Prerequisites for Calculus

This chapter contains topics necessary for the study of

calculus. After a brief review of real numbers, coordinate
systems, and graphs in two dimensions, we turn our
I. I Real Numbers
attention to one of the most important concepts m
mathematics-the notion of junction.
Real numbers are used considerably in precalculus mathematics, and we will
assume familiarity with the fundamental properties of addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, exponents and radicals. Throughout this chapter,
unless otherwise specified, lower-case letters a, b, c, ... denote real numbers.
The positive integers 1, 2, 3, 4, ... may be obtained by adding the real
number 1 successively to itself. The integers consist of all positive and negative
integers together with the real number 0. A rational number is a real number
that can be expressed as a quotient a/b, where a and bare integers and b =I= 0.
Real numbers that are not rational are called irrational. The ratio of the
circumference of a circle to its diameter is irrational. This real number is
denoted by n and the notation n ~ 3.1416 is used to indicate that n is ap-
proximately equal to 3.1416. Another example of an irrational number is J2.
Real numbers may be represented by nonterminating decimals. For
example, the decimal representation for the rational number 7434/2310 is
found by long division to be 3.2181818 ... , where the digits 1 and 8 repeat
indefinitely. Rational numbers may always be represented by repeating
decimals. Decimal representations for irrational numbers may also be
obtained; however, they are nonterminating and nonrepeating.
It is possible to associate real numbers with points on a line l in such a way
that to each real number a there corresponds one and only one point, and
I
2 1 Prerequisites for Calculus
(I.I)
conversely, to each point Pthere corresponds precisely one real number. Such
an association between two sets is referred to as a one-to-one correspondence.
We first choose an arbitrary point 0, called the origin, and associate with it
the real number 0. Points associated with the integers are then determined by
considering successive line segments of equal length on either side of 0 as
illustrated in Figure 1.1. The points corresponding to rational numbers such
as
2
5
3
and -tare obtained by subdividing the equal line segments. Points
associated with certain irrational numbers, such as J2, can be found by
geometric construction. For other irrational numbers such as n, no con-
struction is possible. However, the point corresponding to n can be approxi-
mated to any degree of accuracy by locating successively the points corres-
ponding to 3, 3.I, 3.I4, 3.I4I, 3.1415, 3.I4I59, .... It can be shown that to
every irrational number there corresponds a unique point on l and, con-
versely, every point that is not associated with a rational number corresponds
to an irrational number.
0 B A

~ l r

17\; ~ ' \


-3 -2 0 4
\ 5
b a
.Ji
7r
I 3 23
-2
2 5
FIGURE I .I
The number a that is associated with a point A on I is called the coordinate
of A. An assignment of coordinates to points on I is called a coordinate
system for /, and I is called a coordinate line, or a real line. A direction can be
assigned to l by taking the positive direction to the right and the negative
direction to the left. The positive direction is noted by placing an arrowhead
on las shown in Figure I. I.
The real numbers which correspond to points to the right of 0 in Figure
I. I are called positive real numbers, whereas those which correspond to
points to the left of 0 are negative real numbers. The real number 0 is neither
positive nor negative. The collection of positive real numbers is closed
relative to addition and multiplication; that is, if a and b are positive, then
so is the sum a + b and the product ab.
If a and bare real numbers, and a - b is positive, we say that a is greater
than h and write a > b. An equivalent statement is his less than a, written
b < a. The symbols > or < are called inequality signs and expressions such
as a > b orb < a are called inequalities. From the manner in which we con-
structed the coordinate line l in Figure I. I, we see that if A and Bare points
with coordinates a and b, respectively, then a > b (orb < a) if and only if A
lies to the right of B. Since a - 0 = a, it follows that a > 0 if and only if a is
positive. Similarly, a < 0 means that a is negative. The following properties
of inequalities can be proved.
If a > b and b > c, then a > c.
If a > b, then a + c > b + c.
If a >band c > 0, then ac > be.
If a >band c < 0, then ac < be.
Analogous properties for" less than" can also be established.
