined on the dropped columns.
* The cascade constraints clause also drops all multicolumn constraints defined on the dropped columns.
Note. This statements illustrates the usage of the cascade constraints cluase.Assume table Test1 is created as following:

Page 22
eg:- Create Table Test1
(PK Number Primary Key,
FK Number,
Col1 Number,
Col2 Number,
Constraint FK_constraints Foreign Key(FK)
References Test1,
Constraint CK1 Check (PK > 0 and Col1 > 0),
Constraint CK2 Check (Col1 > 0) ) ;
An Error is returned for the following statements.
Alter Table Test1 Drop (PK) ; - - pk is a parents key
Alter Table Test1 Drop (Col) ; - - Col Check

Cascading Constraints
eg:- Alter Table Test1
Drop (PK) Cascade Constraints ;
eg:- Alter Table Test1
Drop (PK,FK,Col1) Cascade Constraints ;

Viewing Constraints
Query the User_constraints table to view all constraints definitions and names
eg:- Select constraint_name, constraint_type, search_cindition
From User_Constraints
Where table_name = 'employees' ;
Note. Constraints that are not named by the table owner receive the system assigned constraint name,
In constraint type, C stands for Check,
P for Primary Key,
R for Referential integrity Foreign Key,
U for Unique Key.
Note. That Not Null constraint is really a check constraint.

Viewing the columns associated with constraints

View the columns associated with the constraint names in the User_Cons_Columns view.
eg:- Select constraint_name,column_name
From User_Cons_Columns
Where table_name = 'employees' ;

Creating Views
* Views Logically represents subsets of data from one or more tables
* You embed a subquery within the create view statement
Create [Or Replace] [Force|NoForce] View view_name
[(alias[,alias]....)]
As Subquery
[With Check option [Constraint constraint_name] ]
[With Read Only [Constraint constraint_name] ] ;
* The subquery can contain complex select.
Create View
eg:- Create View empvu80
As Select employee_id , last_name , salary
From employees
Where department_id = 80 ;
View Created.
Create View with Aliases in Subquery
eg:- Create View salvu50
As Select employee_id Id_Number, last_name Name, Salary*12 Ann_Salary
From employees
Where department_id = 50 ;
View Created.

Page 23
eg:- Create View Salvu50 (Id_Number,Name,Ann_Salary)
As Select employee_id, last_name, salary*12
From employees
Where department_id = 50 ;
View Created.
Select * From salvu50 ;
Note. You can See all Views in user account from User_Views

Modifying a View
* Modify the empvu80 view by using create or replace view clause. Add an alias for each column name.
eg:- Create or Replace View empvu80
(id_number,name,sal,department_id)
As Select employee_id , first_name || ' ' || last_name,
From employees
Where department_id = 80 ;
View Created.
* Column aliases in the create view clause are listed in the same order as the columns in the subquery.

Creating a Complex View

* Create a complex view that contains group function to display values from two tables.
eg:- Create View dept_sum_vu
(name, minsal, maxsal, avgsal)
As Select d.department_name, Min(e.salary), Max(salary), Avg(salary)
From employees e , departments d
Where e.department_id = d.department_id
Group by d.department_name ;
View Created.
Select * From dept_sum_vu ;

Using the with check option clause

* You can ensure that DML operations performed on the view stay within the domain of the view by using the with
check option clause.
eg:- Create or Replace View empvu20
As Select * From employees
Where department_id = 20
With Check Option Constraint empvu20_ck ;
View Created.
Using the with Read Only
eg:- Create or Replace View empvu10
(employee_number, employee_name, job_title)
As Select employee_id, last_name, job_id
From employees
Where employee_id = 10 ;
Removing a View
* You can remove a view without losing data because a view is based on underlying tables in the database.
Drop View view_name ;
eg:- Drop View empvu80 ;

Inline Views
An Inline views is a subquery with an alias (or correlation name ) that you can use with in a SQL statement.
eg:- Select a.last_name, a.salary, a.department_id, b.maxsal
From employees a , (Select department_id max(salary) maxsal From employees Group by department_id) b
Where a.department_id = b.department_id and a.salary < b.maxsal ;

Page 24
Top N Analysis
* Top N Queries ask for the N largest or smallest values of a column. For example:
- What are the ten best selling products ?
- What are the ten worst selling products ?
* Both largest values and smallest values set are considered Top N Queries.

