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Issue 15.
1 | Spring 2011
FOCUS: The Middle East FEATURE: Training & Capacity Development Special Report: Legal Instruments
ON THE WEB : http://maic.jmu.edu/Journal/15.1/index.htm
The Journal of ERW and Mine Action Center for International Stabilization and Recovery Mine Action Information Center at James Madison University Issue 15.1 Spring 2011 | ISSN: 2154-1469 Print Date: March 2011 Additional articles available online: http://maic.jmu.edu/Journal/15.1/index.htm Journal of Mine Action (printed edition) Issue 3.3 through Issue 12.1: ISSN 1533-9440 The Journal of ERW and Mine Action (printed edition) Issue 12.2 and ongoing: ISSN 2154-1469 Journal of Mine Action (online edition): ISSN 1533-6905 The Journal of ERW and Mine Action (online edition): ISSN 2154-1485 Upcoming Issues Issue 15.2 | Summer 2011 Victim Assistance | On the Front Lines Information Management & GIS/Mapping Issue 15.3 | Fall 2011 Focus on Cluster Munitions | Notes from the Field: Expertise & Activities from the Field Visit http://maic.jmu.edu/journal/index/callforpapers.htm for more details and additional Calls for Papers.
Cover Photo Caption: An elderly woman walks in the deserted town of Khiam in Southern Lebanon. Much of Southern Lebanon remains affected by cluster munitions. Photo courtesy of UN Photo/John Isaac Contributors Vidya Abhayagunawardena Ben Anderson Dan Baker Penelope Caswell Christophe Cox Paula Daly Daniel Eriksson Suzanne Fiederlein Rune Fjellanger Dr. Russell Gasser Christina Greene Brent Jones Dragan Jovanovi Sebastian Kasack Cameron Macauley Aurora Martinez Nicole Neitzey Mohamed Taghioullah Ould Nema Alan Poling Pascal Rapillard Karen Reed-Matthee Yolanda Rieter-Barrell Mark Reiterer Mark Allan Russell Ken Rutherford Kerei Ruru Arnold Schoolderman Jonah Shepp Clint B. Smith Joel S. Tabb Mark Thompson Blake Williamson
Left to right: Nicaraguan landmine survivor Moiss Antonio Valle; Latin Grammy-winning musician Miguel Bos; Infanta Cristina de Borbn, Duchess of Palma de Mallorca; OAS Secretary General Jos Miguel Insulza; Senator Patrick Leahy; CISR Director Ken Rutherford. Photo courtesy of the Organization of American States.
Directors Message
Dear Readers, In hindsight, we often forget the consequences of our successes. It is easy to lose perspective on monumental achievements and their origins, especially when so many have worked for so long to realize them. In 1991, the Organization of American States responded to a request from member countries for assistance with regional mine-action activities. Hundreds of thousands of landmines later, Central America is the first region in the world to declare itself mine free. At a celebration on 9 December 2010, at the OAS building in Washington, D.C., I was privileged to speak as one of a distinguished group that included OAS Secretary General Jos Miguel Insulza, U.S. Senator Patrick Leahy, Nicaraguan landmine survivor Moiss Antonio Valle, Latin Grammy-winning musician Miguel Bos, and Infanta Cristina de Borbn, the younger daughter of King Juan Carlos and Queen Sofa of Spain. (see photo above) One of the largest hurdles to this mine-free achievement was surely the contamination in Nicaragua, which stemmed from armed conflicts in the 1980s. According to the OAS, over 180,000 anti-personnel mines affected more than 1,000 areasendangering half a million people in over 200 communities. The government of Nicaragua, working with the OAS program Accin Integral contra las Minas Antipersonal (Program for Comprehensive Action Against AP Mines) and the international community, tackled this challenge in a remarkable way. Emphasis was put not only on clearance but also on individual and community projects to increase the productivity of cleared land. These successes were echoed across the region in Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras. Central America has shown us what we can do to obtain a mine-free world not just for ourselves but for future generations. These countries completed clearance and stockpile destruction while also providing victim assistance, mine-risk education and land rehabilitation. I applaud the OAS and Central Americas tenacity. Yet much remains to be done both in this region and others affected by conflict around the world. While clearance and destruction remain integral to our work, we must not assume our commitment ends there. Central Americas long-term success is owed as much to clearance as it is to the vital social services it provides to victims and their communities. We must not lose this important perspective as we review past successes and look forward to future challenges. Sincerely, Ken Rutherford
Table of Contents
Editorial 4 Letters to the Editor Focus: The Middle East 5 8 10 12 14 18 22 26 28 32 36 UNIFIL Peacekeeping in Southern Lebanon by Christina Greene Integration of Clearance Assets by Mark Thompson AMATC: Sustainable Solutions for HMA by Karen Reed-Matthee Capacity Building in Western Sahara by Penelope Caswell Peer Support and Trauma Recovery by Cameron Macauley Building Knowledge and Partnerships by Jonah Shepp Lessons Learned: Sri Lanka by Sebastian Kasack Building Mine-action Capacity by Ben Anderson Modifying IMSMA Training by Aurora Martinez & Daniel Eriksson Strategic Analysis in ERW/Mine-action Training by Paula Daly & Suzanne Fiederlein The Mine Action Technology Workshop by Nicole Neitzey
The Journal of ERW and Mine Action Editorial Board reviews all articles for content and readability, and it reserves the right to alter articles for readability and space concerns. Every effort is made to assure accuracy and to maintain the integrity and meaning of the text. Manuscripts and photos will not be returned unless requested. The Journal Editorial Staff reserves the right to reject submissions that include text copied from other sources in part or in whole. Previously published works to which the author retains publishing rights may be submitted, but The Journal requires notification of this previous publication when authors submit material so that reprint permission may be verified. Please note that all rights to content (including photographs) published in The Journal are reserved, and notification and written approval are required before any content may be used by another source or publication. Authors who submit articles to The Journal are expected to do so in good faith and are solely responsible for the content therein, including the accuracy of all information and correct attribution for quotations and citations. Views expressed in The Journal of ERW and Mine Action are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Center for International Stabilization and Recovery, the Mine Action Information Center, James Madison University, the U.S. Department of State or the U.S. Army Humanitarian Demining Program. Please direct all Journal submissions, queries and subscription/CFP requests to: Noel Mulliner Frank Navish Peter Ngan Divyakant Patel Ken Rutherford Erik Tollefsen Zeke Topolosky Graphic Design Heather Bowers Graphic Assistants Amy Crockett Chris Foster-Baril Elizabeth Swain Web Assistants Heather Bowers Fernando Perez Administrative Support Carolyn Firkin Lois Carter Fay, Editor-in-Chief Center for International Stabilization and Recovery Mine Action Information Center James Madison University 800 S. Main Street, MSC 4902 Harrisonburg, VA 22807 / USA Tel: +1 540 568 2503 Fax: +1 540 568 8176 E-mail: editormaic@gmail.com
Feature: Training and Capacity Development in ERW Action
Editorial Board Lois Carter Fay Geary Cox II Stacy Davis Nicole Neitzey Jennifer Risser Ken Rutherford R&D Review Board Sean Burke Charles Chichester Alistair Craib Michel Dirickx Tom Henderson Pehr Lodhammar Reuben McCarthy Ian McLean Editors Lois Carter Fay, Editor-in-Chief Nicole Neitzey, Technical Editor Geary Cox II, Assistant Editor Jennifer Risser, Assistant Editor Amy Crockett, Copy Editor Eric Wuestewald, Content Editor Editorial Assistants Dan Baker Julia Mitchell Megan Sarian Samantha Shankman Jeremiah Smith Meghan Wallace Dylan Walsh Blake Williamson
Special Report: Legal Instruments 38 Humanitarian Disarmament by Pascal Rapillard 42 Victim-Assistance History by Dr. Ken Rutherford 46 Assisting Cluster-Munition Victims by Mark Reiterer Notes from the Field 50 54 58 62 65 Sri Lanka Works Toward a Mine-free Nation by Vidya Abhayagunawardena White Phosphorus Disposal in the Gaza Strip by Kerei Ruru & Mark Allan Russell ERW in the Republic of Serbia by Dragan Jovanovi Cost of Landmine Impact Surveys by Dr. Russell Gasser The Rise in Terrorist Attacks in the Western Sahara by Lt. Colonel Mohamed Taghioullah Ould Nema
Research and Development 68 REST of ERW by Brent Jones, Rune Fjellanger, Christophe Cox & Alan Poling 73 Encapsulated Fluorescent Bioprobes by Clint B. Smith & Joel S. Tabb 76 Clutter Reduction in Manual-demining Operations by Arnold Schoolderman & Yolanda Rieter-Barrell Obituaries 80 In Remembrance: Mark Fitzpatrick, Mehdi Mohammad Haraz Endnotes 81 Endnotes
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EDITORIAL
Dear Ed itor:
Letters to the Editor
W and Mine AcThe Journal of ER Issue 14.3 of the er ov g M ine Ac tion in e, kin icl loo art s I wa Ibrahim Ha meds d ali Kh r. M d the chance of an tion yesterday concerned about 44 4 6). I was qu ite s ge ng his safety (pa ari n we t da no Su s North when I saw he wa ed ur inj ing arly fly ing be cle es the workers ey , open spark s are photo on page 45 the hid ing the In is y. dy erl bo op pr his s h glasse wheel. Althoug ing ind gr eld glasses on -h his nd up from his ha covered, weari ng that his eyes are un would be ar he cle e, is ey it e, or ac e sp fac work to hit him in the re we crutch ark his sp a th If wi his forehead. ce he is work ing lance and fal l sin s wheel ba er off ind n gr row nd th ha ly the qu ick If he fal ls, h amputated leg. Ideally, he shou ld under his mid-t hig se addit ional cuts. cau uld co d an ing inn about the worksp ed be ll ern sti nc may rk ing. I am also co wo ile wh leg tic l cords that are have a prosthe ing on the electr ica crutches and tripp ir the ing tch ca ers them. ea rth floor beneath lyi ng on the ba re am cuetic techn ician. I gy tools as a prosth olo hn on that ati tec e isl tiv leg ap I work in ad l healt h and safety of pr ime n ha s occupationa is da ies Su ur er inj eth ry wh da us rio ting secon s. Certa inly preven tion. I would covers these issue ies across mi ne ac ilit ab dis th wi ers rk the vic timwo ct for nta e co nc rta ase po d ple im d Ibrah im Ha me ali Kh r. d ask them M an or ter u ask that yo l mi ne ac tion cen under the nationa les wh ile gg ram go og ety pr saf ce an eir ist th ass r their eyes with ve co ed that rn ers rk lea wo ve at ha to insist th safely placed. I M AC also electr ica l cord s are e at th th d uld an Co s. ing rk leg wo osthetic red do not have pr the workers pic tu ? help with that issue rs in mi ne acac tices for all worke ue on safe work pr urage ac tive log co dia en e d ag an ur , co ies I en ing with disabilit liv se tho ly lar cu tion, pa rti you. demi ners. Than k suppor t for injured
UNIFIL Peacekeeping in Southern Lebanon