1-41=4 141=4
, - - - - - - " - . . . ~
+ I I I + I I I + I
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 S I
FIGURE 1.2
Definition (1.2)
(1.3)
(1.4)
The Triangle Inequality (1 .5)
Real Numbers I. I 3
The symbol a ~ b, which is read a is greater than or equal to h, means that
either a > b or a = b. The symbol a < b < c means that a < b and b < c,
in which case we say that bis between a and c. The notations a :::;; b, a < b :::;; c,
a :::;; b < c, a :::;; b :::;; c, and so on, have similar meanings.
Another property, called completeness, is needed to characterize the real
numbers. This property will be discussed in Chapter 11.
If a is a real number, then it is the coordinate of some point A on a co-
ordinate line /, and the symbol I a I is used to denote the number of units (or
distance) between A and the origin, without regard to direction. Referring
to Figure 1.2 we see that for the point with coordinate -4 we have 1-41 = 4.
Similarly, 141 = 4. In general, if a is negative we change its sign to find I a I,
whereas if a is nonnegative then I a I = a. The nonnegative number I a I is
called the absolute value of a.
The following definition of absolute value summarizes our remarks.
lal = { a
-a
if ~ 0
if a< 0
Example 1 Find I 3 I, I - 31, I 0 I, I fi - 21, and 12 - fi I
Solution Since 3, 2 - fi, and 0 are nonnegative, we have
131 = 3, 12 - fil = 2 - fi, and 101 = 0.
Since - 3 and fi - 2 are negative, we use the formula I a I = - a of Definition
(1.2) to obtain
1-31 = -(-3) = 3 and lfi - 21 = -(fi - 2) = 2 - fi.
The following three general properties of absolute values may be
established.
lal =I-al, labl = lal lbl, -lal:::;; a:::;; lal
It can also be shown that if bis any positive real number, then
I a I < b if and only if - b < a < b
I a I > b if and only if a > b or a < - b
I a I = b if and only if a = b or a = - b.
It follows from the first and third properties stated in (1.4) that
lal:::;; b if and only if -b:::;; a:::;; b.
la+ bl :::;; lal + lbl
4 1 Prerequisites for Calculus
5=17-21=12-71
~
I I I I + I I I I + I
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 I
FIGURE 1.3
Definition (1.6)
A B OC D
11+11++1111+1
-5 -3 0 1 6
FIGURE 1.4
Proof From (1.3), - lal s as lal and - lbl s b s lbl. Adding
corresponding sides we obtain
-(lal + lbl) s a+ b s lal + lbl.
Using the remark preceding this theorem gives us the desired conclusion. D
We shall use the concept of absolute value to define the distance between
any two points on a coordinate line. Let us begin by noting that the distance
between the points with coordinates 2 and 7 shown in Figure 1.3 equals
5 units on l. This distance is the difference, 7 - 2, obtained by subtracting
the smaller coordinate from the larger. If we employ absolute values, then,
since 17 - 21 = 12 - 71, it is unnecessary to be concerned about the order of
subtraction. We shall use this as our motivation for the next definition.
Let a and b be the coordinates of two points A and B, respectively, on a
coordinate line 1. The distance between A and B, denoted by d(A,B), is
defined by
d(A, B) = lb - al.
The number d(A, B) is also called the length of the line segment AB.
Observe that, since d(B,A) =la - bl and lb - al= la - bl, we may
write
d(A, B) = d(B, A).
Also note that the distance between the origin 0 and the point A is
d(O, A)= la - 01 = lal,
which agrees with the geometric interpretation of absolute value illustrated
in Figure 1.2.
Example 2 If A, B, C, and D have coordinates -5, -3, 1, and 6, respectively,
find d(A, B), d(C, B), d(O, A), and d(C, D).
Solution The points are indicated in Figure 1.4.
By Definition (1.6),
d(A, B) = 1-3-(-5)1=1-3+51=121=2.
d(C, B) = 1-3 - 11=1-41=4.
d(O,A) = l-5 - OI = 1-51=5.
d(C, D) = 16 - 1I=151 = 5.

(J.7)
( )
a b
( I )
-1 0 3
( )
0 2 4
FIGURE 1.5 Open intervals (a, b), ( - I, 3),
and (2, 4)
(1.8)
Real Numbers 1.1 5
The concept of absolute value has uses other than that offinding distances
between points. Generally, it is employed whenever one is interested in the
magnitude or numerical value of a real number without regard to its sign.
