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Advanced Drilling And Well Technology Deepwater Technology

Eng.Sherif Fathy

Risks in deep water drilling

Low seabed temperatures, Highly unconsolidated formations, Low fracture pressure, Shallow water flow, Shallow gas flow, Narrow operational margin between pore pressure & fracture pressure, Depleted reservoirs,
Low temperature below 5C lead to severe gel development, and

Lower collapse pressure of the wellbore is higher than pore pressure and/or the upper collapse pressure of the wellbore is lower than fracture pressure.

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Drilling Fluids Systems In Deepwater

Drilling Fluids Systems In Deepwater

Aqueous systems: Water based drilling-fluid formulation Typical additives to the systems are polymers, bridging solids, lubricants, weighting agents, salts & defamers. Non-aqueous systems: Water-in-oil emulsions; Base oils: Internal olefins, normal paraffin, isoparaffin, ester etc Internal phase is a brine of low water activity to ensure shale stabilization
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Aqueous drilling fluid system formulation(1)

Concentration Additive Function Min Sea water Soda ash Xanthan gum Polyacrylamide (PAC) Continuous phase Calcium remover Viscosifier Viscosifier 0.00 0.15 0.15 WT% Max 0.20 As needed

0.45
0.45 0.45 31.00 2.00 0.10 0.45

PAC polymer
NaCl Cationic polymer Triazine Caustic soda Detergent Barite
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Fluid loss reducer

Shale inhibitor Clay-swelling inhibitor Biocide pH controller Bit-balling preventer Weighting agent

0.30
5.00 1.50 0.00 0.00 0.02

0.10

As needed

Aqueous drilling fluid system formulation(2)

Concentration Additive Function Min Water NaCl Defoamer Xanthan gum Modified Starch Magnesium oxide Calcium carbonate Lubricant Triazine
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WT% Max

Continuous phase Shale inhibitor Foam Preventer Viscosifier Fluid loss reducer pH controller Birding & weighting materials Lubricity agent Biocide

As needed 2.8 0.2 1.7 0.25 10 31 0.55 2.3 0.45 14 0.1 vol%

2-3 vol% 0 0.15

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Non aqueous-drilling-fluid composition with a 70:30 oil/water ratio

Concentration Additive Function

WT%
Min Max

Base oil Primary emulsifier Calcium Oxide NaCl-saturated brine Secondary emulsifier Organic clay Theology Wetting agent Barite
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Continuous phase Emulsifier Alkalinity Internal phase Fluid loss reducer Viscosifier Viscosifier Wettability Weighting agent

0.67 vol% 2.50 1.50 0.34 0.40 1.00 0.50 1.70 1.20 0.60

As needed As needed
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Mitigation of Deepwater Drilling Risks

Development efforts are focused on two different topics:
1) Dual gradient-drilling(DGD) systems, and 2) Noninvasive drilling fluids.

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Dual gradient-drilling(DGD) Systems

Beneficial way of managing the narrow pressure window, an innovative drilling process require new equipment & operational procedures. Has two effective fluid gradients:
1. 2. Between the surface & seafloor, and Within subsea well.

Effective fluid density at the previous CSG is less than the effective fluid density at the current depth. Achieved by focusing on the development of systems based on two approaches:
1. 2. Mechanical lifting:
Consists of pumping system to lift the mud from the seafloor up to the surface.

The use of light weight fluids by diluting the mud returns at sea floor, through the injection up ward to the surface of low density materials, Mwt will be less than effective Mwt below seafloor:
Injecting hollow spheres, and Injecting gas at the bottom of the marine riser to maintain the pressure in the subsea well head equal to the hydrostatic pressure of the sea water at the same water depth.

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The use of light weight fluids

Injecting hollow spheres:
As dilution material generates an incompressible light weight fluid. Will be reused after being extracted.

Gas lifted riser DGD system:

Consists of injecting gas at BOP level to reduce marine-riser annular density down to the seawater density. Easy to implement than injecting hollow spheres. The primary idea is to combine N2 injection with high pressure concentric-casing riser. The annular space between the outer & internal casing filled with sea water to prevent collapse of the outer marine riser. DGD involves the use of a closed pressurized circulating system.