Performains of Top N Analysis

The high-level structure of a Top N Analysis Query is :-
Select [column_list], Rownum
From (Select [column_list]
From table_name
Order by Top N_column)
Where Rownum <= N ;
eg:- Select Rownu, as Rank, last_name, salary
From (Select last_name, salary From employees order by salary Desc)
Where Rownum <= 4 ;
eg:- Select Rownum as Senior, e.last_name, e.hire_date
From (Select last_name, hire_date From employees order by hire_date) e
Where Rownum <= 4 ;
Other Database Obejects
Sequence Generates primary key values.
Index Improves the performance of same queries.
Synonym Alternative name for an object

What is a Sequence ?
A Sequence
* Automatically genarates unique numbers
* Is a sharable objects
* Is typically used to create a primany key values
* Replaces application code
* Speeds up the efficiency of accessing sequence values when cached in memeory

The Create Sequence Statement

Define a sequence to generate sequential numbers automatically:
Create Sequence
[Incerment by n]
[Start with n]
[{Maxvalue n | Nomaxvalue}]
[{Minvalue n | Nominvalue}]
[{Cycle | Nocycle}]
[{Cache n | Nocahe}] ;
Create Sequence
Create Sequence dept_deptid_seq
Increment by 10
Start with 120
Maxvalue 9999
Nocache
Nocycle ;
Sequence Created.
Conforming Sequences View User_Sequence
Select sequence_name, min_value, max_value, increment_by, last_number
From User_sequence ;

Nextval and Currval Pseudocolumns

* Nextval Returns a the next available sequence values.
* Currval Obtains the current sequence value.
* Nextval must be issued for that sequence before currval containes values.

Page 25
Using a sequence
* Insert new department named Support in location ID 2500
eg:- Insert into departments (department_id, department_name, location_id)
Values (dept_deptid_seq.Nextval, ' support ', 2500) ;
Select dep_detid_seq.Currval From Dual ; // 120

Modifying a Sequence
Change the increment value, maximum value, minmum value, cycle option or cache option.
eg:- Alter Sequence dept_depid_seq
Increment by 20
Maxvalue 999999
Nocache
Nocycle ;
Removing a Sequence
Remove a sequence from the data dictionary by using the drop sequence statement.
eg:- Drop Sequence dept_deptid_seq ;
Sequence dropped.

What is Index ?
An Index
* Is a schema object
* Is used by the oracle server to speed up the retrival of rows by using a pointer.
* Can reduce disk I/O by using a rapid path access method to locate data quickly.
* Is independent of the table it indexes.
* Is used and maintained automatically by the oracle server.
How are Indexes Created ?
* Automatically: A unique index is created automatically when you define a primary key or unique constraint
in a table columns definition.
* Manually: Users can create nonunique indexes on columns to speed up access to the rows.
Creating an Index
* Create an index on one or more columns.
Create Index index_name
On table_name (column[,column]...) ;
* Improve the speed of query access to the last_name column in the employees table.
eg:- Create Index emp_last_name_idx
On employees (last_name) ;
View User_ind_columns, User_indexes
Removing an Index
* Removing an Index from the data dictionary to using the drop index command.
Drop Index index_name ;
eg:- drop Index emp_last_name_idx ;
Index dropped.

Synonyms
Simplify access to object by creating a synonym (another name for an object) with the synonyms, you can
* Ease referring to a table owned by another user
* Shorten lengthy object names
Create [Public] Synonym synonym_name For object_name ;
* Creating and Removing Synonym create a shortened name for the dept_sum_vu view.
eg:- Create Synonym d_sum For dept_sum_vu ;
eg:- Drop Synonym d_sum ;

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Controlling User Access Privileges
* Database Security:
- Systen Secrity
- Data Secrity
* System privileges:
- Gaining access to the database
* Object privileges:
- Maniplating the content of the database objects
* Schemas:
- Collections of object such as table, View and Sequences
System Privileges
* More than too privileges are available
* The datebase administrator has high level system privileges for task such as:
- Creating New Users
- Removing Users
- Removing Tables
- Backing up Tables

Creating Users
* The DBA creates users by using the Create User Statment.
Create User user_name
Identified By Password ;
eg:- Create User Dinesh_user
Identified By Dinesh_B
User System Privileges
* Once a user is created the DBA can Grant specific system privileges to a user
Grant Privileges [,privileges...]
To User [,user/role, public...] ;
* An application developer for example, may have the following system privileges: View Session_privs
- Create Session To Connect the Database
- Create Table Create Table in the User's Schema
- Create Sequence Create a Sequence in User's Schema
- Create View Create a View in the User's Schema
- Create Procedure Create a Stored Procedure, Function or Package in the User's Schema
Granting System Privileges
The DBA can Grant a User Specifice System Privileges.
eg:- Grant Create Session, Create Table, Create Sequence, Create View
To Scott ;

What is a Role ?