Since 1978, the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon has been working to help bring peace and security to the region. UNIFIL began humanitarian mine-action activities and cluster-munitions clearance in Lebanon in 2006. It also began to demine parts of the Blue Line, which is the demarcation line between Israel and Lebanon. This overview discusses a few UNIFIL projects.
by Christina Greene [ United Nations Mine Action Coordination Centre ]
FOCUS
Dear Ed itor,
I was pleased to see a dem ilita riz ation process lin Alba nia featu re e at the Mjeks fac d on the cover of tory in the Fa ll 2010 ed ting tribute to th ition of The Jour e outstandi ng wo nal, a fitrk they have done over the last deca de. The ot herw ise ex cellent accompa ny ing ar ticle by vertent ly gives Captain Goodye the impression ar inadthat there wa s a disastrous ex plo connec tion betw sion at the Grd een the ec De po pr t oje in c. cts In 20 08 ce, managed by the and the demilita n, Project Assistan NA riz rto TO ation Mo n M ree ain au ba ten ~M nia from 20 01 to ance and Supply 20 07. The Grdec Agency in Als a problem with the wa re op wi the er th ati ing th on liz e NA MSA-manag was entirely unco apologize for not rea ed projects at M nnected d. and workers at bo Editors Note: We jeks and Polian AC have been alerte M th . The engineers fac the d to an rie r s, tho pa au rticu larly at Mjek in the last 10 ye photo. The s, did except ion ars to develop eff al work ective, sa fe and sible processes fo environmenta lly r the demilita riz responation of munition s stockpi les. The ar ticle unde rstates the scop e of those projects under the ausp , which were m ices of the NATO anaged Pa rtnership for suppor ted by do Peace Tr ust Fu nd nations from 14 and NATO countries and the Eu rope , four pa rtner co an Union. The untries projects destroy tons] of munition ed 12 ,00 0 tonn s, includi ng mor es [11,810 ta rs, grenades, rounds of small more than 10 0 -a rms am muniti m ill ion on and Alba nias m ill ion anti-perso entire stock pi le nnel landm ines of 1.6 . The ability to br ing together so m any diverse dono strengt h of the r entit ies is a pa NATO Pa rtnersh rticu lar ip for Peace Tr us enabled muniti t Fu nd, which ha ons stock pi les an s also d ERW-destruct ion aged successfu lly projects to be m in Afghanistan an, Az erba ija n, Be Moldova, Serbia lar us, Georgia, and Uk ra ine. Th Jordan, e major project, ea rly in 2011, wi due to sta rt in Al ll be managed by ba nia NA MSA under Fu nd but with on the NATO Pf P ly one sponsor, Tr ust th e United States. wi ll be wa rm ly As ever, ot her do welcomed. nors Yours sincerely, Peter Cour tney-G reen Head of NA MSA s Am munition Branch 1993 200 9
ine-action operations by countries contributing troops to U.N. peacekeeping in the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon fall between the traditionally defined humanitariandemining operations and military demining, which involves breaching to allow for the advance and retreat of soldiers at war. UNIFIL demining operations have changed and evolved over the years and reflect many of the challenges and successes of mine action within the context of peacekeeping operations. UNIFIL was established in 1978 with the mandate to restore international peace and security.1 Following the 2006 conflict between Israel and Lebanon, UNIFILs mission expanded to ensure humanitarian access to civilian populations and the voluntary and safe return of displaced persons.2 Within the context of this mandate, UNIFIL contingents initially deployed with demining and explosive-ordnance-disposal capabilities; however, the scope of demining activities was limited to emergency action and clearance of land for UNIFIL positions. In response to the 2006 humanitarian crisis created by severe cluster-bomb contamination, UNIFIL troopcontributing countries deployed battle-area-clearance teams and focused on humanitarian mine-action tasks until early 2010. Since 2007, UNIFIL also has engaged in a new project, demining access corridors for marking the Blue Line, 3 and from early 2010, UNIFIL troop-contributing countries phased out BAC tasks and focused exclusively on supporting UNIFILs goal to physically mark the Blue Line. Working in conjunction with the UNIFIL troop-contributing countries through the J3 Combat Engineer Section, the United Nations Mine Action Coordination Centre has similarly undergone a change in role and focus. In 2009 the responsibility for coor-
dination of humanitarian demining in Lebanon transitioned from the UNMACC to the Lebanon Mine Action Center. The UNMACC now coordinates between UNIFIL and LMAC, as well as supporting UNIFIL troopcontributing countries in complying with International Mine Action Standards. Given the security context in Southern Lebanon, the UNIFIL peacekeepers conducting mine action in Southern Lebanon are fulfilling a unique role. More than 1,000 marked minefields run alongside the Blue Line. While the clearance of these minefields is not yet politically feasible, the need to physically mark the Blue Line requires the clearance of access lanes for the construction of bluemarker barrels.4 As there is a high level of distrust between the Lebanese and Israeli militaries along the Blue Line, UNIFIL peacekeepers provide a neutral force that is able to operate there. The security sensitivity of this area was highlighted in August 2010 when the Lebanese Armed ForcA U.N. worker applies the finishing touches to a bluees and the Israeli Defense marker barrel. Force clashed after the All photos courtesy of UNMACC-SL. IDF attempted to cut down a tree next to the Blue Line near the village of El Aadeisse and Kafer Kela. The LAF perceived this to be a transgression of the Blue Line, and IDF and LAF exchanged fire across the border. One IDF soldier and two LAF soldiers were killed. The joint demining operations between UNIFIL and international nongovernmental organizations also included clearance tasks for the Blue Line barrel-marking
editorial | the journal of ERW and mine action | spring 2011 | 15.1
15.1 | spring 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | focus
countries in Lebanon are accredited to IMAS and to the Lebanese Mine Action Standards. The Department of Peacekeeping Operations is currently in negotiations to ensure that all troop-contributing countries are contractually mandated to receive IMAS accreditation and provide IMAS-approved equipment. It is worth noting that the troop-contributing countries are conducting operational tasks but are using humanitarian standards of operations.
Challenges/Suggested Solutions
An accredited Spanish mine-clearance team in 2010.
A Blue-Line barrel is completed and measured.
project in 2007 and joint tasks with the Swedish Rescue Services Agency and Chinese peacekeepers in 2009, as well as clearance of the LAF patrol road north of the Blue Line. The clearance and reconstruction of the LAF road was conducted by SRSA and UNIFIL in 2009. In 2010, UNIFIL and MAG (Mines Advisory Group) conducted joint operations on the LAF road north of the Blue Line. MAG provided mechanical and manual clearance and UNIFIL construction units (Italian and Portuguese) conducted road construction.
Criticisms
The role of visiting military forces in mine action has been greatly debated. The 2003 Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining report on The Role of the Military in Mine Action5 analyzed many of the strengths and weaknesses of military actors performing mine action and specifically pointed out shortcomings of UNIFILs demining operations in conducting critical coordination and complying with IMAS. Thanks to the coordination role played by UNMACC and the dialogue within UNIFIL, many aspects of UNIFIL troopcontributing countries demining operations have been
improved and problems resolved by encouraging the use of one standard for all troop-contributing countries and through assistance and monitoring of training and accreditation with the Lebanon Mine Action Center. Greater coordination among UNIFIL, LMAC and other mine-action actors in Southern Lebanon has increased the efficiency and safety of operations on many occasions in 2007, 2009 and 2010 on the Blue Line and for the Lebanese Armed Forces patrol road north of the Blue Line. One of the main criticisms levied against operations by visiting militaries has been the militaries adherence to their own operational guidelines instead of compliance with International Mine Action Standards. Troopcontributing countries have sometimes perceived a distinction between humanitarian demining and operational demining in support of peacekeeping operations and have argued that peacekeeping operations are not humanitarian activities and therefore not subject to IMAS. The United Nations has made a firm point that demining operations are to be in accordance with IMAS. Coordination, training and support provided by UNMACC have now ensured that all troop-contributing
While peacekeeping demining operations have achieved great strides in improving performance on the ground as well as increasing coordination with national authorities, UNIFIL demining operations still face challenges. As of October 2010, teams from Belgium, China, France, Italy and Spain were deployed. The troop-contributing countries teams within UNIFIL are on an operational rotation between four and 10 months. This means that, as often as every four months, team members are replaced and the team is required to undergo training and accreditation. As a result, there has been a lack of institutional knowledge retained within the teams. It has been suggested that a training team remain behind for the incumbent team and the command structure for the incumbent team arrive prior to the mission to maintain institutional knowledge between current and incumbent team(s). Some troopcontributing countries have already started adopting such measures. The UNMACC does provide a center of institutional knowledge within UNIFIL; however, a longer rotation by peacekeeping teams
would increase their efficiency and familiarity with the mine and explosive-remnants-of-war situation in South Lebanon. UNMACC has provided a much-needed support role for the troop-contributing countries demining teams in coordination with the UNIFIL Combat Engineering Section; however, disagreements arise between the civilian UNMACC and the military staff from UNIFIL whenever UNIFIL perceives infringement upon its own military chain of command. Coordination of the demining peacekeepers' troop-contributing countries requires sensitivity to the fact that militaries operate to a strict chain of command and are not as flexible as other mine-action organizations. On the other hand, UNIFIL must also be open to receiving instruction and support from coordinating bodies such as UNMACC and LMAC that have a wealth of expertise and experience to offer for such operations. UNIFILs mine-action operations have demonstrated that demining troop-contributing countries are able to provide a significant and unique role within peacekeeping operations and within mine ac-
tion. While many of their tasks are not necessarily humanitarian in nature, they contribute to stabilization of insecure regions. To ensure the successful implementation of troopcontributing countries demining operations, the existence of a coordinating body such as UNMACC is critical to ensure coordination with national authorities and adherence to IMAS/LMAS, as well as the continuation of institutional knowledge for operations, quality assurance, training and accreditation. see endnotes page 81
Christina Greene has worked in mine action for seven years, holding positions in Washington D.C., Sudan and, most recently, in Lebanon as the Programme Officer with the United Nations Mine Action Coordination Centre. Greene holds a Master of Arts in international affairs from Johns Hopkins School of Advanced International Studies. Christina Greene E-mail: cy_greene@hotmail.com
focus | the journal of ERW and mine action | spring 2011 | 15.1
Integration of Clearance Assets

Integrating a variety of demining activities, including machines and manual support, is vital to an operations efficiency and success. An appropriate integration plan must include analysis of context, support requirements and limitations.
by Mark Thompson [ Mines Advisory Group Iraq ]
and restrictions. Adopting a stance of comparative clearance rates-per-hour, for example, may be misleading and biased toward best-case scenarios that understate deployment limits and major support requirements. Flail manufacturers will pitch the performance of the machine in ideal conditions; however, these conditions are rarely encountered. Also, almost all mechanical assets require verification by manual or dog teams, so budgeting for a machine requires budgeting for the other assets.
How Do We Better Integrate? A Kurdish staff member is trained as a dog handler.
MDDs deploy into low- and medium-risk areas that have been identified by deminers.
All photos courtesy of Sean Sutton/MAG.
umanitarian demining has been around for almost a quarter of a century; however, the industry still struggles to effectively integrate clearance tools such as manual support, dogs and machines. Financial restrictions are a factor; however, even with support, demining programs and personnel still often fail to capitalize on the benefit of integrated assets.
Why Does This Happen?
Historically, each asset has competed against the other for funding and operational superiority. The capabilities of certain methods or machines are frequently overstated when not considered within contextual requirements
Having the three asset typesmanual support, dogs and machinesdoes not in itself represent an integrated approach to clearance. An operational structure that has individual dog, machine and manual experts focused on their own assets can indeed restrict integration. Effective integration is achieved by ensuring all individuals in the organization understand each assets capabilities and limitations, and are thus able to benefit from integrated clearance use. Additionally, the clearance process should be planned to emphasize the consideration of all assets and parts they can play. Of course, terrain and conditions will dictate whether an approach is suitable or not. These conditions may include metal-contamination level, mine type, vegetation type, and presence of field defenses or uneven ground. To avoid denoting a task as manual, MDD or mechanical is good practice, as this practice serves to isolate assets and tasks. Understanding that all tasks require some form of manual support or clearance is important. As an example, MAG (Mines Advisory Group), my employer, has many programs that adopt an integrated approach to ensure that manual expertise leads clearance planning and that mechanical and/or MDD assets form part of their clearance plan.
What Has Worked?
Although a case study of a single task can show integrated-clearance success, using an operational sector with multiple teams and tasks as a measure of success is a better approach. For example, if we compare two sectors within the MAG Iraq program that have a similar number of manual assets and access to the same MDD and mechanical teams, we have a significant difference in the number of minefield tasks completed over a nine-month period (24 tasks in one sector and nine in the other). At least two different asset types, and sometimes three, were utilized on 71 percent of tasks completed in the first sector, whereas in the second sector, 55.5 percent of completed tasks used only manual assets. Although the different topo-
graphical, contamination and size characteristics of each sectors tasks contributed to the disproportionate completion numbers, other factors suggest the primary reason for the difference is under-utilization of integrated clearance in the second sector. The sector completing the most tasks used all three assets the most frequently. However, they integrated different assets by applying the appropriate clearance methodology as the site conditions evolved. Mechanical and MDD assets were used much less, and only 25 percent of each task used the additional assets. The sector with the least tasks completed used all three assets on 80 percent of each task, indicating that it did not adapt methodology and maintained the same clearance tactic without assessing evolving site conditions. Addressing the balance in terms of the number of teams and equipment should also be considered. Although most people would agree that you cannot have too many manual assets, you can almost certainly have too many machines and dogs, purely because of their operational limitations and the support they require to function. Having too many of one asset will only create less efficient and effective clearance methodologies. Building an infrastructure within a program to support integration is also essential. Experience has shown that mechanical and MDD assets are very high maintenance and, due to insufficient investment, poor preparatory support and lack of sustainability can doom programs before they even begin. In the MAG Iraq program, the infrastructure has been established and expanded in line with the
growth. MAG Iraq currently has three operational sectors, each with its own distinctive conditions that affect individual assets, and therefore integration. Mountainous terrain has the greatest effect due to machine and MDD limitations in those areas. A recent factor in determining a fourth-sector closure was that MAG could not use an integrated approach because the majority of duties were high-ground tasks.
Conclusion
In conclusion, funding sources and equipment provision can pull operational structure in different directions. Ensuring the development and design of operational capacity to deal with clearance obstacles is important to maintain efficiency rather than changing effective planning and prioritization mechanisms to suit specific assets or achieve artificial clearance outputs.
Mark Thompson is Technical Operations Manager for MAG. He has more than 18 years of field experience in mine action, including in Cambodia, Cyprus, Iraq, Kuwait, Lao PDR, Rwanda, Sudan and Vietnam. Since July 2008, Thompson has been working with MAG in Iraq. Prior to joining MAG in 1993, he served 12 years in the Corps of Royal Engineers in the British Army. Mark Thompson Technical Operations Manager MAG Iraq P.O. Box 0112-35 Ishtar District Ainkawa, Erbil / Iraq Tel: + 964 750 445 6986 or + 964 770 362 9157 E-mail: mark.thompson@magiraq.org.uk Website: http://www.maginternational.org/ where-we-work/where-mag-works/ mag-iraq/
AMATC: Sustainable Solutions for Humanitarian Mine Action

Kabuls Afghan Mine Action Technology Center employs disabled deminers to create demining products. AMATC donates part of its revenue to local physical rehabilitation and treatment facilities, and now employs 11 disabled employees full time.
by Karen Reed-Matthee [ Clear Path International ]
hile clearing unexploded ordnance in Afghanistans Herat province, due to a small, inadvertent error, Haroon Khan1 lost his right hand and a means of steady employment for the next several years. With my right leg, I accidentally kicked a stone, recalls the 30-year-old native of Eastern Afghanistans Nangarhar province. It set off the mine. After he received emergency medical care and, later, a prosthetic arm, Khan remained unemployed for six difficult years. He was forced to borrow money from relatives and others to survive. During that time, however, he took the opportunity to finish his high school education and in early 2008 received a unique opportunity to go back to work. Clear Path International, a humanitarian mineaction nonprofit organization based in the United States, had just formed the Afghan Mine Action Technology Center in Kabul to offer employment to disabled deminers by creating products designed to be used by the demining industry. In an effort to build up a staff, Afghan demining organizations were asked to suggest possible employees. Khan was nominated and became AMATC's first technician. Today, Khan oversees procurement of materials needed to produce the dozen-plus products sold to commercial and nonprofit demining outfits throughout Afghanistan. His AMATC income allows him to travel the three-hour trip of 175 kilometers (109 miles) home each weekend and to support his wife, two children and five nephews. AMATC has a very holistic mission, says Roberta Burns, the Kabul-based Foreign Service Officer for the Office of Weapons Removal and Abatement in the U.S. Department of States Bureau
(Left) An AMATC technician welds a piece of equipment despite the loss of his right hand during service as a deminer. (Right) The centers team leader is one of 11 men employed by AMATC since 2008.
All photos courtesy of Gehn Fujii/AMATC.
of Political-Military Affairs (PM/WRA), which funds CPIs work with victims of wartime explosives, their families, and their communities in Afghanistan and other mine-affected parts of the world. Conceived by CPI and its subcontractor, Elegant Design and Solutions, AMATC also generates revenue from product sales to sustain its operation, and to support local physical rehabilitation and treatment facilities such as the Kabul Orthopedic Organization, one of CPIs nine implementing partners in Afghanistan. It [is] excellent social entrepreneurship, says Burns. It [is] exactly what were looking to do in Afghanistan. The center currently offers demining hand tools and accessories, counter-IED equipment, and replacement parts for the Bozena 4 demining machine, 2 as well as training and first-aid kits. Many of the tools are lighter in weight than traditional models while employing more durable and resilient materials, such as Kevlar
hand guards on bayonets that provide greater shrapnel protection. Because the products are locally made, they often cost less than those supplied by foreign sources. Along with AMATCs humanitarian mission, the centers emphasis on providing top-quality equipment designed to increase safety and comfort over long periods of use for deminers has prompted PM/ WRA to recommend its products to other U.S.-funded mine-clearance contractors in Afghanistan. Were working on an ad campaign on behalf of AMATC, Burns says. Frequently, design concepts originate from customer input as to what would make a more effective field tool, says AMATC Technical Advisor Gehn Fujii. In some cases, he adds, AMATC will work with clients to design and develop tools to specifically suit their needs, depending on cost and production feasibility. All tools are field-tested by actual deminers on real mines and are certified by the Mine Action Coordination Center of Afghanistan, says AMATC Project Manager Ehsanullah Ehsan. As an example, he notes that the centers modular prodder, put through an anti-personnel mine blast, stayed intact. It did not fragment, Ehsan says. Last summer, AMATC won its first large contract (valued at US$244,000) from the Combined Security Transition Command Afghanistan. The center will continue pursuing these types of orders, it also will work on building product stock to sell off the shelf. While these huge contractbased orders are important, they are not ideal from a sustainability standpoint, Fujii says. Theres no month-to-month cash flow.
Rodney Robideau from PM/WRA (left) examines tools fabricated by AMATC with center director Ehsan as employees and CPI staff look on.
Eleven employees now depend on AMATC for a monthly wage. Besides Khan, there are five technicians, two machinists, one team leader, a driver and a custodian. CPI and AMATC hope to increase employment as production and sales grow. In keeping with the centers mission as an employment program for persons with disabilities, 75 percent of AMATC workers are disabled. Disabled candidates are encouraged to apply for work no matter their disability, as manufacturing tools, procedures and workstations can be modified to accommodate the persons disability. Our newest machinist has developed tools especially for disabled staff, Fujii says, noting that one technicians prosthesis was retrofitted to allow him to hold a welding rod and mask. For Khan, who has become an unofficial AMATC poster child, the center has been a lifesavera means of regaining the dignity he lost after his injury. He is fond of reciting the CPI motto that disability is not inability. He means it. Before I had very great depression, he says. Now, I dont have [to feel that way]. see endnotes page 81
Married to CPI Co-founder Imbert Matthee, Karen Reed-Matthee has been involved on the periphery of the organization since it began and has visited Clear Path programs in Afghanistan and Vietnam. Since May 2010, she has been on staff as Director of Communications, bringing more than 20 years of experience as a writer and editor for large metropolitan newspapers, National Public Radio and a number of magazines to Clear Path. She is the cofounder of a Seattle-based magazine devoted to womens health and financial well-being. She holds a Bachelor of Arts in English from the University of California, Berkeley, and she has a masters degree in journalism from the Medill School of Journalism at Northwestern University. She and her husband have a 13-year-old son, Niko.
Karen Reed-Matthee Director of Communications Clear Path International Bainbridge Island, WA 98110 / USA Tel: +1 206 780 5964 E-mail: karen.clearpath@gmail.com Website: http://www.cpi.org
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FEATURE
Capacity Building in Western Sahara