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Noninvasive fluids
Minimizing formation damage depend on a min interaction between fluids and drilled rock. Require knowledge of filtration mechanisms of solids containing polymeric solutions in porous media. Designing factors of noninvasive fluids:

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Evaluation of solids additives; Evaluation of polymers; Evaluation of noninvasive fluid formulation; Evaluation of solids shape, size & rock type.
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Noninvasive fluids
Bridging materials act quite different during filtration through a high-permeability unconsolidated porous medium confirming the importance of shape effects on filtration mechanisms. Particle & size distribution shape are the major factors governing fluid invasion. Commercial noninvasive fluids based on physicochemical mechanisms or surface interaction between additives and permeable rock may be recommended for some application depending on rock type, down hole conditions & drilling scenario.
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Mud weight considerations

Riser safety margin, Kick tolerance, and Tripping safety factors.

Gas solubility
Caused by thermodynamic interaction between synthic noninvasive fluids and the formation gas. PVT measurements of mixture of methane and organic fluids currently applied in drilling fluids systems for deepwater and ultra deepwater wells.
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Density of the saturated fluid for methane in n-paraffin(NP) and in ester(E)

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Hydrates
Ice looks like. Potential of forming hydrates increased with low seabed temperature and high pressure especially in aqueous drilling fluids. Drilling fluids formulated to inhibit or to delay of hydrate formation or preventing growth of hydrates once they are 1st formed. Thermodynamics inhibitors used (Methanol, Ethanol, Glycol & Salts) to prevent hydrates Kinetic inhibitors used to delay hydrates. Antiagglomerants used to avoid growth of hydrates once GANOPE they begin to form. 15

Shallow water flows

Is a result of:
Existence of an abnormal high pore pressure resulting from undercompacted sands caused by rapid deposition(an underwater landslide known as turbidite depositional event), Hydraulic communication with deeper, higher pressure formation, and Destabilization of gas hydrates during drilling, casing, and cementing.

To avoid SWF:
Minimize water loss, Minimize ECD, Minimize surge pressures, Use computational simulator to design the cementing job better by adjusting the properties of the fluids to get better displacement efficiency,

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Offshore rigs statistics

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Worldwide overall Offshore Rig Utilization

Rig utilization for the entire competitive rig fleet
6 Month ago
471

Current

Month ago

1 year ago
475

Rigs working

498

490

Total rigs

650

643

622

597

utilization

67.6%

76.2%

75.7%

79.6

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Offshore Rig Utilization by Region

Current Competitive Offshore Rig Utilization by Region
Africa - West
Asia - SouthEast Europe - North Sea Mediterranean MidEast - Persian Gulf N. America - Mexico N. America - US GOM S. America - Brazil

74.2%
72.3% 91.1% 70.0% 68.4% 75.8% 70.1% 86.1%

(46/62)
(68/94) (72/79) (14/20) (65/95) (25/33) (54/77) (62/72

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Offshore Rig Utilization by Rig Type

Current Competitive Offshore Rig Utilization by Rig Type
Drill Barge
Drillship Jackup Semisub Tender

80.0%
70.1% 74.5% 82.4% 82.1%

(8/10)
(47/67) (275/369) (145/176) (23/28

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Offshore Rig Day Rates Floating Rigs

Rig Type Drillship < 4000' WD Drillship 4000'+ WD Semisub < 1500' WD Rigs Working 4 rigs 45 rigs 11 rigs Total Rig Fleet 8 rigs 62 rigs 18 rigs Average Day Rate $241,000 $458,000 $249,000

Semisub 1500'+ WD
Semisub 4000'+ WD

65 rigs
78 rigs

85 rigs
104 rigs

$295,000
$425,000

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Jackup Rigs
Rig Type Jackup IC < 250' WD Jackup IC 250' WD Jackup IC 300' WD Jackup IC 300'+ WD Jackup IS < 250' WD Rigs Working 32 rigs 35 rigs 88 rigs 118 rigs 5 rigs Total Rig Fleet 53 rigs 64 rigs 127 rigs 154 rigs 7 rigs Average Day Rate $73,000 $79,000 $91,000 $141,000 --