User Privileges Managed

Allocating Allocating
Privileges Privileges
Without a Role With a Role

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Creating and Granting Privileges to Role
Create a Role Create Session
eg:- Create Role dinesh_role ; Alter Session
Granting Privileges to Role Unlimited Tablespace
eg:- Grant Create Table, Create View Create Table
To dinesh_role ; Create Cluster
Granting Role to Users
eg:- Grant dinesh_role To dinesh_user ; Create Synonym
Changing your Password & Lock/Unlock Create View
Alter User scott Account Unlock Identified By tiger ; Create Sequence
Syntax: Create Database Link
Grant object_priv [(columns)] Create Procedure
On Object
To {User|Role|Public}
Create Trigger
[With Grant Option] ; Create Type
Granting Object Privileges Create Operator
* Grant query privileges on the employees table Create Index type
eg:- Grant Select
On employees
To sue, rich ;
View to See Privileges
eg:- Grant update (department_name, location_id) Session_privs
On departments Role_sys_privs
To scott,manager ; Role_tab_privs
Using the with Grant Option and Public Keyword User_role_privs
* Give a user authority to pass along privileges.
eg:- Grant Select,Insert
User_tab_privs_made
On departments User_tab_privs_recd
To scott User_col_privs_made
With Grant Option ; User_col_privs_recd
* Allow all users on the system to query data from alice's department tables. User_sys_privs
eg:- Grant Select
On alice.departments
To Publice ;
How to Revoke Object Privileges
* You use the Revoke statement to revoke privileges granted to other users.
* Privileges granted to others throgh the with grant option clause are also revoked.
Syntax:
Revoke {Privileges [,privileges....] | All}
On Object
From { user[,user...] | Role | Public }
[Cascade Constraints] ;
Revoking Object Privileges
* As user Alice, revoke the select and insert privileges given to user scott on the departments table.
eg:- Revoke Select,Insert
On departments
From scott ;

Database Links
* A database link connection allows local users to access data on a remote database

Local Remote

User's emp table

Select * From emp@HQ_acme.com ; HQ_acme.com Database

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Database Links
* Create the database link
Create Public Database Link HQ_acme.com
Using 'sales' ;
View: All_DB_links
eg:- Select * From emp@HQ.acme.com ;
Create Public Synonym HQ_emp For emp@HQ.acme.com ;
Select * From HQ_emp ;

Using the Union operator

* Display the current and previous job details of all employees. Display each employee only once.
eg:- Select employee_id, job_id
From employees
Union
Select employee_id, job_id
From job_history ;
Using the Union All operator
* Display the current and previous departments of all employees.
eg:- Select employee_id, job_id, department_id
From employees
Union All
Select employee_id, job_id, department_id
From job_history
Order by employee_id ;

The Intersect operator

* Use the Intersect operator to return all rows common to multiple queries.
eg:- Select employee_id, job_id
From employees
Intersect
Select employee_id, job_id
From job_history ;

The Minus operator

* Use the minus operator to return rows returned by the first query that are not present in the second query
(The first Select statement miuns the secound statement)
eg:- Select employee_id, job_id
From employees
Minus
Select employee_id,job_id
From employees ;

Controlling the Order of Rows

* Produce an English sentence using to Union operators.
eg:- Column a_dummy No Print
Select 'Sing' as My Dream , 3 a_dummy
From Dual
Onion
Select 'I' 'd like to Teach', 1
From Dual
Onion
Select 'The world to', 2
From Dual
Order by 2 ;