Action on Armed Violence (formerly Landmine Action) is the only nonprofit organization that has carried out humanitarian mine-action activities (including survey, marking, battle-area clearance and explosiveordnance disposal) in Frente POLISARIO -controlled Western Sahara since 2006. This article provides an overview of AOAVs capacity-building efforts through its Mine Action Programme, which focus heavily on training national staff to efficiently identify and remove dangerous items threatening the safety of the Saharawi population, United Nations personnel and international visitors. of roads, hospital infrastructure and
by Penelope Caswell [ Action on Armed Violence ] Female clearance operators in Western Sahara.
andmine Actions (now Action on Armed Violence) initial work in Western Sahara from 200608 focused on conducting the first and only comprehensive Dangerous Areas Survey of minefields, cluster-munition strikes, and other abandoned or unexploded ordnance east of the defensive berm.1 In 2008, AOAV deployed a small team to conduct battle-area clearance in areas of urgent humanitarian concern and local population use. The survey, completed in December 2008, identified 196 dangerous areas (158 cluster-strike areas, 37 minefields and one ammunition dump2), which were marked with dangerous area markers and mapped electronically using geographic information systems software. As of October 2010, 95 cluster strikes were cleared in the northern sector, of which 49 areas were officially handed over to the local population.
EOD and BAC Training
AOAVs field program in Western Sahara has 68 staff members; 66 are Saharawi nationals and two are international staff. The national staff is recruited from the Saharawi refugee camps in neighboring Algeria. Currently, AOAV has four Saharawi
teams, three consisting of a team leader, deputy team leader, eight clearance operators, a team driver and a team medic to clear priority areas identified during the survey of Western Sahara, east of the berm. Each of the three teams was crosstrained to conduct battle-area clearance, explosive-ordnance disposal and survey work. The fourth team is a dedicated EOD team, which is also trained as an Emergency Response Team, consisting of a team leader, a deputy team leader, two operators and a medic. Two Saharawi teams were trained in March 2007 in International Mine Action Standards Level 3 EOD3 by the international operations officer and the international technical advisor, while the third team was trained in IMAS Level 2 EOD.4 The training included theoretical and practical training with a final exam. All clearance operators receive refresher training regularly and are supervised in accordance with IMAS. BAC training delivered to the teams has equipped them with the necessary technical skills and knowledge to perform subsurface and visual clearance. The country manager, of Saharawi origin, provides all managerial support.
An EOD team receives advanced medical training in Western Sahara.

All photos courtesy of Landmine Action.
Medical Training
Each of the three survey/EOD/ BAC teams is trained to respond to a mine or explosive remnants of war emergency and serve as an emergency response team on a rotational basis. The ERTs are on call 24 hours a day, seven days a week. An international paramedic trainer trains all operators in specialist trauma first aid. To ensure the safety of all procedures, refresher trainings are carried out after a clearance operator, who is also trained as an ERT member, returns from a work absence of more than 10 days. Frequent casualty evacuation simulations are practiced so the operators have experience responding to accidents. Due to Western Saharas lack
emergency response infrastructure, this ERT is vital during a mine/ ERW emergency. Moreover, the skill range is crucial to the establishment of a high-quality, sustainable mineaction capacity. The Emergency Response Team has successfully responded to a few accidents thus far, including an accident that took place 10 April 2009, during a demonstration organized by Frente Popular de Liberacin de Sagua el Hamra y Ro de Oro (Frente POLISARIO) and nongovernmental organizations. During the demonstration, a 19-year-old Saharawi stepped on an anti-personnel landmine. AOAVs ERT provided specialist trauma first aid and evacuated him to the Rabuni hospital. The mine victim survived, although unfortunately, he lost his foot. Apart from the operators, each staff member in Western Sahara is also trained in basic first aid.
Gender Balance
to focus on promoting applications from local Saharawi women, which it hopes will contribute to a sustainable national capacity. In the field program, female support staff include the finance officer, radio operator and administrator. They have received significant training to meet these role requirements. Furthermore, AOAV has four female BAC operators trained in Dangerous Area Survey. Two of the female operators are survey and clearance operators with Level 3 EOD and BAC training including the use of large loop and groundcompensation detectors, while two of the female operators have advanced medical training and serve as team medics. AOAV works closely with the National Union of Saharawi Women in Algerias refugee camps in order to advertise vacancies. The NUSW then encourages women in the refugee camps to apply for the positions and motivates them as they go through the interviewing process.
IMSMA/GIS Training
AOAV also has a professional capacity to electronically map dangerous areas and clearance sites using GIS technology. This capacity ensures ongoing activities are accurately recorded and regularly updated. Western Saharas national GIS officer receives ongoing training, guidance and support from AOAV to build his capacity to produce useful and accurate maps and data. Keeping in mind Western Saharas harsh climate conditions, isolated environment and absence of hospital and road infrastructure, a national mine-action capacity with technical expertise is critical to minimize the threats posed by ERW and mine contamination. This national capacity is also a step toward supporting re-establishing sustainable livelihoods for the Saharawi people and to encourage them to resettle in safe areas. see endnotes page 81
AOAV is committed to including individuals from all backgrounds in its work, and maintaining a gender perspective is one of the ways that the organization strives to achieve equality in its operations. AOAV makes efforts during recruitment
The Information Management System for Mine Action database was installed in AOAVs Mine Action Programme in Western Sahara in October 2008 with the help of the United Nations Mine Action Coordination Centres support and training. AOAVs national GIS officer inputs all survey data and manages, maintains and updates the database with ongoing survey, clearance and accident data. The MACC IMSMA officer visits the program regularly, carrying out quality checks on the data. The IMSMA database ensures dangerous area data is complete, wellorganized and available to the appropriate stakeholders.
Penelope Caswell joined Action on Armed Violence (formerly Landmine Action) as the Field Programme and GIS Manager for Western Saharas program in February 2008. She holds a Master of Science from the University of Nottingham (U.K.) in geographical information systems and a bachelors degree in environmental science and GIS. Penelope Caswell Field Programme and GIS Manager Action on Armed Violence 5th Floor Epworth House 25 City Road London EC1Y 1AA / United Kingdom Tel: +44 207 256 9500 E-mail: pcaswell@aoav.org.uk Website: www.landmineaction.org
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feature | the journal of ERW and mine action | spring 2011 | 15.1
15.1 | spring 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | feature
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Peer Support and Trauma Recovery

Peer support is becoming an important strategy to help survivors of war-related violence recover from psychological trauma. After a short training in counseling techniques, peer-support workers seek out trauma survivors in the community and help them reintegrate into society, find work, engage in sports and come to terms with their traumatic memories. Peer-support programs incur costs related to transportation and communication, but support groups may recover some costs through incomegenerating projects.
by Cameron Macauley, MPH [ Center for International Stabilization and Recovery ]
or most people who survive injuries from landmines or other explosive remnants of war, friends and family can significantly aid in the recovery process. Survivors rarely recover in isolation; support from concerned people in the survivors life is often the single most crucial element in the period of healing. Survivors call upon their own inner resources to tolerate physical pain, mental anguish, flashbacks, nightmares, fear, difficulty with daily activities, loss of employment or school interruption, as well as stigma, discrimination and the humiliation of depending on others for assistance. Yet emotional support, companionship, sensitivity and affection are natural human responses and, in this painful time, often make the difference between suicidal depression and the desire to move forward and recreate a normal life.2 Some organizations providing victim assistance for survivors recognize the power of psychosocial support and incorporate it into their programs. In particular, many victim-assistance programs recognize the strength and power of bonds between peerspeople similar in age, gender and social background, and especially those who share a history of trauma survival. Peer support has become a standard way to help survivors readjust during their recovery. Peer support is particularly attractive in post-conflict settings because it encourages survivors to help one another, occurs in natural community settings, can be adapted to specific ethnic and cultural circumstances, avoids the stigma associated with psychiatric care, emphasizes outreach and peoples strengths, and is likely to be culturally sensitive since it is delivered by community members.3
A Brief History
Peer-support programs for military veterans date back to just after World War I, according to The New York Times: A corps of cheer-up men, themselves cripples of various kinds, has been organized at the base hospitals in France and in the United States. Through their efforts, example and precepts, the injured man is stimulated to use his brains on his own behalf.4 Following World War II, amputee veterans were often employed in prosthetics centers to teach ambulatory skills, dailyliving activities and residual limb care.5 Still in use and similar to the current peer-support model, Alcoholics Anonymous, a group for recovering alcoholics, developed the sponsor method in the late 1930s.6 In the late 1990s, the Amputee Coalition of America began training Peer Visitors to talk with new amputees while they recovered from surgery in the hospital.7 In 1997, Jerry White and Ken Rutherford established Landmine Survivors Network (later renamed Survivor Corps) to take this approach to mine-affected countries worldwide with the intent of creating a global network of landmine survivors to provide victim-assistance services.8
The Implementation of Peer Support
In 1996, when Kemal Karic (right) was four years old, an artillery shell severed his right leg below the knee. His mother was killed in the same blast. He received peer support from LSN Outreach Worker Nusret Pleho (left).
All photos courtesy of Reverend Paul Jeffrey.
A variety of nongovernmental organizations use peer support in programs for survivors of war-related violence, including but not limited to those injured by landmines or ERW. Peer-support programs exist for amputees, military-combat and torture survivors, refugees, and survivors of kidnapping and sexual violence related to war. Programs for landmine survivors use peer support as a principal tool in Afghanistan,9 Bosnia and Herzegovina,10 Cambodia,11 Rwanda12 and Vietnam.13
Landmine Survivors Network established peer-support programs in 12 countries before closing in 2010. Peer support is offered to survivors as either one-to-one individual counseling or in group sessions where all members are survivors. Peer-support workers receive some training on how to: Provide effective counseling Deal with suicidal behavior and substance abuse Help survivors obtain professional services, such as dealing with health problems, starting a business/finding work or applying for financial assistance
Because peer-support workers are survivors, some of their training includes how to deal with their own feelings of fear, anger and grief, which is important in coping with emotions that other survivors stories may trigger. Peer-support workers are sometimes referred to as outreach workers because they seek out survivors in the community who may not have received treatment or attention for their psychological trauma. Trauma survivors may isolate themselves and avoid social contact, remaining bitter and depressed for years. By visiting a survivor in his or her
home, a skilled peer-support worker can encourage a survivor to return to the social network, which improves self-esteem, increases problem-solving capabilities and reduces the incidence of suicide. Once survivors are comfortable in a social setting, they usually benefit from a survivor-support group. Support groups meet for a variety of reasons, not always overtly related to trauma recovery but frequently for more practical activities such as income generation, entertainment or sports. In the midst of these events, peer support takes place and survivors benefit from contributing
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Kadira Nukic (left) lost her leg above the knee during the 1995 siege of Srebrenica (Bosnia and Herzegovina). Her husband and two children were killed in the fighting. She received peer support from LSN Outreach Worker Aladin Mujac ic (right) in 2006 and went on to establish a support group for female amputees in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
to a group effort. Support groups expose survivors to others who are in different stages of recovery and are in the process of overcoming various types of trauma. Researchers and clinicians feel there is a solid theoretical basis for peer supports effectiveness as a therapeutic method. When someone recognized as a peer provides support to a survivor, a variety of psychosocial processes come into play, as described by Phyllis Solomon in 2004:14 1. Social support consists of positive psychosocial interactions in which there is mutual trust and concern.15 Healthy relationships contribute to positive adjustment and help survivors deal with stress and challenges through emotional support (esteem, attachment and reassurance), instrumental support (material goods and services) and information support (advice, guidance and feedback).14 2. Experiential knowledge comes from dealing with a particular set of challenges such as substance abuse, a physical disability, a chronic illness or surviving a traumatic event such as military combat, a natural disaster, domestic violence, sexual abuse or imprisonment. When shared, experiential knowledge helps a survivor solve problems and improves a survivors quality of life.16
3. Social learning theory postulates that peers, because they have undergone and survived relevant experiences, are more credible role models for others. When survivors interact with peers who cope successfully with stress, difficulties or illness, they are more likely to exhibit positive behavior changes.17 4. Social comparison theory suggests people are constantly comparing themselves to those around them. They are more comfortable with others who share common characteristics with them, which helps them establish a sense of normalcy. Interacting with others who are perceived to be better than them gives them a sense of optimism and something to strive toward.18 Helping others, who they consider to be struggling or in need, enhances peoples own sense of self-worth. 5. The helper-therapy principle proposes four main benefits for those who provide peer support.19,20 As a result of making an impact on another person's life, the helper has an increased sense of interpersonal competence, experiences the reward of positive exchanges, learns useful skills and receives social approval from the person they help and others.17
Establishing New Peer-support Programs
Peer support encourages survivors to provide that supportive network for the trauma-stricken, and it can often help survivors recover quickly without seeking help outside the community. Peer-support programs for trauma survivors can supplement thinly-stretched mental-health services in post-conflict settings and promote vital social reconstruction following a war. see endnotes page 81
Ardie Sabahudiv (left) and Popovic Dragan (right) are landmine survivors who fought on opposite sides during the Bosnian civil war. They both work as professional sculptors and received peer support through the Association of Disabled Persons in Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
In spite of peer supports effectiveness in promoting recovery from trauma of survivors and of those who help them, peer-support programs have drawbacks. Individual one-to-one peer support is expensive to implement because peer-support workers need transportation to visit survivors in their homes, and this may require programs to cover the costs of public transportation, or provide peer-support workers with a bicycle or a motor scooter and associated expenses such as fuel. Many peer-support programs pay for or subsidize mobile phones for peer-support workers so they can stay in contact with survivors as well as with their own supervisors and can help survivors set up appointments, or network for jobs and other opportunities. Peer-support workers are sometimes volunteers, but many programs pay them salaries commensurate with their experience and training. Supervisors (usually social workers or program managers) are also necessary, and there may be a need to hire specialists in employment opportunity and advocacy. Peer-support groups can be more cost-effective than other forms of support, but costs are still associated with transporting survivors to
group meetings, except in very small communities. Support groups may request contributions from members in order to cover costs, or they may organize income-generation projects such as vegetable gardens, theater or crafts. In some cases peer-support groups for landmine survivors have grown into independent nongovernmental organizations, as in Bosnia and Herzegovina21 and El Salvador.22 Lastly, some psychotherapists argue that support from a peer with only brief training in counseling may in some cases be harmful to survivors suffering from severe psychological trauma.23 Special training is needed to help survivors deal with suicidal depression, hallucinations, drug and alcohol abuse, and flashbacks. Inappropriate counseling has the potential to worsen some conditions or at the very least, interfere with the healing process.24 In addition, peer-support workers can experience vicarious trauma from
hearing survivors trauma stories.25 Although there is some risk, most peer-support programs have access to professional psychotherapists to whom they can refer survivors with problems that are too severe for the peer-support worker to handle. Peer support is never considered to be a substitute for psychotherapy, but it is a useful supplement, especially in areas where health-care services are sparse. The training of peersupport workers is growing more sophisticated and now emphasizes the limits of peer support, as well as its benefits.
Conclusion
Cameron Macauley joined CISR in August 2010 as Peer Support and Trauma Rehabilitation Specialist. He holds degrees in anthropology and psychology and became a physician assistant in 1983. He has worked in a refugee camp on the Thai-Cambodian border, at a district hospital in Sumatra, as a Peace Corps volunteer in Guinea-Bissau, in Mozambique where he taught trauma surgery for landmine injuries, in an immunization program in Angola and in a malaria-control program in Brazil. Between 2005 and 2010, he taught mental-health courses for Survivor Corps in Bosnia, Colombia, El Salvador, Ethiopia, Jordan and Vietnam. Cameron Macauley Peer Support and Trauma Rehabilitation Specialist Center for International Stabilization and Recovery James Madison University 800 South Main Street, MSC 4902 Harrisonburg, VA 22807 / USA Tel: +1 540 568 4947 E-mail: macaulcx@jmu.edu Website: http://cisr.jmu.edu or http://maic.jmu.edu
Trauma specialists worldwide recognize that most survivors are capable of full recovery from psychological trauma under the right circumstances and that an accepting, supportive social environment is a key factor in preventing longterm psychological dysfunction.
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Building Knowledge and Partnerships in ERW Action