In order to shorten explanations it is sometimes convenient to use the
notation and terminology of sets. A set may be thought of as a collection of
objects of some type. The objects are called elements of the set. Throughout
our work ~ will denote the set of real numbers. If Sis a set, then a E S means
that a is an element of S, whereas a S signifies that a is not an element of S.
If every element of a set Sis also an element of a set T, then Sis called a subset
of T. Two sets Sand Tare said to be equal, written S = T, if Sand T contain
precisely the same elements. The notation S =I= T means that Sand Tare not
equal. If Sand Tare sets, their union S u T consists of the elements which are
either in S, in T, or in both Sand T. The intersection Sn T consists of the
elements which the sets have in common.
If the elements ofa set Shave a certain property, then we write S = {x: ... }
where the property describing the arbitrary element xis stated in the space
after the colon. For example, {x: x > 3} may be used to represent the set of
all real numbers greater than 3.
Of major importance in calculus are certain subsets of called intervals.
If a < b, the symbol (a, b) is sometimes used for all re;il numbers between a
and b. This set is called an open interval. Thus we have:
(a, b) = { x: a < x < b}.
The numbers a and b are called the endpoints of the interval.
The graph of a set S of real numbers is defined as the points on a coordinate
line that correspond to the numbers in S. In particular, the graph of the open
interval (a, b) consists of all points between the points corresponding to a and
b. In Figure 1.5 we have sketched the graphs ofa general open interval (a, b)
and the special open intervals ( - I, 3) and (2, 4). The parentheses in the figure
indicate that the endpoints of the intervals are not to be included. For
convenience, we shall use the terms interval and graph of an interval inter-
changeably.
If we wish to include an endpoint of an interval, a bracket is used instead
ofa parenthesis. If a< b, then closed intervals, denoted by [a, b], and half-
open intervals, denoted by [a, b) or (a, b], are defined as follows.
[a,b] = {x:a ~ x ~ b}
[a, b) = { x: a ~ x < b}
(a, b] = {x: a< x ~ b}
Typical graphs are sketched in Figure 1.6, where a bracket indicates that
the corresponding endpoint is part of the graph.
[
3
[ ) (
3
a b a b a b
FIGURE 1.6
6 1 Prerequisites for Calculus
(1.9)
In future discussions of intervals, whenever the magnitudes of a and b
are not stated explicitly it will always be assumed that a < b. If an interval is
a subset of another interval I it is called a subinterval of/. For example, the
closed interval [2, 3] is a subinterval of [O, 5]. We shall sometimes employ
the following infinite intervals.
(a, oo) = {x: x >a}
(-oo,a) = {x:x <a}
(-oo, oo) =IR
[a, oo) = { x : x z a}
(-oo,a] = {x:x ~ a }
For example, (1, oo) represents all real numbers greater than 1. The symbol oo
denotes "infinity" and is merely a notational device. It is not to be interpreted
as representing a real number.
As indicated in this section, we frequently make use of letters to denote
arbitrary elements of a set. For example, we may use x to denote a real
numbe.-, although no particular real number is specified. A letter that is used
to represent any element of a given set is sometimes called a variable. Through-
out this text, unless otherwise specified, variables will represent real numbers.
The domain of a variable is the set of real numbers represented by the variable.
To illustrate, given the expression JX, we note that in order to obtain a real
number we must have x z 0, and hence in this case the domain of x is
assumed to be the set of nonnegative real numbers. Similarly, when working
with the expression l/(x - 2) we must exclude x = 2 (Why?), and con-
sequently we take the domain of x as the set of all real numbers different
from 2.
It is often necessary to consider inequalities that involve variables, such
as
x
2
- 3 < 2x + 4.
If certain numbers such as 4 or 5 are substituted for x, we obtain the false
statements 13 < 12 or 22 < 14, respectively. Other numbers such as 1 or 2
produce the true statements - 2 < 6 or 1 < 8, respectively. In general, if we
are given an inequality in x and if a true statement is obtained when x is
replaced by a real number a, then a is called a solution of the inequality. Thus
1and2 are soluti,;ms of the inequality x
2
- 3 < 2x + 4, whereas 4 and 5 are
not solutions. To solve an inequality means to find all solutions. We say that
two inequalities are equivalent if they have exactly the same solutions.