Jackup IS 250' WD Jackup IS 300' WD Jackup IS 300'+ WD Jackup MC < 200' WD Jackup MC 200'+ WD Jackup MS < 200' WD
Jackup MS 200'+ WD
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7 rigs 2 rigs 1 rigs 2 rigs 11 rigs 2 rigs

6 rigs

10 rigs 5 rigs 3 rigs 12 rigs 28 rigs 2 rigs

19 rigs

$137,000 $60,000 $55,000 $36,000 $50,000 -$60,000

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Other offshore Rigs

Rig Type Drill Barge < 150' WD Rigs Working 18 rigs Total Rig Fleet 39 rigs Average Day Rate --

Drill Barge 150'+ WD

6 rigs

9 rigs

--

Inland Barge Platform Rig Submersible

20 rigs 145 rigs 0 rigs

74 rigs 250 rigs 5 rigs

$43,000 $38,000 --

Tender
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23 rigs

32 rigs

$131,000
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Deepwater cementing

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Deepwater cementing
The main difference in performing cementing jobs in deepwater wells compared with cementing jobs in onshore and shallow-water wells:
Very low temperature Existence of different temperature gradients for the sea and the formation, Narrow operational window between pore pressure and fracture gradient, Possible occurrence of shallow water-or gas-flow, Form destabilization of gas hydrates, Fast liquid-to-solid transition, and short thickening time.
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Temperature
Bottom Hole Circulating Temperature(BHCT) for onshore and shallow wells can be determined using API spe 10(RP10B1997) Factors affecting temperature in deepwater conditions re:
Ocean/sea-current velocities, Sea temp, Presence or absence of a riser, and Heat of hydration of the cement slurry.

If BHCT over estimated slurry reaction may be slowed much overlay retarded
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Numerical heat transfer simulator

Recommended to predict the temperature expected during circulation and temperature achieved because of the heat recovery after the circulation stopped, Numerical heat transfer recommended by ISO104263(2003), and Should consider:
Very low temperature Existence of different temperature gradients for the sea and the formation, Narrow operational window between pore pressure and fracture gradient, Possible occurrence of shallow water-or gas-flow, Well deviation survey, More than 1 temperature gradient, Circulation rate, time, and Temp of injected fluid.
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Shallow water flows(SWF)

Will result in a poor cement isolation, which in turn can result in problems such as buckling or shear of the casing. Beside water other fluids can flow from shallow formation such as mixtures of water & gas. Shallow gas causes fewer problems in deepwater wells compared to conventional water depth and compared to shallow water. The back pressure provided by the long sea water column reduce the gas expansion so the wellbore erosion or failure caused by shallow gas is less likely. Influx of gas into the cement while is setting is obviously a problem. The rapid set of the cement slurry is a very important characteristics to avoid water flow during the gelation period, when the slurry begins to develop gel strength and loss the ability to fully transmit hydrostatic pressure, causing an underbalanced condition that can lead to fluid invasion. To ensure that hydrostatic pressure is always transmitted to the formation, two slurries can be used with different thickening times, the lead slurry having a longer thickening time than of the tail slurry.
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Hydrates & Cementing

If gas hydrates are present before the cement job, its necessary to reduce the risk of destabilization of gas hydrates by the use of cement slurries that generate low heat of hydration. Figure shows the combination of pressure, temperature, and gas density where the hydrates are stable.

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Cement systems
In order to reduce the cement-slurry density, its necessary to use extenders as additives. Beside the density reduction, the use of extenders allows to reduce the amount of cement required to produce a given volume of slurry, the extenders can be classified as follows:
1. 2. 3. Water extenders are additives that allow the addition of water in excess without causing the setting of the cement slurry. Clays and waterviscosifying agents are water extenders. Low-density materials are solids with density lower than that of the cement. Gaseous extenders are nitrogen or air used to prepare foamed cements, reducing the density of the slurry

Light weight of-cement systems include the following:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Foamed cement. Extended cement with clays. Extended cement with diatomaceous earth. Microsphere cement. Optimized-particle-size distribution(OPSD) cement.