As Jordan nears the completion of its mine-clearance activities, its national authority is working to reinvent itself as an international center of expertise in mine and explosive-remnants-of-war action. With funding from the United States Department of State, Jordans National Committee for Demining and Rehabilitation developed a comprehensive training course for senior managers to help other countries replicate Jordans success in dealing with mines and ERW.
by Jonah Shepp [ Independent Consultant ]
ince its nascence in the early 1990s, Jordans mineaction program has evolved from an earnest but haphazard jumble of military clearance operations to a robust, concerted effort that brings together civil and military, governmental and nongovernmental actors, and encompasses mine and explosive-remnantsof-war clearance, as well as land verification, risk education, public outreach and victim assistance. At its current pace, Jordan is on track to meet its May 2012 deadline for fulfilling its obligations to the Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on Their Destruction (Ottawa Convention). Yet, motivated by the belief that landmines and ERW are not only a national challenge but a global concern, Jordans mine-action center, the National Committee for Demining and Rehabilitation, has sought a means of retaining, utilizing and passing on the expertise its staff has acquired in the 10 years since its establishment.
own countries. Accordingly, the ERWTC included field visits to the NCDRs offices in Amman and its ongoing mine-clearance and verification projects in the Jordan Valley and Jordans North Border Region, as well as to post-clearance development sites in the Jordan Valley. The second course (held in 2010) included a trip to Aqaba, where deminers from the Naval Component of the Belgian Armed Forces demonstrated underwater demining, a key concern for many countries that suffer mine and ERW contamination in coastal regions.
Participants in the 2010 ERWTC work together on a group project. The training course relies extensively on group work, which allows participants to get to know each other better and to learn from their colleagues diverse backgrounds. Participants
NCDR Internal Quality Control and Reporting Officer Basem Al Kasasbeh (center) discusses an on-site case study with participants in the 2010 ERWTC during a field visit to the Jordan Valley.
All photos courtesy of Oumima Alyamany.
ERWTC Senior Managers' Course
NCDR
With this goal in mind, NCDR Chairman Prince Mired Raad Zeid Al Hussein put forth a new NCDR vision to develop a regional and international mine/ERWaction training center. The NCDR had already begun taking on a global leadership role, most notably when Jordan hosted the Eighth Meeting of the States Parties to the Ottawa Convention in 2007. However, the first initiative carried out as part of the Committees new mission began in 2009, when the NCDR launched its first ERW International Training Course for Senior Managers.
With two years funding from the U.S. Department of States Office of Weapons Removal and Abatement in the Bureau of Political-Military Affairs (PM/WRA), and supported in-kind by NCDRs institutional partners, the ERWTC sought to provide comprehensive training to senior managers at mine- and ERW-action organizations around the world. Instructors in the four-week training course were drawn from the College of Business and the Center for International Stabilization and Recovery/Mine Action Information Center at James Madison University, the Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining, the International Committee of the Red Cross,
and the United Nations Development Programme, as well as from the NCDR itself. Inviting instructors from a variety of backgrounds and organizations was central to the NCDRs effort to provide a truly comprehensive training program. In addition, participants became familiar with several of the international institutions working in mine/ ERW action, met key staff from these organizations and learned about their work, thus enabling them to expand their network of contacts and perhaps lay the foundation for future collaboration. The course curriculum covered a broad topic range. Half of the course was dedicated to applying management concepts proven to be successful in the private sector to leadership in humanitarian mine/ERW action. Other sections addressed subject matter specific to the participants work, such as technical issues related to ERW clearance, risk education, victim assistance, and relevant international laws and conventions.
Inspired by similar training courses held at JMU, the ERWTC, the first senior management training course held in a mine-affected country, also added value to the participants classroom experience by allowing them to see first hand how a successful mine-action organization like the NCDR operates in the office and the field. Furthermore, holding the course in Jordan was a capacity-building exercise for the NCDR: It was an opportunity for its staff to build its skills as leaders and teachers, in addition to South-South cooperation, which promotes development through sharing technology, knowledge or other resources between developing countries, as opposed to leadership or intervention by developed countries. The course also aimed at sustainable knowledge capture and transfer, with the hope that ERWTC participants would retain as much of what they learned as possible and pass it on to their colleagues in their
The first ERWTC was held from October to November 2009 at the United Nations University in Amman. The NCDR selected 30 participants from a variety of countries,1 ages and working backgrounds to allow participants to learn from each others experiences in mine-action work. A component of the ERWTC rationale is that it should be an opportunity for participants to build their knowledge and skills, and form friendships that can translate into future transnational working partnerships. As senior managers working for or even directing their countries national authorities, most of the participants interact with aspects of mine/ERW action outside their immediate areas of expertise, which justified and indeed necessitated the ERWTCs comprehensive nature. The selection process was, therefore, an arduous task for the NCDRs International Relations department. Nominations were solicited from the heads of mine/ERW programs worldwide, after which nominees submitted applications detailing
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JMU Professor Steven Harper delivers a lecture during the 2010 ERWTC.
their backgrounds and their reasons for wishing to attend the course. A major challenge in the application process was ensuring that prospective participants were proficient enough in English (the language of instruction) to understand the course material and participate in discussions. A few qualified applicants were rejected and encouraged to apply again to allow space for other applicants. In some cases, the NCDR accepted more than one applicant from the same country, because the country in question had a particularly severe mine or ERW problem or because multiple independent institutions carried out its program. The NCDR also strove to include as many women as possible. However, despite targeting female applicants, the course included only four female participants out of the 30 participants selected. Upon arriving in Amman, the ERWTC participants had a very full schedule with lessons taking place five days a week from 8:30 a.m. to 5:00 p.m., plus occasional working dinners. The tight schedule elicited a few complaints, but participants were also vocally appreciative
of the scope of the course. The first years participants offered some constructive criticisms that helped the NCDR better prepare its second course held in October 2010. During the month-long training course, the NCDR was pleased to see the participants interacting with each other in and outside of class, sharing long work days and collaborating on challenging assignments. As expected, participants have remained in contact with each other and the NCDR.
Second ERWTC
Some of the most challenging work in the ERWTC took place in the weeks and months preceding it, as the course secretariat went through the processes of selecting participants, constructing a schedule, collecting materials from instructors, making travel preparations and arranging accommodations. For the second course, the NCDR hired more staff and began working earlier in the year. A designer developed a logo and an integrated set of designs for ERWTC course materials, and more time was allowed for col-
lecting and compiling materials from the instructors to distribute to the participants. The selection process was started earlier as well, and the number of female participants in the second course increased. A total of 20 countries and one multinational institution was represented in the second ERWTC.2 Having learned from the first training course, the preparation process was easier and more productive the second time around, yet the ERWTC secretariat still found themselves working late into the night as the courses start date approached. The added value of an international program with input from multiple organizations meant the logistical considerations alone took up a great deal of time and energy. Collecting information and materials from instructors was also a challenge, as some instructors travel frequently and were too busy to contact and respond. There was also the inevitable instructor canceling at the last minute, a participant missing a connecting flight, etc. A key element of the ERWTCs original proposal that was lost in the preparation commotion for the first course was a plan to precede the on-site course with an additional two weeks of training delivered remotely through a Web platform. For the second year, the NCDR solicited suggestions from instructors for materials to be delivered and discussed during the courses online portion, and explored several potential options for e-learning platforms before settling on the simple and no-cost solution of conducting the online training through a Yahoo! group.
In part, the online training was meant to give the participants a chance to begin brainstorming in advance about the subject matter during the Jordan training course, as well as to allow instructors to prepare in advance of their lectures. It was also intended as a way for participants to get to know each other before the course. The online training was moderately successful, but attendance and participation proved difficult to enforce, and instructors were not as able to take part in the online discussion as hoped. The group remains online and active, so 2010 ERWTC participants and instructors can continue to use it to keep in touch with one another or to refer back to the course materials, which are posted on the page. At the time of this writing, the second annual ERWTC recently concluded, and the NCDR is in the process of analyzing participant evaluations and conducting its internal assessment. It is premature to precisely gauge the courses success. However, in measuring the second ERWTC against the first, the courses content and structure are clearly improving, and the project has been an effective exercise in building NCDR staff capacities. Will every participant always fully engage and benefit greatly from the course? No, but the feedback from the 2009 and 2010 participants indicates that all participants gained something from the ERWTC.
Conclusion
tors from many institutions, is worth such an endeavor, the answer is a resounding yes. Not only has the ERWTC been rewarding for its trainees, it is also a step forward in the NCDRs transformation into an international leader and center of expertise in mine/ ERW action, as well as a successful example of international, multi-institutional cooperation. NCDR plans to maintain the ERWTC as an annual event, as well as implement other training courses for mine/ERW leaders in the Arab region, in which NCDR staff would play a more central role as instructors. The NCDR seeks to enhance mine/ERW programs so that other countries like Jordan can continue increasing their capacity in effectively managing and mitigating the threats mines and ERW pose to its citizens. see endnotes page 81
Jonah Shepp is an independent copywriter with an eclectic background as a copywriter, journalist, editor, teacher and playwright. He has worked as a writing, development and public-relations consultant with the NCDR in Jordan since July 2009, and was closely involved in the planning and execution of the first two ERWTCs. Jonah Shepp Consultant National Committee for Demining and Rehabilitation Mobile: +962 79 717 7456 E-mail: jonah.shepp@gmail.com Website: http://ncdr.org.jo
If the question is whether an international training course for senior mine/ERW managers, held in an affected country with instruc-
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Lessons Learned: Sri Lankan Mine-action Staff Visit Cambodia and Lao PDR
The need for a comprehensive mine-action program is not always recognized as countries pursue demining efforts. This article describes Sri Lankan mine-action groups efforts to create a more comprehensive and cohesive mine-action program through regional visits to Cambodia and Lao PDR. It offers insight and advice to groups interested in pursuing the same avenue.
by Sebastian Kasack [ UNICEF ]
ow do we build mine-action capacity? How can we create accountability among national stakeholders regarding comprehensive mine action or, for example, specifically for school-based mine-risk education? How can we empower mine-action staff nationally and internationally? UNICEF Sri Lanka has taken many measures to address these questions, but one solution in particular focuses on regional visits to countries affected by landmines and explosive remnants of war.1 Trips to other national programs provide an intense learning experience. These visits allow hosts an opportunity to present their programs achievements and compare experiences to those of another country while also encouraging participants to reflect on their own program. The combined support of UNICEF Sri Lankas principal donor, the European Union, and colleagues from Cambodia, Lao PDR and Sri Lanka, enabled these trips to take place. Sri Lanka, Lao PDR and Cambodia have longstanding mine-action programs with many similarities, but they also include some important differences. While the Vietnam-American War-era bombing and Lao PDRs internal conflict stopped more than 35 years ago, and Cambodias conflict ended in a Peace Settlement in 1991, Sri Lankas armed conflict did not end until May 2009, resulting in different contamination situations for the three countries. Additionally, of the three, Cambodia is the only State Party to the Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of AntiPersonnel Mines and on their Destruction,2 and Lao PDR is a Party to the Convention on Cluster Munitions, as of October 2010.3
Cambodian and Lao PDR Visits Realized
In October 2009, a group of nine individuals4 visited Cambodias mine-action programs over the span of one week, and in June 2010, a group of eight5 visited Lao PDR for 10 days. Various national and international stakeholders, including the respective governments, nongovernmental organizations and UNICEF coordinated agendas and logistics. All but one of the participants were Sri Lankan nationals, comprising a deliberate mix of government staff, NGOs and UNICEF staff. The participants who traveled to Cambodia were from the Ministry of Nation Building (which is in charge of mine action), the Ministry of Education and two UNICEF officers. The visit to Lao PDR concentrated primarily on Sri Lankan NGO participants and local UNICEF staff from field offices. This group branched into the military field as well with the addition of a lieutenant colonel from the Sri Lankan Army involved with MRE. To encourage team building and peace building among Sri Lankas main communities and religions, members of the three main communities of Sinhalese, Tamils and Muslims,6 and the four main religious groups of Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam and Christianity were represented. Achieving a gender balance proved more difficult with the first Cambodia visit and included only male participants. With some encouragement from UNICEF, however, the second visit had an equal number of male and female participants. These efforts to promote diversity and team building seemed to pay off as a colonel from the Sri Lankan Army and two Tamil members (from an NGO and UNICEF) shared a room soon after the end of a violent armed conflict and the three became close friends.
A childrens theater group performs a play warning about collecting war scrap metal in Cambodia.
All photos courtesy of the author.
Cambodias mine-action program has come a long way in both mine-risk education and risk reduction, and has worked hard to increase community participation in mine action by engaging local students and teachers.7 In Lao PDR there is a need to address war- scrap-metal collection and use, and the mine-action program focuses on this issue. Lao PDR has also undertaken an impressive study on mine/ERW victims.8 In addition, both countries apply school-based MRE.9 The two visits surpassed the participants expectations regarding capacity building, ownership and empowerment. Why were these visits such a success? One possible explanation is that exposure to a new environment and the ability for participants to learn at their own pace created a rewarding learning experience. Witnessing programs first-hand provided a perspective unparalleled by formal training from field experts. Also, learning and observing away from the participants own immediate history of conflict provided a more relaxed learning environment. The visits focused on MRE, overall coordination and management of mine action, clearance, and victim assistance. Cambodian field visits to Rottanak Mondul district and to Pailin district enabled participants to observe a school MRE session, disposal of unexploded ordnance found near the school the day before and
a childrens MRE drama performance. These activities were all coordinated by the village mine-action committees responsible for identifying UXO hazards surrounding each village and warning new residents of their dangers. Visits were also made to mine victims receiving livelihood support. The days in Phnom Penh allowed participants to meet with several key officials and implementing agencies.10 The first field visit in Lao PDR took the group to Sepon, where it observed UXO Lao and Handicap International risk-education sessions. HI also educated the group on its efforts to establish household gardening as an alternative to scrap-metal collection. The second Lao PDR field visit took the group to Xieng Khouang province, Nong Het, and focused on MAGs (Mines Advisory Groups) community liaison, surveying and clearance activities. The group also traveled to Vientiane and collaborated with a diverse group of minerelated organizations.11
The Impact
Prior to the visits, Sri Lankas mine-action program predominantly focused on demining with a lesser emphasis on MRE and victim-assistance services; the Ministry of Education and the National Institute of Education considered MRE to be primarily a UNICEF
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of participants was limited and the demand was immense. Successful identification and staff nominations had to come early, as international travel authorization is a lengthy process in government institutions. For the Cambodia and Lao PDR trips, selections were geared toward those who would remain in the organization or field of work for at least two years. In addition, a van can hold
activities. Souvenirs also illustrated information about the participant countries and organizations. Additionally, integrating the group and host vehicles allowed for more experiences in an informal setting. Recommendations. Many of the Sri Lankan participants had never traveled outside the island, so additional time was required to orient and assist them. When hosting such
Conclusion
The Sri Lankan visits to Cambodia and Lao PDR proved beneficial for the Sri Lankan mine-action programs development, and the visits served as a source of team building between various organizations to create a more cohesive mine-action approach among the organizations. The national capacity of Sri Lankas program increased as governmental, NGO and UNICEF staff worked together and became familiar with each others programs. The visits promoted new mine-action ideas and collaborations among participants, while empowering and rewarding them for their hard work. see endnotes page 81
Handicap International in Lao PDR supports a home-gardening project as an alternative to collecting war scrap metal.
responsibility. School-based MRE was neither fully understood nor regarded as an indispensable component of the national syllabus. Now, one year after the first visit to Cambodia, government stakeholders have fully embraced MRE and recognize the importance of incorporating victim-assistance services into mine action. Additionally, prior to the trip, Sri Lankas MoE representative for MRE did not have direct links to the director of the national mine-action center. Now they communicate on a regular basis, and the MoE specialist for MRE attends mine-action coordination meetings. The Lao PDR visit also proved beneficial. In March 2010, UNICEF, with its partner Community Trust Fund, trained more than 60 Army engineers to conduct MRE. However, the vast majority of the engineers do not speak Tamil, the language spoken in the mineand ERW-affected communities, and they require the cooperation and assistance of national NGO partners when operating in the former conflict areas. Prior to the visit, the lieutenant colonel who had joined the visit was not convinced that MRE is really needed. Now, as he revealed in various debriefings, he is convinced that MRE must be in place before demining starts and must continue for many years to come, as the Lao PDR experience taught him.
Practical Issues to Consider
In order to organize trips and visits, the following has to be considered: Cost. Costs were approximately US$13,000 and $20,000 for the Cambodia and Lao PDR visits respectively. The relevant counterparts in the Cambodian Mine Action and Victim Assistance Authority/Cambodia Mine Action Centre and Lao PDR's National Regulatory Authority, as well as UNICEF offices, covered some expenses. All groups had to be very clear from the beginning about the trips expected costs and the expenses for which participants were responsible. Timing. Host-country weather, seasons and public holidays need to be considered to provide the best possible participant experience. With regard to the trips length, eight to 10 days proved to be the appropriate time span. Less time would not have justified the significant effort it took to plan the visits; more than 10 days may have demanded too much effort from the hosts. Travel permits. Visas had to be arranged, and invitations came from a government body. Consequently, the invitations took a considerable amount of time to obtain. Selection and number of participants. The important question was not so much whom to select, but how. Selecting the right partners proved difficult when the number
A visit is made to a landmine survivor and his family. Assistance is provided to the family through the Cambodian Red Cross.
Sebastian Kasack worked as the UNICEF Mine Action Specialist in Sri Lanka from May 2008 to November 2010. Kasack started his mine-action work in 1996, specializing in mine-risk education, victim assistance and advocacy. He worked for the German NGO Medico International, including two years in Angola promoting the Bad Honnef Framework for a developmentoriented mine-action approach. From 2003 to 2005 he was UNMAS MRE Officer, then became Global MRE Editor for the Landmine Monitor Report. He also has published several articles in The Journal of ERW and Mine Action. Sebastian Kasack Former Mine Action Specialist UNICEF Sri Lanka Lohmhlenstr. 1 20099 Hamburg / Germany E-mail: sebastiankasack@googlemail.com
between 10 and 12 people, including hosts, guides and a driver, so a group of less than 10 was ideal for travel and management. Preparation. The Cambodia and Lao PDR trips showed that visitors should know their program well. Bringing mine-action-related materials helped better demonstrate how organizations conduct MRE
a visit, an agenda that leaves enough time for each stakeholder and field visit is important. To allow for proper feedback, visitors must be aware of the time, personnel and money invested in a visit. Finally, encourage constructive criticism from participants, including inviting them to highlight what they learned during the visit.
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Building Mine-action Capacity through Management Training