A standard method for solving an inequality is to replace it with a chain
of equivalent inequalities, terminating in one for which the solutions are
obvious. The main tools used in applying this method are properties such as
those listed in (1.1), (1.3), and (1.4). For example, if x represents a real number,
then adding the same expression in x to both sides leads to an equivalent
inequality. We may multiply both sides of an inequality by an expression
containing x if we are certain that the expression is positive for all values of x
under consideration. If we multiply both sides of an inequality by an expres-
sion that is always negative, such as - 7 - x
2
, then the inequality sign is
reversed.
Signofx-2: --- + + + + + + + + + +
Sign of x - 5: - - - - - - - - - + + + +
I I I I ) I I ( I
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
FIGURE 1.7
Real Numbers I .I
7
The reader should supply reasons for the solutions of the following
inequalities.
Example 3 Solve the inequality 4x + 3 > 2x - 5.
Solution The following inequalities are equivalent:
4x + 3 > 2x - 5
4x > 2x - 8
2x > -8
x > -4
Hence the solutions consist of all real numbers greater than -4, that is, the
numbers in the infinite interval ( -4, oo ).
E l 4 S 1 h
.
1
. 4 - 3x
xamp e o vet e mequa 1ty -5 < --
2
- < 1.
Solution We may proceed as follows:
4 - 3x
-5<--<1
2
-10 < 4 - 3x < 2
-14< -3x< -2
14 2
-> x >-
3 3
2 14
-<x <-
3 3
Hence the solutions are the numbers in the open interval (2/3, 14/3).
Example 5 Solve x
2
- 7x + 10 > 0.
Solution Since the inequality may be written
(x - 5)(x - 2) > 0,
it follows that x is a solution if and only if both factors x - 5 and x - 2 are
positive, or both are negative. The diagram in Figure 1.7 indicates the signs of
these factors for various real numbers. Evidently, both factors are positive
if xis in the interval (5, oo) and both are negative if x is in ( - oo, 2). Hence
the solutions consist of all real numbers in the union ( - oo, 2) u (5, oo ).
Among the most important inequalities occurring in calculus are those
containing absolute values of the type illustrated in the next example.
8 1 Prerequisites for Calculus
1.1 Exercises
Example 6 Solve the inequality Ix - 31 < 0.1.
Solution Using (1.4) and (1.1), the given inequality is equivalent to each
of the following:
-0.1 < x - 3 < 0.1
-0.1 + 3 < (x - 3) + 3 < 0.1 + 3
2.9 < x < 3.1.
Thus the solutions are the real numbers in the open interval (2.9, 3.1).
Example 7 Solve I 2x - 71 > 3. .
Solution By (1.4), x is a solution of I 2x - 71 > 3 if and only if either
2x - 7 > 3 or 2x - 7 < - 3.
The first of these two inequalities is equivalent to 2x > 10, or x > 5. The
second is equivalent to 2x < 4, or x < 2. Hence the solutions of I 2x - 71 > 3
are the numbers in the union ( - oo, 2) u (5, oo ).
In Exercises 1 and 2 replace the comma between each pair of
real numbers with the appropriate symbol <, >, or =.
5 If A, B, and C are points on a coordinate line with co-
ordinates - 5, - l, and 7, respectively, find the following
distances.
1 (a) -2, -5
(c) 6 - l, 2 + 3
(e) 2, J4
2 (a) -3, 0
(c) 8, -3
(e) Ji, 1.4
(b) -2, 5
(d) i. 0.66
(f) n,
(b) -8, -3
(d) i - i, i's
(f) tm. 3.6513
Rewrite the expressions in Exercises 3 and 4 without using
symbols for absolute values.
3 (a)l2-51 (b) 1-51+1-21
(c) 151+1-21 (d) l-51-1-21
.