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Compressive strength vs. slurry density for different slurry compositions

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1.Foamed cement
Consists of a mixture of cement slurry & nitrogen. Used to avoid SWF problems Very low densities[719 kg/m3(6 Ibm/gal) minimum] with relatively high strength. High ductility. More difficult to prepare. There is a requirement for more-precise control to ensure that the base cement slurry and nitrogen are mixed together in the correct proportions and homogeneously
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2.Extended cement with clays: The most common clay used as a water extender is bentonite, mainly composed of sodium montmorillonite. 3.Extended cement with diatomaceous Earth: Composed mostly of very small amorphous silica shells of organisms called diatoms. Requires large quantity of water. 4.Microsphere cement: Hollow glass or ceramic microspheres can be added to the cement to obtain cement-slurry density as low as 959 kg/m3 (8Ibm/gal). The crush strength of different microspheres varies in a broad range. There are materials that can resist hydrostatic pressure greater than 414 MPa(60,000psi). Microspheres can be added to the cement forming dry blend, and because of the large density difference between the materials, gravity segregation can occur, with the light microspheres to the top of the blend. This can cause nonhomoginity in the cement column.
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5.Optimized-particle-size distribution(OPSD) cement:

Used first by construction industry. Part of the cement replaced by aggregates(sand & gravels) and by other materials, such as fly ash, blastfurance slag or micro silica increasing the compressive strength of the set concrete. This technology uses materials with different particlesize distribution in order to achieve a high packing density. The water amount used in these system is reduced compared to conventional slurries. Higher content of solids responsible for the low permeability and high compressive strength presented by this system.
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Physical properties of the cement systems

Low density to avoid fracturing the formation that presents a low fracture gradients, Fast liquid-to-solid transition and long-term sealing to avoid fluid or gas migration, Good control of fluid loss, and Zero free water and no sedimentation.

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Deepwater hydraulics

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Deepwater hydraulics
Understanding of phenomena governing bottom hole pressure is necessary for high-cost ultra deep water operations. Presence of solids in the annulus pays a major roe in bottom hoe pressure prediction by two mechanisms:
1. Solids travelling in the annulus transmit hydrostatic pressure, which impact bottom hole pressure directly.
This effect increases with water depth due to low annular velocity through the riser. Predicting impact of solids loading by considering an average density of the fluid cutting mixtures.
m = f(1 - cs)+scs cs :solids concentration(vol%), and f , s:fluid & cutting density respectively.
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Impact of cuttings concentration(Cs) at several water depth

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2. Solids forming a cuttings bed

In highly inclined sections may not transmit hydrostatic pressure but will restrict flow area, and also will accumulate near-annulus restrictions, resulting in pressure peaks.

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Parameters affect solids concentration

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Rate of penetration(ROP), Well depth, Pipe rotation, Flow rate, and Rheoogy.

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1.Rate of penetration(ROP)
In high angel sections the tendency toward cuttings-bed formation increases, while at lower angels, cuttings loading increase. Increase in ROP will result at ancrease of ECD in deepwater wells. ECD shoud be kept inside operational window.

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Effect of ROP on cuttings concentration

In a deviated well In the riser

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2.Well depth
As the MD increase affects he frictional terms and so the ECD increases. This factor is irrelevant for clean largediameter hoes. This factor is negligible for small diameter holes(0.241-m , 0.216-m and smaller)

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Impact of the well length on fracture gradient

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3.Pipe rotation
High pipe rotation enhance solids resuspension which immediately affects ECD.

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4.Flow rate
Increase flow rate will enhance the hole cleaning and so will reduce solids concentration Friction losses are directly proportional to flow rate. ECD may increase or decrease depending on the importance of both aspects.

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Impact of the flow rate regarding hoe cleaning & pressure drop effects

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