The Cambodian Mine Action Centre is Cambodias largest demining organization, established in 1993 to clear Cambodia of landmines and other explosive remnants of war.1 With funding from the New Zealand government, Quality Solutions International has worked for the last 12 months to rebuild and strengthen CMACs management and training capacity. Part of the project was the delivery of three two-week middle-management courses, designed to provide CMACs middle managers with a basic grounding in management theory and application.
by Ben Anderson [ Quality Solutions International ]
istorically, national demining organizations have suffered from a lack of focus on the development of core management skills. This is often the result of a primary focus on output and an overreliance on international technical and management support. Although understandable during the first few years of an organizations founding, the ongoing success of any organization is dependent on the development of a management structure capable of achieving its goals effectively and efficiently. As funding for mine-action activities becomes scarcer, such organizations must be able to demonstrate effective internal managerial capacity and transparency to secure funding.
CMAC Staff Attend Treining
Participants from the third and final middle-management course following the closing ceremony.
Photo courtesy of the author.
CMAC currently has a strong management structure in place and a number of highly qualified staff in both managerial and technical disciplines. The organization has sent employees to the Center for International Stabilization and Recoverys Senior Managers Course for ERW and Mine Action at James Madison University, which were most recently funded by the Office of Weapons Removal and Abatement in the U.S. Department of States Bureau of Political-Military Affairs (PM/WRA), and to Cranfield University's Middle Manager Training Courses, which were funded by the United Nations Development Programme. Upper-level CMAC administrators have also attended managerial courses administered by QSI. However, CMAC recognizes that further training and professional development, particularly at middle and senior-management level, is necessary if CMAC is to effectively meet current and future challenges. It was in support of this requirement that the New Zealand
Agency for International Development provided funding for the delivery of three two-week middle-management training courses.
QSI Training
QSI, a provider of operational risk-management services to clients operating in challenging and remote locations, delivered management training at CMACs training center in Kampong Chhnang, approximately an hour and 20 minutes' drive from Phnom Penh. Each course was attended by 20 students with varying levels of management responsibility and experience. Two QSI consultants facilitated the courses, as well as two guest lecturers, comprising CMACs Director of Training and the U.N.s Advisor to the Cambodian Mine Action Authority. The aim of the course was to provide students with an understanding of management-theory best practice
and its application, focusing on the key functional areas of planning, organizing, leading and controlling. The training-needs analysis conducted at the outset also determined that specific attention must be paid to the topic of change management, a current area of concern as CMAC begins to integrate mechanical clearance equipment and methods into its organization. Course delivery heavily emphasized student participation. By integrating international best practices with scenarios specific to mine action in Cambodia, students were better able to visualize the practical application of theory. Group discussion and practical exercises were also used to help students consolidate the information given them. Subjects such as social responsibility and ethics were particularly effective in generating lively debate, highlighting the subtle differences in opinion and approaches between cultures. Another significant course component was the subject of leadership. In most hierarchical organizations, leadership styles are quite directive or authoritative. While a place for this style certainly exists, especially in demining organizations, managers of all levels must be able to adapt their approaches to different situations. The ability to involve members of ones team in the planning process is as important as the ability to authoritatively direct action in a crisis situation. For the CMAC students, comparing their individual leadership experiences against a best-practice framework was a great opportunity to better understand the results they had achieved to date. It also gave them the opportunity to explore and adopt new leadership tools for their management toolbox.
So how does this learning contribute to an increase in organizational capacity? A strong management capability is critical to an organizations success. The ability to effectively plan, lead and control organizational functions is fundamental to the delivery of effective and efficient outputs. A number of different methods teach these skills, including on-thejob training, mentoring/coaching and structured training, with each having a specific place and purpose. To ensure the right people have the right training, it is important that organizations have a training plan in place that both addresses and meets specific skill requirements. Furthermore, a successful organizational plan retains existing management skills while assimilating new ones. Post-course evaluation indicated the middle-management course was effective in introducing new knowledge and skills to the students, as well as demonstrating how this learning could best be applied to the workplace and the organization as a whole. Feedback received by CMAC management indicates capacity has increased in key functional areas such as project and operational planning, organizing and staffing, decision making, leadership, and quality management. Personal skills such as report writing and presenting also noticeably improved.
Conclusion
to conducting management courses was suggested. These instructors could then have assisted QSI in delivering the courses, with a decrease in active involvement from QSI as the courses progressed. Unfortunately, due to time constraints, this was not possible. QSI consultants have been involved with CMAC since its formation. With a great deal of pride, we continue to work alongside this dedicated and professional group of people. Facilitating a course to truly engaged and motivated students was pleasurable and rewarding. CMAC students regularly impress with their enthusiasm to learn new skills, contributions to class discussions, and an attitude toward learning that is reflective of the organization as a whole. see endnotes page 82
Ben Anderson is QSIs Operations Manager. He has seven years experience as a security and mine-action consultant working in Africa, Asia and the Middle East. He is a former New Zealand Army Officer and holds a Master of International Relations from Victoria University in Wellington, Australia. Ben Anderson Operations Manager Quality Solutions International Ltd. Level 2, 17 Napier Road Havelock North Hawkes Bay 4130 / New Zealand Tel: + 64 210 221 2085 E-mail: banderson@qsi-consulting.com Website: www.qsi-consulting.com
Despite these positive results, room for improvement remains. Using external training providers is a good way to bring new skills into an organization, but this approach should ideally include the development of an internal training capability. A train-the-trainer course run for selected CMAC instructors prior
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Modifying IMSMA Training: The Mine Action Information Management Qualification Scheme
The Mine Action Information Management Qualification Scheme (MIQ) is a new training tool for the Information Management System for Mine Action. It was created in response to the Next Generation version of IMSMA, the newest version of the system. The Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining eliminated the rigid and unnecessary parts of the training system in order to make MIQ more user-friendly. The MIQ scheme is currently being incorporated into several countries informationmanagement programs, but it still needs input as it is being refined and implemented.
by Aurora Martinez and Daniel Eriksson [ GICHD ]
To help users navigate their way through the IMSMA system, the GICHD also offered a training program. As IMSMA has undergone revisions, the training program had to evolve as well. The newest information-management system version, IMSMANext Generation (IMSMA NG), has sparked the development of a restructured training system, the MIQ, which the GICHD launched in August 2010. Built on experience gained during IMSMA NG deployment and users feedback, the MIQ scheme aims to make mine-action information-management training more effective. Standardizing the core information-management roles of mine-action programs using IMSMANG can help achieve this (See Figure 1).
Revising the Past Training System
IMSMANG administrators from Chile, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru at the Level A1 training in Bogot, October 2010.
Photo courtesy of Gabriela Parra Martinez.
he Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining created the Information Management System for Mine Action to help mine-action organizations arrange and analyze their data. This data-processing system has helped with faster and more transparent decision making. The first IMSMA system was launched in Kosovo in 1999 and has undergone several revisions, and has now reached the point where no more major software developments are needed. Starting in 2011, only minor updates will address bugs and technical-context changes, such as updates to the Microsoft operating system.
The past training systems learning objectives were based on step-by-step instructions on IMSMAs standardized technical features. Users were taught how to create IMSMA reports by filling out the standardized IMSMA forms and following the defined workflows steps and related business rules. In IMSMA Legacy, IMSMAs older version, the workflow and its related forms were fixed. For instance, Survey Level 1 was the first workflow process. This process could result in one or more mined areas, which were forms to contain information on hazardous areas with the lowest confidence level. For a number of years this training method proved effective for IMSMA Legacy systems. However, IMSMA
Legacy did not fit the information-management needs of its users. The organizations using IMSMA Legacy were often forced to adapt their activities to IMSMA because of the programs rigid workflows and forms. IMSMA NG was designed to be more flexible. It addressed these shortcomings and enabled the mine-action programs to define their own workflow and forms upon software installation. In addition, IMSMANG includes functionality for the system administrators to define standard statistical reports that users can easily retrieve. Examples include progress reports, victim statistics and project tasking statistics. However, all of this customization put a new form of responsibility on the mine-action programs. In the past, organizations used the rigid workflows and forms available to simply do what IMSMA told them to do. Advanced mine-action programs developed add-ons to work around the IMSMA Legacy limitations. Now, because the system no longer inhibits flexibility and functionality, organizations are responsible for making a comprehensive plan that aligns their information
management with their overall strategic aims and objectives. This new responsibility requires the redesign of IMSMA training.
IMSMANG Information-Management Procedures
Training efforts have had to address a wide range of mine-action information-management activities that must take place whether IMSMA is used or not. To produce a good-quality report, such as a transparency report according to the Ottawa Treaty, the data-collection forms and workflows leading up to the quantitative-data production for the report need to be planned in advance. While MIQ training still focuses on IMSMANG use, information-management practices taught in this training can also be partly applied to the information-management design of any information system. In comparison with other proprietary software, IMSMANG has the benefit of combined technologies, a ready-to-use mine-action framework, the compatibility with other proprietary software for additional data analysis, and best of all, it is free of charge.
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Figure 1: Summary of MIQ levels for national staff. Administrators are trained at three increasingly difficult levels, with A3 requiring the most skills. Users are also trained to three levels, with Level U3 being the most difficult.
Graphic courtesy of GICHD/CISR.
Teaching the Right Skills to the Right Person
During the IMSMANG deployment, it became obvious that all users could not be trained in all informationmanagement elements. Consequently, a new approach was adopted, focusing on what the users need to know, thereby not burdening them with unnecessary information on technical features. For instance, end users in an operations department do not need to know how to apply advanced customization features; administrators will have that knowledge. The information manager plays the key role in information management for mine-action programs. This manager is responsible for planning how the program gathers and manages information, continuously ensuring it is in line with the programs overall strategy. For most programs, the information manager is also the system administrator. The system administrator makes adjustments to information systems, like IMSMA, to ensure that forms and reports reflect the organizations needs as defined by the information manager in discussion with senior management. The system administrator also performs maintenance tasks like backups and useraccount management. Though not yet a widespread practice, roles and procedures for information management should be documented in a national mine-action standard. This standard
should include a comprehensive set of workflows, definitions, forms and reports. A comprehensive standard should start with information-needs analysis for a mine-action programs identified decision-makers and clients (e.g., operations officers, victim-assistance specialists, donors, governments and international organizations). This needs analysis then sets the way for the subsequent phases of data collection, storage, analysis and dissemination. The planning is repetitious, and after information is used in the dissemination phase, the lessons learned feed into another needs analysis to improve service in the subsequent cycle.
Different Installation-Complexity Levels
The MIQ scheme specifies basic prerequisites for target participants and is designed to achieve outcome competencies based on each participants informationmanagement role. For national staff, the training levels are divided into two groups: users (three sub-levels) and administrators (three sub-levels). The GICHD measures a mine-action programs current information-management capacity through analysis that highlights a programs specific needs. The needs are not simply determined by size, such as the number of staff or amount of contaminated land. Instead, the
programs maturity and resources determine the skill level their information manager requires. For example, all information managers should pass the foundational, two-week Level-A1 Administrator course offered by the GICHD. In mature mine-action programs with more complex information-management standards, administrators are recommended to take higher training levels, A2 and A3. A complex information-management standard could include distributed data entry, linking to external systems, recurring data imports and spatialdata analysis. The vast majority of programs will suffice with one or two administrators trained at Level A1. A new IMSMA NG guide will be available in early 2011. This will support some of the aspects covered by Level-A1 Administrator course content. An e-learning curriculum for mine-action spatial analysis is in development and is expected to launch in spring 2011. It targets English-speaking students who have passed the Level A1 training but only have basic geographic information-system skills. It enables users to link Esri ArcGIS, a powerful stand-alone tool for GIS, to IMSMA NG, print large-format maps and overlays, and conduct spatial analysis and prioritization.
End-users Training
ed to not only train all three user levels but also write locally adapted manuals and standards. GICHD provides guidance and templates for administrators to do this. Learning objectives for end-user training are expected to be achieved within three to five days depending on computer literacy and targeted user level.
Training Dates for 201011
A regional Level A1 training course has been delivered in Latin America. The mine-action programs in Chile, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru now have one or more Level A1 trained staff. In addition, in November 2010, information managers from four national mineaction programs also received Level A3 training. For 2011, the tentative training schedule is as follows: 1121 April, A1 course in Geneva 1930 September, combined A1 and A2 course in Geneva 24 October3 November, combined A3 and Expert-level course in Geneva The GICHD websites event calendar will have complete details. All 2011 centralized courses will be conducted in English.
Aurora Martinez provides support to mine-action programs using IMSMA NG and works on the development of informationmanagement publications and course curricula. Martinez joined the GICHD in 2006. She previously acted as GICHDs Outreach Officer for the implementation of a communications plan. She holds a masters degree in economic and social history from the University of Geneva, and completed a two-year program at Genevas Graduate Institute of Development Studies. Aurora Martinez IMSMA NG Support Officer Focal point for Latin America Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining Tel: + 41 022 906 16 55 E-mail: a.martinez@gichd.org Website: www.qsi-consulting.com
The national administrator staff best conducts in-situ training for end users. National administrators are those with the greatest understanding of all local data-entry forms, workflows, and language and terminology. Administrators with Level A1 qualification are expect-
Daniel Eriksson, Ph.D., is GICHDs Information Management Section Head. In this role he manages all aspects relating to IMSMA and GICHDs informationmanagement program. Before joining the GICHD in 2008, he worked in Afghanistan, Iraq, Kosovo and Sudan. His past employers include the Swedish Rescue Services Agency, the European Commission, the United Nations Office for Project Services, and the Vietnam Veterans of America Foundation/Information Management and Mine Action Programs. He holds a Bachelor of Science in systems science from Linkping University, Sweden, and a Ph.D. in geography from Coventry University, United Kingdom. Daniel Eriksson, Ph.D. Section Head, Information Management Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining Tel: +41 22 9061 684 E-mail: d.eriksson@gichd.org Website: http://www.gichd.org, http://www.imsma.org
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Making a Case for Strategic Analysis in ERW/Mine-action Training