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Datetime Functions ('Canada/Yakon')
* Display the time zone offset ('Europe/London Tz_offset
eg:- Select Tz_offset ('Us/Eastern') From Dual ; Current_date
Tz_offset ( ['time_zone_name']'[+/- hh:mm'] Current_timestamp
[sessiontimezone] [DBtimezone] )
Current_date
Localtimestamp
* Display the current data and time in the session's time zone. DBtimezone
eg:- Alter Session Session Time Zone
Set NLS_Date_Format = 'DD-Mon-YYYY, HH24:Min:Ss' ; Extract
eg:- Alter Session Set Time_zone = '-8:0' , '-5:0' ; From_Tz
eg:- Select Sessiontimezone, Current_date From Dual ;
eg:- Select Time_zone = '[+/-] hh:mm' From Dual ;
To_Timestamp
Current_timestamp To_Yminterval
* Display the current data and fractional time in the session's time zone. Timestamp with Time Zone (Ts Tz)
eg:- Alter Session Set Time_zone = '-5:0' ; current_timestamp (precision) Timestamp with Local Time Zone
eg:- Select sessiontimezone, current_timestamp From Dual ; (Ts Ltz)
Localtimestamp
* Display the current data and time in the session time zone in a value of timestamp datatype.
eg:- Alter Session Set Time_zone = '-5:0' ;
eg:- Select current_timestamp, localtimestamp From Dual ;
Timestamp [(Fractional_seconds_precision)] with Time Zone
Local_timestamp [(Fractional_precision)]
Dbtimezone and Sessiontimezone
* Display the Value of the database time zone
eg:- Select Dbtimezone From Dual ;
* Display the Value of the database time zone
eg:- Select sessiontimezone From Dual ;
Extract
* Display the year component form the sysdate.
eg:- Select Extract (Year From Sysdate) From Dual ;
Select Extract ( [Year] [Month] [Day] [Hour] [Minute] [Second] [Time Zone] [Timezone_minute]
[Timezone_resion] [Timezone_Abbr] )
From [datatime_value_expression] [ interval_value_expression] ;
From_Tz (timestamp timestamp_value, time_zone_value)
To_timestamp (char,[Fmt],['nlsparam'])
Time Interval conversion with to Minterval
* Display a date the is one year two months after the hire_date for the employees working in the department with
thedepartment_id = 20 :
eg:- Select hire_date, hire_date+To_yminterval('01-02') as From employees Where department_id = 20 ;
All Functions
* Tz_offset * Current_date
* From_Tz * Current_timestamp
* To_timestamp * Localtimestamp
* To_timestamp_tz * DBtimezone
* To_yminterval * Extract

Enhancements to the Group by clause

* Rollup
* Cube
* Grouping
* Grouping Set
Select [column,] group_function (column), Grouping (expr)
From table_name
[Where] (condition's)
[Group by [Rollup][Cube][Grouping][Grouping Set][Group_by_expression]
[Having having_expression]
[Order by column] ;

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* Group data for obtaining the following
- Subtotal values by using the Rollup operator
- Cross-tobulation values by using the Cube operater
* Use the Grouping Function to Identify the level of aggregation in the result set
produced by a Rollup and Cube operator.
* Use Grouping Set to produce a single result set that is equivalent to a union all approach
Group by with Rollup and Cube
* Use Rollup or Cube with Group by to produce superaggregate rows by cross-referencing columns.
* Rollup grouping produces a results set containing the regular grouped rows and the subtotal values.
* Cube grouping produces a results set containing the rows from rollup and cross-tabulation rows.

Rollup
eg:- Select department_id, job_id, Sum(salary), NVL2(job_id,' ','Total')
From employees
Where department_id < 60
Group by Rollup (department_id, job_id) ;
Cube
eg:- Select Count(department_id), department_id, job_id, Sum(salary), NVL2(job_id,' ','Total')
From employees
Where department_id < 60
Group by Cube (department_id, job_id) ;
Grouping with Rollup and Cube
eg:- Select department_id dept_id, job_id job, Sum(salary),
Grouping (department_id) grp_dept,
Grouping (job_id) grp_job,
From employees
Where department_id < 50
Group by Rollup,Cube (department_id,job_id) ;
Grouping Sets
eg:- Select department_id, job_id, manager_id, AVG(salary)
From employees
Group by Grouping Sets
((department_id,job_id),(job_id,manager_id)) ;
Concatenated Grouping
eg:- Select department_id, job_id, manager_id, Sum(salary)
From employees
Group by department_id, Rollup (job_id), Cube(manager_id) ;

Pairwise Comparison Subquery

eg:- Select employee_id, manager_id, department_id
From employees
Where (manager_id, department_id) IN (Select manager_id,department_id
From employees Where employee_id IN (178,174))
And employee_id Not In (178,174) ;
Using Correlated Subquery
eg:- Select last_name, salary, department_id
From employees outer
Where salary > (Select AVG(salary) From employees Where department_id = outer.department_id) ;
Using the Exists operator
eg:- Select employee_id, last_name, job_id, department_id
From employees outer
Where Exists (Select 'X' No Exists From employees Where manager_id = outer.department_id) ;
With Clause
eg:- With dept_costs As ( Select d.department_id, Sum(e.salary) As dept_total
From employees e,departments d
Where d.department_id = department_id
Group by d.department_id = d.department_id )
Avg_costs As ( Select Sum(dept_total)/Count(*) As dept_avg From departments )
Select * From dept_costs Where dept_total > ( Select dept_avg From avg_costs )
Order by department_name ;
Page 31
Hierarchical Queries
Select [Level], column, expr...,
From table_name
[Where condition's]
[Start with condition's]
[Connect by Prior condition's] ;
Walking the Tree From the Bottom to Up
eg:- Select employee_id, last_name, job_id, manager_id
From employees
Start with employee_id = 101
Connect by Prior manager_id = employee_id ;
Walking the Tree From the Top to Down
eg:- Select last_name||' Reports to '|| Prior last_name Walk Top to Down
From employees
Start with last_name = 'King'
Connect by Prior employee_id ;
Column Org_chart Format d12
eg:- Select Lpad(last_name,length(last_name)+(Level*2)-2,'_') As Org_chart
From employees
Start with last_name = 'King'
Connect by Prior employee_id = manager_id ;