(e) In - 22/71 (f) (-2)/1-21
(g) It- o.51 (h) 1(-3)21
(i) 15 - x I if x > 5 (j) I a - b I if a < b
4 (a) 14 - 81 (b) 13 - nl
(c) l-41-1-81 (d) 1-4 + 81
(e) 1-312 (f) 12 - J41
(g) I -0.671 (h)-1-31
(i) lx
2
+ ll (j) 1-4 - x
2
I
(a) d(A, B)
(c) d(C, B)
(b) d(B, C)
(d) d(A, C)
6 Rework Exercise 5 if A, B, and C have coordinates 2, - 8,
and - 3, respectively.
Solve the inequalities in Exercises 7-34 and express the solutions
in terms of intervals.
7 5x - 6 > 11 8 3x - 5 < 10
9 2 - 7x $ 16 10 7 - 2x 2':: -3
11 12x + 11 > 5
12 lx+21<1
13 3x + 2 < 5x - 8 14 2 + 7x < 3x - 10
15 12 2':: 5x - 3 > -7 16 5 > 2 - 9x > -4
17
3 - 7x
-1 <--<6
4 -
18 0 $ 4x - l $ 2
19
5
-->0
7 - 2x
20
4
-2--9 > 0
x +
21 Ix - IOI< 0.3
22 12x:31< 2
Coordinate Systems in Two Dimensions 1.2 9
23 17 3x I:::;; 1
25 I 25x - 81 > 7
27 3x
2
+ 5x - 2 < 0
29 2x
2
+ 9x + 4 ;:::: 0
I
31 2 < 100
x
3x + 2
33 --<O
2x - 7 -
24 13 - llxl :::=: 41
26 12x+ll<O
28 2x
2
- 9x + 7 < 0
30 x
2
- !Ox :::;; 200
32 5 + Jx <I
3 2
34 -->--
x-9 x+2
35 The relationship between the Fahrenheit and Celsius
temperature scales is given by C = (i)(F - 32). If 60 :::;;
F :::;; 80, express the corresponding range for C in terms
of an inequality.
36 In the study of electricity, Ohm's Law states that if R
denotes the resistance of an object (in ohms), E the
potential difference across the object (in volts), and I
the current that flows through it (in amperes), then
R = E/l (see figure). If the voltage is 110, what values of
the resistance will result in a current that does not exceed
lOamperes?
Resistance R

Voltage
FIGURE FOR EXERCISE 36
37 According to Hooke's Law, the force F (in pounds)
required to stretch a certain spring x inches beyond its
natural length is given by F = (4.5)x (see figure). If
10:::;; F:::;; 18, what is the corresponding range for x?
Natural length
Stretched x inches
f-x-J
FIGURE FOR EXERCISE 37
38 Boyle's Law for a certain gas states that pv = 200, where
p denotes the pressure (lb/in.
2
) and v denotes the volume
(in.
3
). If 25 :::;; v :::;; 50, what is the corresponding range for
p?
39 If a baseball is thrown straight upward from level ground
with an initial velocity of 72 ft/sec, its altitude s (in feet)
after t seconds is given by s = -16t
2
+ 72t. For what
values oft will the ball be at least 32 feet above the ground?
40 The period T (sec) of a simple pendulum of length I (cm)
is given by T = 2ny1fi, where g is a physical constant.
If, for the pendulum in a grandfather clock, g = 980 and
98 :::;; I :::;; 100, what is the corresponding range for T?
41 Prove that la - bl:::=: lal - lbl.
(Hint: Write lal = l(a - b) +bl and apply (1.5).)
42 If n is any positive integer and a1' a
2
, . , a. are real
numbers, prove that
la1 + a2 + .. +a.I:::;; la1 I+ la2I + .. +la.I.
(Hint: By (1.5),
la1 + a2 + .. +a.I:::;; la1 I+ la2 + .. +a.I.)
43 If 0 < a < b, or if a < b < 0, prove that (1/a) > (l/b ).
44 If O < a < b, prove that a
2
< b
2
Why is the restriction
0 < a necessary?
45 If a < b and c < d, prove that a + c < b + d.
46 If a < band c < d, is it always true that ac < bd? Explain.
47 Prove (1.3).
48 Prove (1.4).
J.2 Coordinate Systems in Two Dimensions
In Section 1.1 we discussed how coordinates may be assigned to points on a
line. Coordinate systems can also be introduced in planes by means of
ordered pairs. The term ordered pair refers to two real numbers, where one