As an essential element of training for managerial decision-making, case studies provide managers with applicable scenarios that benefit the professional, day-to-day lives of people working in the explosiveremnants-of-war/mine-action community. While class sessions provide pertinent instruction on how to react to potential scenarios, the opportunity to use that knowledge in well-constructed examples proves highly useful for personnel. This article reports the steps taken to implement appropriate case studies for CISRs Senior Managers Course in ERW and Mine Action and the results.
by Paula Daly [ JMUs College of Business ] and Suzanne Fiederlein [ JMUs Center for International Stabilization and Recovery ]
nderstanding the strategic planning and decision-making process is a critical skill for successful managers. Management faculty members from James Madison Universitys College of Business have helped develop these skills in mine-action management personnel since 2004, primarily through the Senior Managers Course in ERW and Mine Action organized by JMUs Center for International Stabilization and Recovery. The United Nations Development Programme sponsored this unique and highly successful course through 2007, and the Office of Weapons Removal and Abatement in the U.S. Department of States Bureau of Political-Military Affairs (PM/WRA) has funded it in recent years. By 2005, PM/WRA was requiring strategic plans of countries seeking monetary aid for explosive remnants of war and landmine remediation. Today, most donor organizations providing funds for ERW/mine-action projects expect not only a comprehensive strategic plan, but also the ability of key management personnel to evaluate strategic opportunities and alternatives, and to engage in decision-making that optimizes resource use and completion of strategic goals. All Senior Managers Courses include several class sessions focused on strategic planning and decisionmaking. Strategic planning benefits organizations by helping them do the following: Define their purpose (mission) and direction (vision) clearly to internal and external stakeholders Communicate current strategic goals and objectives to stakeholders Promote assessment of internal strengths and limitations as well as external opportunities and threats
Provide a framework for decision-making throughout the organization Provide a frame of reference for budgets and shortterm operational plans Enhance effective resource use Develop a baseline against which progress and performance can be measured Instructional modules for SMC participants typically include teaching tools such as traditional lecture, PowerPoint slides, class and small-group discussion, and experiential learning exercises. Over the years, faculty members tried a number of different instructional methods to ensure that participants have the opportunity to actively engage in strategic planning and decision-making activities during the training course in order to apply the concepts covered during class sessions. The instructors have asked participants to create a strategic plan for their organization, modify or critique existing plans, develop operational goals based on current plans, and evaluate progress accordingly. Additionally, instructors introduced the case study method to SMC participants as an effective tool for enhancing strategic thinking and as a means of applying recently learned concepts to varying organizational situations.
Case Studies
Members of the Senior Managers Course in ERW and Mine Action organized by JMUs Center for International Stabilization and Recovery take a field visit to Ft. AP Hill to view equipment and discuss demining issues.
Photo courtesy of JMU/CISR.
The case study method has been used very successfully in executive-education courses to develop and strengthen strategic decision-making skills in individuals who routinely face leadership and management dilemmas in their professional roles. Case-study use and case discussions foster analytical and diagnostic thinking, and force students to confront issues such as lack of
information or a changing environmentelements that introduce some degree of uncertainty into the decisionmaking process. When undertaken by a small group, a case analysis forces students to work together as a team, problem solve, communicate their views and opinions, resolve conflict, justify or substantiate their position, and persuade others of the value of their decisions and actions. The case method is a good way for individuals to study complex or rare phenomena, especially in high-risk environments where the repercussions of actual decision-making may have devastating or irreparable consequences. The first attempts at using the case-study method in the SMC involved the use of previously published and readily available cases about real organizations in the nonprofit sector. For example, in the 2004 and 2005 SMC, instructors used a case focusing on Mercy Corps, an organization that provides disaster response, health services, emergency and natural disaster relief, as well as fosters sustainable economic development. Instructors hoped to apply similarities between the strategic-management challenges faced by Mercy Corps personnel and those faced by managers within their own organizations, identifying and evaluating strategic alternatives that would provide transferrable
knowledge SMC participants could apply in their own organizations. Although the case brought up interesting management issues and generated some spirited discussion, many participants felt that the circumstances outlined in the case were simply not as relevant to their ongoing managerial challenges as they would have liked. Feedback from other course modules also indicated that participants were most interested in getting practical knowledge, skill development or advice on issues they actually faced daily in their own jobs, such as strategic decisions, human-resource issues, and operational problems. Convinced of the value of application and experiential learning, the SMC management faculty members looked for alternative cases, or other experiential learning exercises that would provide issues and challenges more relevant to course participants. Given the unique circumstances personnel in ERW/mine-action organizations faced, the course instructors attempted to create some teaching materials specifically customized for these professionals. In 2009, faculty members had an opportunity to create such materials when CISR was asked to provide instructional modules for the first Explosive Remnants of War International Senior Managers Training Course organized by Jordans National Committee
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Participants in the SMC are a diverse group of people from many mine-affected countries. They often have never been to the United States and sometimes have been on opposite sides of a conflict prior to coming to the SMC. During the five-week training course, they work together and form lasting friendships that transcend borders.
Photo courtesy of JMU/CISR.
Dr. Paula Daly is a Professor of Management at James Madison Universitys College of Business. She earned her doctorate in business administration from the University of Texas at Arlington. Her current research focuses on management issues in cross-cultural settings. Dr. Daly has taught in the Senior Managers Courses since 2004, when she assisted the Mine Action Information Center's staff in developing the curriculum for the first course. She continues to advise and assist CISR/ MAIC on course content and structure. Paula S. Daly, Ph.D. Professor of Management College of Business James Madison University 800 South Main Street, MSC 0205 Harrisonburg, VA 22807 / USA Tel: +1 540 568 3038 E-mail: dalyps@jmu.edu
Dr. Paula Daly discusses the case-study project at the ERWTC in the fall of 2009.
Photo courtesy of JMU/College of Business.
for Demining and Rehabilitation. Management faculty members partnered with the CISR Associate Director Dr. Suzanne Fiederlein to write a fictional case study especially pertinent to managers in the ERW/mine-action field. Thus was born the Freedonia case, the first known case-study exercise specifically tailored to the unique circumstances managers in ERW/mine action face. The case is loosely based on a composite of several real organizations in a variety of countries, and captures the challenges and opportunities a mine-action center experiences in the fictional country of Freedonia. The first part of the Freedonia case is a narrative describing the situation an incoming mine-action center director faces; the second part is comprised of background information relevant to the case analysis. As with all cases, complete information about every aspect of the situation is not available, and participants needed to augment the information provided with their own knowledge and experience. Participants from different countries and with different job titles were assigned to teams asked to do a thorough analysis of the situation presented in the case. Teams were provided with prior instruction on how to effectively analyze a case, had
to agree on a suggested course of action and were required to present their analysis to the other groups in the training session (as well as to instructors and facilitators). The case focus was identification and prioritization of the problems facing an incoming center director, and the strategic and operational management decisions needed. Participants were required to apply concepts learned in earlier training sessions, such as SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats) and stakeholder analyses, and to incorporate this information into their presentations. All recommendations for courses of action had to be feasible given the case parameters and background information provided. Use of the Freedonia case as a teaching tool generated a level of interest and passion unlike anything seen before in these training courses. Participants were excited to bring their knowledge, experience and opinions to the analysis of a situation that was so relevant to their professional lives. Understandably, participants had strong differences of opinion in identifying problems and deciding the best way to address them, but there was also a remarkable sharing of information and expertise necessary to effectively complete the exercise.
The Freedonia case exercise was such a success that a second case was written for use in the 2010 CISR-conducted SMC. This new case focused even more specifically on strategic decision-making within the transition framework that most centers need to address at some point in their existence. The second case, Midlandia, required participants to address strategy and management issues such as succession planning, funding and donor relations, as well as organizational mission and direction. Student feedback following the course indicates substantial benefits from tailoring the case method to the unique circumstances managers face in the ERW/mine-action field. Participants spend far less time trying to make the connection between their own situation and an organization in another field, and far more time applying the concepts covered in class sessions to challenges and opportunities relevant to their everyday professional lives.
Conclusion
How is our experience with these cases pertinent to managers and employees involved in routine training efforts in their own centers? With only a small amount of effort, most training in any area of an organization can be improved by developing exercises based on the actual issues and problems employees face daily. Lengthy and complex cases are unnecessary. A critical incident can be captured in a paragraph or two, and will elicit a surprising amount of discussion and ideas for addressing the situation. The more real the incident, the more likely employees will see themselves in that particular situation, and will see the value of finding alternative ways to deal with those circumstances. Asking employees to provide information (anonymously or confidentially) about problems they have dealt with in the past, or situations they do not know how to resolve, can provide the basis for a more meaningful training experience.
Dr. Suzanne Fiederlein joined CISR in 1999, serving as Senior Research Associate and Victim Assistance Team Leader before becoming Associate Director in 2010. She has worked on victim assistance, mine-risk education, mine action in Latin America, International Mine Action Standards and mine-action casualty-data systems. She is coordinator of management training for CISR, directing ERW/Mine Action Senior Managers Courses at JMU. She received her Ph.D. in political science from the University of Arizona, and has taught on the faculty of James Madison University and Virginia Commonwealth University. Suzanne Fiederlein, Ph.D. Associate Director Center for International Stabilization and Recovery James Madison University 800 South Main Street, MSC 4902 Harrisonburg, VA 22807 / USA Tel: +1 540 568 2715 Fax: +1 540 568 8176 E-mail: fiedersl@jmu.edu Website: http://cisr.jmu.edu
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The Mine Action Technology Workshop