Multitable Insert Statements

Insert [All] [conditional_insert_clause]
[insert_into_clause values_clause] (Subquery)
Conditional_insert_clause
[All] [First]
[When condition Then] [insert_into_clause values_clause] [Else] [insert_into_clause values_clause]
Insert
Insert All, First
Unconditional Insert All
eg:- Insert All
into sal_history Values(empID,hiredate,sal)
into mgr_hirstory Values(empID,MGR,sal)
Select employee_id empID, hire_date hiredate, salary sal, manager_id mgr
From employees
Where employee_id > 200 ;
Conditional Insert All
eg:- Insert All
When sal> 10000 Then
into sal_history Values(empID,hiredate,sal)
When mgr > 200 Then
into mgr_hirstory Values(empID,MGR,sal)
Select employee_id empID, hire_date hiredate, salary sal, manager_id mgr
From employees
Where employee_id > 200 ;
Conditional First Insert
eg:- Insert First
When sal > 25000 Then
into special_sal Values (deptid,sal)
When Hiredate Like ('%00%') Then
into hiredate_history_00 Values(deptid,hiredate)
When hiredate Like ('%99%') Then
into hiredate_history_99 Values(deptid,hiredate)
else
into hiredate_history Values(deptid,hiredate)
Select department_id deptid,Sum(salary) sal,Max(hire_date) hiredate
From employees
Group by department_id ;

Page 32
Pivoting Insert
eg:- Insert All
into sales_info Values (employee_id,week_id,sales-mon)
into sales_info Values (employee_id,week_id,sales-tue)
into sales_info Values (employee_id,week_id,sales-wed)
into sales_info Values (employee_id,week_id,sales-thu)
into sales_info Values (employee_id,week_id,sales-fir)
Select employee_id,week_id,sales-man,sales-tue,sales-wed,sales-thu,sales-fir
From sales_source_date ;

External Tables
* External tables are read-only tables in which the data is stored outside the database inflat files.
* The metadata foran external table is created using a Create Table statement.
* With the help of external tables, oracle data can be stored or unloaded as a files.
* The data can be querid using SQL but you cannot use DML and no Indexes can be created.

Example of Creating an External Table

Create [or Replace] Directory As 'Path_Name' ;
eg:- Create Directory emp_dir As '/Flat_Files' ;
eg:- Create Table oldemp(empno Number(2), empname Char(20), brithdate Date)
Organization External
( Type Oracle-Loader Default Directory emp_dir Access Parameters
( Records Delimited by Newline
Badfile 'bad_emp'
Logfile 'log_emp'
Eleds Terminated by ','
( empno Char, brithdate Char Date_Format date Mask DD-Mon-YYYY ) )
Location ('emp1.txt') )
Parallel 5
Reject Limit 200 ;
Create Index with Create Table statment
eg:- Create Table New_emp
(employee_id Number(6)
Primary Key Using Index
( Create Index emp_id_idx_on_new_emp(employee_id ) ),
first_name Varchar2(20),
last_name Varchar2(25) ) ;
eg:- Select Index_name, Table_name From User_indexes
Where Table_name = ' New_emp ' ;

SQL * Plus Editing Commands

A[ppend] text
C[hange] /old/new/text/ User_tables
Cl[er] Buff[er] User_objects
Del n m,m n User_tab_privs_made
I[nput] text User_col_privs_made
L[ist] n,m
R[un]
n text
o text
Save Filename
Get Filename
Start Filename
@ Filename
Edit Filename
Spool Filename
Exit

Page 33
Controlling the Environment
Set echo OFF
Set Feedback OFF <= Set System Variable to appropriate values
Set Pagesize 0
Spool Dropem.sql
SQL Statement
Spool OFF
Set Feedback ON
Set Pagesize 24 <= Default System Value
Set echo ON

Page 34