Sponsored by the United Nations Mine Action Service and the Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining, the Mine Action Technology Workshop is a biannual event held in Geneva, Switzerland, in early September. The 2010 event featured theoretical and practical discussions, as well as a newly added opportunity to see technology in action. This article highlights the events and outcomes of the workshop.
by Nicole Neitzey [ Center for International Stabilization and Recovery ]
shop began discussing the man on the moon and progressed to the deminer on the ground.
Workshop Highlights
Participants saw live demonstrations of several types of machinery available to demining programs, a new feature added to the agenda for the 2010 Workshop.
n September 2010, 75 participants from more than 30 countries attended the United Nations Mine Action Service/Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Deminings Mine Action Technology Workshop. The third workshop of its kind, the 2010 workshops theme was Merging Mine Action Technology and Methodology. The proceedings involved more than two days of densely packed presentations and demonstrations from scientists, manufacturers and operational staff, presided over by facilita-
Photo courtesy of Erik Tollefsen/GICHD.
tors Christopher Clark of UNMAS and Erik Tollefsen of GICHD. The workshops discussion started with an aerial view of technologyquite literally, with presenters from the European Space Agency and a manufacturer of unmanned aerial vehiclesand became more practical on Day Two, with discussions of actual testing and trials of different technologies. Day Three brought things closer to ground with field demonstrations of different equipment types. As one of the presenters described it, the work-
Day One covered Remote Sensing and Information Management, giving participants an idea of technology that could be used for remote detection of mines. Day One also included presentations on a current study to determine how space assets could be used in demining1,2 and on how aerial systems are used or are tested for mine-action applications.3,4 Afterward, participants broke into three groups to discuss the presentations and raise questions for the presenters in a session dubbed hard talk, which was designed to allow the community to ask the manufacturers concrete questions about their technologies in order to better understand their feasibility and applicability in mine action. The day concluded by transitioning to more practical kinds of briefings that would characterize Day Two, featuring presentations on how soils affect metal-detector performance5,6 and results from recent testing on blast-resistant wheels.7,8 As mentioned, Day Two presenters discussed more practice than theory, talking about personal expe-
riences, lessons learned from the field and innovative projects that are under way. Presentations covered specific mechanical-demining equipment9 and planning tools.10,11,12 Country-specific case studies were also presented, such as Phase 1 of the Falkland Islands clearance project13,14 and South Sudans land-release procedures.15 The afternoon session focused on technology related to explosive-ordnance disposal and stockpile destruction, including discussions of environmentally safe stockpile-destruction technologies16 and the Moldova stockpile-destruction project.17 A report on an initiative by Golden West Humanitarian Foundation in Cambodia to break down unexploded ordnance and reuse the filler explosive in clearance operations was also presented.18,19 Another presenter highlighted a subject of growing concern in the community: improvised explosive devices and related security issues.20, 21, 22, 23 The workshops third and final day let participants get hands-on with technology in field demonstrations. The group traveled by bus to the grounds of the nearby Swiss Army/ Civil Defence Training Centre, where manufacturers of different tools displayed their equipment. Exhibits included deminers vests and visors, deflagration technology, large machinery, geographic-informationsystem technologies and handheld detection systems. Participants were given the opportunity to test some of the equipment themselves or see the demonstrators put the tools to use. Day Three was a unique opportunity to see and hear about the capabilities of different technologies as well as ask the different organizational representatives questions.
Outcomes and Conclusions
This third Mine Action Technology workshop brought a number of new topics to the foreground for discussion, along with several recurring concerns mentioned in the past. It was clear many advancements have been made in recent years in terms of mine-action equipment and methodologiesincluding land release and innovative solutions, such as the explosives-harvesting programbut some participants remained frustrated with the technologys slow pace moving from concept to field use. Although some were skeptical that certain technologies could be effectively used in mine-action operations (at least anytime soon), most everyone in attendance realized the benefit of uniting in such a forum to link together the men on the moonthe innovators and scientistswith the deminers on the groundthe operational field personnel who will ultimately put their ideas to the test, and hopefully use these new technologies for the benefit of mine-affected populations. Overall, the workshop was a success. In addition to positive responses to the 2010 proceedings, most participant feedback indicated continued interest in attending such events. Attendees welcomed the new workshop features, including the hard talk session and the exhibition day. The workshops chairs hope to build on the 2010 workshops success and continue providing this unique opportunity for the community to network and convene around technology issues on a regular basis. see endnotes page 82 For more information, visit the GICHD site at http: //bit.ly/eA5Nm4.
Nicole Neitzey is the Technical Editor for The Journal of ERW and Mine Action and serves as Grants Officer for the Center for International Stabilization and Recovery/Mine Action Information Center. She has worked for CISR/ MAIC since 2001. Neitzey graduated from James Madison University in 2002 with a Bachelor of Arts in technical and scientific communication, and an online publications specialization. Nicole Neitzey Technical Editor/Grants Officer The Journal of ERW and Mine Action Center for International Stabilization and Recovery James Madison University 800 South Main Street, MSC 4902 Harrisonburg, VA 22807 / USA Tel: + 1 540 568 3356 Fax: + 1 540 568 8176 E-mail: neitzenx@jmu.edu Website: http://cisr.jmu.edu Erik Tollefsen Project Manager - EOD, Stockpile Destruction and Technology Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining 7bis, avenue de la Paix P.O. Box 1300 1211 Geneva 1 / Switzerland Tel: + 41 22 906 16 95 Fax: + 41 22 906 16 90 E-mail: e.tollefsen@gichd.org Website: http://gichd.org Chris Clark, MBE MC Senior Liaison Officer Team Leader - Standing Capacity UNMAS/Geneva Tel: +41 22 917 2262 Mobile: +41 794 298640 Website: http://www.mineaction.org
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Humanitarian Disarmament
This article examines the evolution of international humanitarian law, specifically as it relates to the conventions banning or restricting conventional weapons. The Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction and the Convention on Cluster Munitions are discussed here, as they form a distinctive type of disarmamenthumanitarian disarmament.
by Pascal Rapillard [ GICHD ]
he Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of AntiPersonnel Mines and on their Destruction (also known as the Anti-personnel Mine Ban Convention or APMBC) and the Convention on Cluster Munitions crystallize the two main dimensions that have driven the evolution of international humanitarian law: restrictions on the means and methods of warfare and the protection of victims. The Declaration Renouncing the Use, in Time of War, of Explosive Projectiles Under 400 Grammes Weight (St. Petersburg Declaration of 1868) was the first formal agreement aiming to ban the use of certain weapons. Russia proposed prohibiting explosiveprojectile use in accordance with what is now a cardinal principle of international humanitarian law: to ban the use of warfare means and methods that cause superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering. Later, the Hague Convention of 1907 confirmed this customary rule by stating that the right of belligerents to adopt means of injuring the enemy is not unlimited.1 More than a century after the 1907 Hague Convention adoption, restrictions on warfare means and methods have developed considerably, as shown particularly by the legal framework relating to mines and explosive remnants of war. However, not only has warfare conduct seen normative changes, but the regulations concerning war-victim protection, both during and after a conflict, have also been regulated. The Geneva Conventions of 1949 aim to protect people who do not, or who no longer, take an active part in hostilities. In fact, this is a third revision of the Geneva Convention of 1864 to improve the conditions of wounded military person-
nel. In 1949, the regulations were codified through four Conventions, of which the fourth is concerned exclusively with wartime civilian protection. Additionally, Article 3, common to the four Geneva Conventions, which applies to non-international armed conflicts, expanded on the Hague Convention restrictions by providing minimum humane treatment standards for both combatants and civilians and requiring that they be treated with humanity and without adverse discrimination. Common Article 3 prohibits murder, mutilation, torture, cruelty, humiliation and degrading treatment, the taking of hostages, and unfair trials. Common Article 3 represented a major step forward by providing criteria for the proper treatment of individuals with respect to non-international armed-conflict situations. Only in 1977, with the adoption of the Additional Protocols to the Geneva Conventions, were the two fundamental dimensions of international humanitarian law combined: restrictions on warfare means and methods and the protection of victims. This concurrence is illustrated by Article 35 of Additional Protocol I, which provides that the methods and means of warfare are not unlimited and further states that in any armed conflict, the Parties are prohibited to employ weapons, projectiles and material and methods of warfare of a nature to cause superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering [...]. Additional Protocol I, which provides protections of victims through Article 35, reiterates the language found in Article 23 of the Hague Convention, which also prohibits weapons causing superfluous injury, in addition to the use of poison, the killing or wounding of enemies who have surrendered arms, and the misuse of flags, insignia and uniforms.2
A plenary session of a mine-action conference.

Photo courtesy of Harshi Gunawardana, GICHD.
The Concept of Humanitarian Disarmament
The individuals protection is central to recent developments in the humanitarian-disarmament field, while the protection of strategic national interests and international stability dominate other disarmament treaties and negotiationsparticularly for nonconventional weapons. Recent examples include the APMBC and the CCM. States Parties to these conventions have determined that anti-personnel mines and cluster munitions are not essential in ensuring their security in order to confirm the protection of civilians from the effects of these weapons. These States Parties have determined the protection of the individual takes precedence. Finally, strategic disarmament necessitates the involvement of major powers, which is not indispensable for humanitarian disarmament. These humanitarian-disarmament conventions are symptomatic of the paradigm shift in international relations after the Cold Wars end, when the security of the individual became more prominent than the security of the state. The appearance of the
term human security described in the United Nations Development Programmes 1994 Human Development Report3 conceptually reflects this change.
Victims at the Core of the Commitments
Although the question of victim assistance received limited attention during the first years of APMBC implementation, it is now central to the States Parties concerns. At the Second Review Conference of the APMBC in December 2009, the President of the conference called on the international community to focus on survivors rights and mine-affected communities. Twenty-six States Parties have indicated having responsibility for a significant number of victims, and therefore have an increased need for support to cope with victim assistance. The role of national programs in this context is crucial as the programs can serve as information channels for and about the victims, act as a conduit for their needs, and plead on their behalf for increased consideration by the relevant authorities. A coherent international framework now
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Women attending a mine-risk- education session in Sri Lanka.

Photo courtesy of Eric Filippino, GICHD.
Mine victims playing volleyball in Afghanistan.

Photo courtesy of Sheree Bailey, GICHD.
exists for victim protection, not only through the APMBC, but also through the CCM and the Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons Which May Be Deemed to Be Excessively Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate Effects, Protocol V. The recently enacted Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities reaffirms the protection of survivors rights as laid out in the APMBC.
The Disarmament/Development Link
A Comprehensive Approach
In December 2009, the Second Review Conference of the APMBC was held in Cartagena, Colombia, which led to the adoption of an action plan for the following five years. To achieve the action plans objectives, support for the mine-action programs capacity development will be essential in the years to come. In particular, aligning a mine-action strategy with the wider priorities of reconstruction and development of the country concerned has become increasingly important. In many countries, mines and ERW not only are a humanitarian problem but also impede recovery and development efforts. In mine actions first years, emphasis was mainly placed on safe and efficient mine and ERW clearance, but in the transition from an emergency situation to stabilization, post-conflict reconstruction and development assume heightened importance.
While the response to the challenges raised by the use of conventional weapons has been translated up to now by the adoption of regulatory frameworks and the prohibition of certain specific categories of arms, current developments are characterized by a more global approach. The Geneva Declaration on Armed Violence and Development, a diplomatic initiative concerned with armed violences impact on development, is a good example of this. The United Nations Institute for Research in Disarmament project, Discourse on Explosive Weapons, whose objective is to stigmatize the use of explosive weapons in populated areas in order to enhance the protection of civilians, is also an indicator of this approach. The United Nations Programme of Action on Small Arms and Light Weapons to prevent, combat and eradicate the illicit trade in small arms and light weapons, is also relevant. As a politicallybinding international instrument adopted in 2001, the Programme of Action aims to fight SA/LW proliferation and contains political engagements and concrete action. These include the development of SA/LW national legislation and the encouragement of international cooperation and assistance in order to strengthen the States capacity to identify and trace illicit weapons and light arms. In addition, a discussion process is under way on a future treaty
(Arms Trade Treaty) to increase conventional-weapons regulation. In this authors opinion, these different instruments and international procedures all share the same objective: reducing armed-violence impact on civilians.
Conclusion
The international community will need to closely follow new weapons development and adapt the legal regime accordingly. see endnotes page 82 Editors note: For more information about various international treaties and conventions, visit: http:// bit.ly/eIqyNW.
Together with the customary regulations of international humanitarian law, the APMBC, the CCM, and CCW Protocol II and Protocol V form an international legal framework that aims to restrict and eventually end the serious consequences of indiscriminate-weapons use. This legal framework stems from different political processes, but it deals with weapon types that have similar effects on the civilian population, raise similar operational challenges and call for a comprehensive response on the national and the international level. It was from the perspective of humanitarian disarmament that these instruments were negotiated and then adopted; an approach that aims to protect individuals and that takes into account the importance of development in the countries affected by these weapons. The actual and potential results of fully implementing the APMBC, CCM and CCW show us how the St. Petersburg Declaration and its underlying humanitarian concerns not only remained central to the development of international humanitarian law, but also retain relevance today.
Pascal Rapillard joined the Geneva International Center for Humanitarian Demining as Policy and External Relations Officer in March 2008. He is responsible for policy development and handling relations with partners. He advises the Director on the centers role in international humanitarian law related to mine action, as well as on relationship building with donors, partner organizations and other relevant actors. Pascal Rapillard Policy and External Relations Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining 7bis, avenue de la Paix P.O. Box 1300 1211 Geneva 1 / Switzerland Tel: +41 78 758 78 82 E-mail: p.rapillard@gichd.org Website: http://gichd.org
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Victim-assistance History in International Humanitarian Law: From Somalia to Geneva to Lao PDR
In the following article, Ken Rutherford, Director of JMUs Center for International Stabilization and Recovery and a landmine survivor, examines how victim assistance has changed and argues that while victim assistance is a more integral element of mine action today than ever before, there is yet room to move forward.
by Kenneth R. Rutherford [ Center for International Stabilization and Recovery ]
fter the 17-hour Battle of Mogadishu resulted in 102 U.S. military casualties and more than 800 Somali losses, the global community pulled away from helping Somalia rebuild. As part of one of the few remaining humanitarian projects in the country, my colleagues and I worked to rebuild communities devastated by years of war. Soon thereafter, I was injured by a landmine, resulting in the eventual loss of both my legs and an emergency evacuation to Genevas Hopital de la Tour, where I underwent several medical operations before returning to the United States to recover. Little did I know I would return to Geneva many times under the auspices of the International Campaign to Ban Landmines and the Cluster Munitions Coalition to help advocate for the dignity and rights of war survivors, especially fellow amputees and their families. Now, more than a decade later, my advocacy continues as Director for the Center for International Stabilization and Recovery at James Madison University in the hopes of building the political momentum generated by the Geneva Declaration on Armed Violence and Development (2006) and the Convention on Cluster Munitions (2008) to strengthen the concepts and practices used in armed-violence assistance and survivor rights.
Victim Assistance in International Treaties
Eldar Voloder lost his left leg at age four. LSN has assisted him in obtaining new prostheses as he grows older.
Adnan Badzak lost his eyesight and his right arm to a landmine in 1992. In 2006 he received assistance from LSN to expand his business in Mostar.
All photos courtesy of Paul Jeffrey.
After my hospitalization, I returned to Geneva in 1996 for the Third Session of the Review Conference of the Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on
the use of Certain Conventional Weapons which may be Deemed to be Excessively Injurious or to have Indiscriminate Effects. At that time, victim assistance was not codified in arms-control law, and the CCW did not mention it. To help account for this oversight, I co-founded the Landmine Survivors Network,1 the
first global organization for landmine survivors founded by landmine survivors, in the basement media facilities of the Palais des Nations in Geneva. Thankfully, when the Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-personnel Mines and their Destruction (also known at the Anti-personnel Mine Ban Convention or APMBC) was signed in December 1997, assistance to landmine survivors became a state obligation through Article 6, paragraph 3, making it the first weapons-control agreement in history to include victim-assistance provisions. The APMBCs victim-assistance inclusion was a tremendous success in achieving global recognition for those affected by landmines. The APMBC also served as a major advocacy tool to help develop and promote disability rights for the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, which entered into force in May 2008. The provision further served as a precedent in subsequent disarmament negotiations, specifically with Protocol V to the CCW.2 As a re-
sult, governments believed that including victim assistance in CCW Protocol V helped provide a more comprehensive solution to addressing the humanitarian suffering caused by explosive remnants of war, and it became the first CCW protocol to include a victim-assistance provision. The 2008 Convention on Cluster Munitions, which bans cluster munitions, also set a precedent for victim assistance. The CCM mandates Each State Party, with respect to cluster munition victims in areas under its jurisdiction or control, shall, in accordance with applicable international humanitarian and human-rights law, adequately provide age- and gender-sensitive assistance, including medical care, rehabilitation and psychological support, as well as provide for their social and economic inclusion. In addition, Each State Party shall make every effort to collect reliable, relevant data with respect to cluster-munition victims.3 In the article Connecting the Dots: The Ottawa Convention and the CCM,4 Nerina evra, Tracey
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APMBC Definition of Victim Assistance Victim Assistance Article None
Convention on Cluster Munitions Article 2: Victims are individuals, families and communities affected by the weapon
Article 6: International Article 5: Victim Assistance Cooperation Article 6: International Cooperation None Preamble Article 5(1): Victim assistance must be implemented in accordance with international human-rights law Article 7(1)(k): States required to report on "status and progress of its implementation obligations" for victim assistance
Human Rights Clause
Reporting Requirements
None
Figure 1: The Mine Ban Convention and Conventions on Cluster Munitions' treatment of victim assistance.
The LSN-sponsored Bosnia and Herzegovina volleyball team won first place in the Athens 2004 Paralympic Games. The team consists of Bosnian Serbs, Bosnian Muslims and Croats.
Begley and I argued that States Parties to the CCM, which entered into force in 2009, have refined the victim-assistance concepts found in the APMBC, by defining and clarifying victim assistance in the CCM. We also noted that the CCM establishes a new and higher standard for victim assistance, including legal obligations for ensuring the rights and dignity of the victims, thereby broadening contemporary thinking on survivor populations and victim assistance.
From Vientiane to Geneva
One of the main ways the APMBC influenced other international arms-control agreements was through its legal provisions. Since the APMBC held its 10th States Parties meeting in Geneva, and the CCM held its first such meeting in Vientiane, Lao PDR in November 2010, it is highly apropos to discuss the changes in these legal measures. The APMBC set a precedent for disarmament treaties by articulating for the first time an international standard for victim assistance and forever revolutionizing the way weapon prohibitions deal with this issue in part by the lessons learned from 10 years of implementation of the APMBC. In this convention victim assistance was placed within the framework of international cooperation; however,
it did so without explaining that each State Party is primarily responsible for providing assistance to the victims under its own jurisdiction. As a result of lessons learned from this, CCM Article V defines victim assistance as a national concern, first and foremost, thereby ensuring States Parties take an active approach in the matter. The CCM negotiators also came to believe that victim assistance was not only a medical or rehabilitation issue, but an inalienable human-rights issue.5 Since the 2004 Nairobi Review Conference6 for the APMBC, States Parties have continuously affirmed that landmine survivors should be seen as part of a larger group of persons with disabilities, and endorsed the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities as an international framework that helps States Parties implement their APMBC obligations. Unlike the APMBC, the CCM requires reporting on victim assistance. However, over the course of the last 10 years, the APMBC States Parties have committed to optional reporting to help ensure victim assistance happens. Mandatory reporting on victim assistance would ensure that there is accountability and transparency. Including survivors in the reporting process would also guarantee that victims receive the most accurate information as survivors know their own needs best.
Summary
Because the APMBC was the first major armscontrol agreement to include victim assistance, diplomats referred to it as a benchmark model for the CCM. On the other hand, we know that, despite all the efforts and funding allocated to landmine survivors resulting from the APMBC, there is a weak link in measurability and monitoring of victim-assistance implementation. As a result, in negotiating the CCM, many governmental delegates referred to the importance of including stronger victim-assistance obligations. As the Australian delegate said during the November 2007 Vienna negotiating session in developing the CCM, We should aim for a higher standard. 7 While the CCM negotiators, including Cluster Munitions Coalition members and the International Committee of the Red Cross legal staff, should be commended for an excellent job, 8,9 much more work remains. In order to effectively commit to banning the indiscriminate weapons violent conflicts leave behind, we must also continue preventing and providing assistance to those, either individually or collectively, injured or victimized by those weapons.7 see endnotes page 82
Kenneth R. Rutherford, Ph.D., is Director of the Center for International Stabilization and Recovery and Professor of Political Science at James Madison University. He holds a doctorate from Georgetown University and received his Bachelor of Arts and MBA from the University of Colorado. His most recent book, Disarming States: The International Movement to Ban Landmines, was published in December 2010. He is also the author of Humanitarianism Under Fire: The US and UN Intervention in Somalia, and has co-edited two books: Landmines and Human Security: International Politics and Wars Hidden Legacy and Reframing the Agenda: The Impact of NGO and Middle Power Cooperation in International Security Policy. Kenneth R. Rutherford, Ph.D. Director Center for International Stabilization and Recovery James Madison University 800 South Main Street, MSC 4902 Harrisonburg, VA 22807 / USA Tel: + 1 540 568 2718 Fax: + 1 540 568 8176 E-mail: rutherkr@jmu.edu Website: http://cisr.jmu.edu
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Assisting Cluster Munition Victims: A New International Standard

The Convention on Cluster Munitions adopted a number of innovative approaches to victim assistance which are, nonetheless, firmly rooted in long-standing experience in this field. By addressing human suffering in a disarmament treaty and linking its provisions to human rights and humanitarian law, the CCM truly constitutes a milestone in the efforts of the international community toward humanitarian disarmament. The CCM contains an entire package of provisions that aim to assist cluster munition victims and establish clear responsibilities for doing so. Now the crucial phase of implementing the legal text begins.
by Markus A. Reiterer [ Embassy of Austria ] A member of the U.N. Special Commission inspects munitions in Iraq.
Photo courtesy of the U.N./H. Arvidsson.
Human Rights and Humanitarian Law
he entry into force of the Convention on Cluster Munitions marked a significant point in international endeavors toward humanitarian disarmament. The CCM banned cluster munitions, which some States Parties previously deemed a legitimate military tool despite humanitarian concerns. Additionally, this convention developed an international-cooperation system to ensure high compliance levels with the new treatys provision, as well as established a set of stringent rules to guarantee that victims of cluster munitions receive necessary assistance. The CCMs victim-assistance provisions were hailed as ground-breaking and historic upon their adoption at the Diplomatic Conference in Dublin, Ireland.1 Not only do the provisions reflect the outcome of intense, 18-month negotiations, but also the experience gained in the context of other international treaties, most notably the 1997 Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction (also known as the Anti-personnel Mine Ban Convention or the APMBC) and the 2006 Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. At the same time, the new victim-assistance provision also provided considerable inspiration for the Cartagena Action Plan 20102014 of the APMBC and the Action Plan on Victim Assistance adopted by the States Parties to Protocol V of the Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons Which May Be Deemed to Be Excessively Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate Effects.
The CCM Victim-assistance Package
The CCM victim-assistance provisions are contained in various parts of the convention.2 Incorporating victim assistance into the CCM ensures that it is not a mere humanitarian afterthought, but rather one of the CCMs core elements.
Definition of Cluster Munition Victims
The CCMs Article 2(1) defines the term cluster munition victims, as all persons who have been killed or suffered physical or psychological injury, economic loss, social marginalisation or substantial impairment of the realisation of their rights caused by the use of cluster munitions. The definition further clarifies that cluster munition victims include both those persons directly impacted by cluster munitions as well as their affected families and communities.
Parties Responsible for Victim Assistance
As compared to the APMBCs victim-assistance provision, the provision of Article 5 of the CCM represents a major step forward in clarifying who bears the responsibility of assisting cluster munition victims. The question repeatedly raised was, Should responsibility lie with the state where the victim is located, or does the country that deployed the munitions bear the primary responsibility for victim assistance? The APMBC glossed over this question by essentially making it a requirement for each state in a position to do so (emphasis added) to provide victim assistance. In practice, this
means the APMBC combines affected states commitments and those of possible donor states to provide mine-awareness programs for citizens and assistance for the care and rehabilitation, as well as social and economic reintegration, for mine victims. The CCMs Article 5 provisions clearly identify who bears the responsibility for cluster munition victims: Each State Party with respect to cluster munition victims in areas under its jurisdiction or control shall, in accordance with applicable international humanitarian and human rights law, provide the assistance required. However, note that this formulation does not grant rights to affected persons, but rather, it is an obligation of the state concerned to provide assistance. Typically, states with cluster munition victims have experienced or are still experiencing considerable unrest, security threats, military action, etc., and therefore, often face severe economic, developmental and societal difficulties. Some of them, such as Lao Peoples Democratic Republic, are among the worlds poorer nations. The CCMs Article 5 places a substantial burden on the affected states. To cushion this burden the CCM requires those states in a position to do so to help other states in fulfilling their victim-assistance obligation. During the 2007 Belgrade Conference of States Affected by Cluster Munitions, participating states unanimously accepted their responsibility for providing victim assistance in their territories. This was done primarily because of each states general responsibility for the well-being of persons in its territory, and secondly, because of clear commitments on the side of possible donor states to support their victim-assistance efforts. These commitments have since been included in the CCMs Article 6(7).
As victim assistance is all about human beings, establishing a link between disarmament and human rights seems natural. Yet, this did not appear obvious during the initial CCM negotiations. The victim-assistance provision had very humble beginnings. The text presented for discussion at the Lima conference in May 2007 merely included a provision stating it would endeavor to carry out some victim assistance, but failed to mention human rights at all. Yet, the timely adoption in 2006 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities helped to develop this link in the CCM. The CCM negotiations eventually brought forth overwhelming support for the establishment of the link between disarmament and human rights, and consequently, the CCM refers to human rights in three places: First, the preamble expresses determination of States Parties to ensure the full realization of the rights of all cluster munition victims and recognizes their inherent dignity; second, the preamble bears in mind the CRPD; thirdand perhaps most importantArticle 5 stipulates that victim assistance shall be provided in accordance with applicable international humanitarian and human rights law. The CCM has thus chosen to uphold and promote survivors and other victims human rights.
Article 5: Victim-assistance Provisions
Under Article 5, states are obliged to adequately provide age- and gender-sensitive assistance, including medical care, rehabilitation and psychological support, as well as to include victims socially and economically. The various terms are important as they ensure a certain level of flexibility in the actual victim-assistance provision and set assistance in relation to prevailing circumstances, needs and capacities. The term age- and gendersensitive sets an important marker, highlighting the need for assistance to consider these previously ignored factors. Finally, Article 5(1) lists the constituent elements of victim assistance: medical care (which encompasses emergency and ongoing medical care), rehabilitation, psychological support (the importance of and need for which is often underestimated), as well as the elements of reintegration or inclusion of a victim in social and economic life.
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Victim assistance is not a short-term engagement but a long-lasting and complex commitment for the well-being of fellow humans. Article 5 also contains a non-exhaustive list of elements that provide the modalities for victimassistance implementation, including needs assessments, national planning and legal framework, resource mobilization, consultation with victims and the designation of responsible focal points. One of the issues discussed intensively during the cluster-munition process concerned nondiscrimination. In drafting the overall victim-assistance provision, utmost importance was taken to provide the most fitting language to ensure the best possible assistance to cluster munition victims, but not at the expense of, for example, landmine or explosiveremnants-of-war victims. Article 5(2)(e) excludes the possibility of creating a new category of victims enjoying preferential treatment but prohibits discrimination against and among cluster munition victims, as well as between cluster munition victims and those who suffered injuries or disabilities from other causes. This seemed a rather broad clause, which could potentially have been interpreted as an excuse for inactivity following the idea that as long as everyone is treated in the same insufficient manner, no discrimination occurs. To avoid this, the second sentence specifies that differences in treatment should be related only to the cluster munition victims actual need.
Fulfilling the Promise: Implementation
Unexploded cluster munitions litter grazing land in Xieng Khouang province, Lao PDR, 1994.
Photo courtesy of Titus Peachy.
Article 5 contains obligations incumbent on affected states. Hence, first and foremost, cluster munitions-affected states bear the responsibility for implementing the victim-assistance package. Two factors will be decisive for successfully implementing their obligations: their will and their capacity to comply with their obligations. Both elements are indispensable for proper implementation. Without the political will of the affected state to implement its international obligations, compliance is not possible. The same holds true for the capacity to comply: Without the capacity, an affected state will not be able to comply with its obligations.2 The structure of the victim-assistance package already takes this dichotomy into account by defining states obligations to provide victim assistance and by pro-
viding for international cooperation and support for victim assistance. Moreover, the transparency measures contained in Article 7 function to keep the obligation on the forefront of decision-makers minds and, hence, foster the will to comply. Effective implementation of the victim-assistance package, hence, requires national ownership, international cooperation and assistance, and prudent use of limited resources. National ownership. National ownership stands center stage in all implementation efforts: Without ownership by the affected states, implementation will not succeed. The affected state is best suited to shape the laws, plans, programs and budgets necessary for implementation and tailor them to the specific situations of its citizens. For instance, planning and programming will differ widely between a country like Albania, with an estimated 300 ERW survivors primarily concentrated in one specific region and a country like Lao PDR with tens of thousands of survivors scattered throughout the country. The affected country can pinpoint the use for existing structures and frameworks (medical and social systems, human rights frameworks, etc.) or where the creation of a new approach is warranted. National ownership is also crucial for attracting support from the donor community. Bodies like the European Union have adopted country-specific approaches while moving away from thematic budget lines in their development support. Hence, it is generally the responsibility of individual countries to define and communicate their priorities to potential donors.
International cooperation and assistance. International cooperation and assistance have played a prominent role in the negotiation of the CCMs victim-assistance package and have proven essential in the implementation of victim-assistance work undertaken thus far. The promise of cooperation and assistance by possible donor states to CCM-affected states has been an incentive for the latter to agree to the obligations contained in the CCMs Article 5. Prudent use of scarce resources. In most cases, victim-assistance efforts do not have to start from scratch because the basic framework for medical, psychological, social and economic services are in place, provided for by government entities, local communities or international humanitarian organizations. Most of the states do have at least some legal and policy frameworks for dealing with disability or human rights issues. For effective victim-assistance activities, using the existing infrastructures and services in providing victim assistance is paramount. The CCM victim-assistance package does not require the establishment of new laws or plans for assisting cluster munition victims separately from landmine/ERW victims or persons with other medical or psychological needs. The package requires that cluster munition victims are adequately provided with the necessary assistance but does not establish those victims as a group entitled to preferential treatment. Using existing mechanisms also holds true for international cooperation and assistance. Many donor countries, for example, support the establishment of medical infrastructure and services in developing countries, and as long as the support substantially benefits victims, it should be considered a victim-assistance project. Also, projects for poverty reduction in areas affected by cluster munitions, support for the creation of economic opportunities in rural areas and the provision of microcredit to victims can be considered victim-assistance projects. The decisive element here is the benefit to the victims. Various actors, including governments, international institutions and nongovernmental organizations, make victim-assistance efforts possible. These entities need to effectively work together, so that resources are used as efficiently as possible in order to ensure that the money invested brings about the best possible improvements for victims.
Concluding Remarks
The CCM is a remarkable treaty in many respects. Its victim-assistance package makes it unique. It is an international agreement that not only tries to prevent human suffering through disarming and clearing but sets out to address this suffering comprehensively by attempting to improve victims lives and by enabling them to participate as full and productive members in the social and economic life of their communities. The CCM now enters its most crucial phaseimplementation. It establishes its real value not through the language, ideas and concepts it employs, but through the progress it induces. For victim assistance, the primary measurement of progress is the improvement of the victims lives. Through the CCM victimassistance package, we have laid the groundwork for doing so. Now, we must live up to these promisesby keeping them. see endnotes page 83 The observations made in this article are the authors and do not necessarily coincide with those of the institution for which he works.
Markus A. Reiterer is an Austrian diplomat who is currently political counselor at the Austrian embassy in Washington, D.C. In his previous position, Reiterer acted as Chair of the Standing Committee on Victim Assistance of the APMBC, served as Coordinator for Victim Assistance in the framework of the CCW and played a leading role in the negotiations leading to the development of the CCM. In particular, he steered the negotiations of the CCMs victim-assistance provisions. Markus A. Reiterer Counselor (Political) Embassy of Austria 2524 International Court, NW Washington, DC 20008 / USA
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NOTES FROM THE FIELD
Sri Lanka Works Toward a Mine-free Nation

This article discusses Sri Lankas steps to demine its land, educate its citizens on landmine and unexploded-ordnance dangers, and offer survivor-assistance services. Sri Lankas national mine-action program is building on previous mine-action work done by the government and humanitarian organizations by presenting a workshop on demining issues, developing a mine-action center and improving partnerships with concerned organizations.
by Vidya Abhayagunawardena [ Freelance Researcher ]
Sri Lanka difficult, and when conflict escalated in 2000, the mine-action project was suspended.2 Since 2002, after a formal cease-fire agreement, the Sri Lankan government and the international community have undertaken a large-scale mine-action program in the northern and eastern regions. Although the government and program partners work tirelessly to speed up the demining process, they estimate that another 10 years or more are needed to clear the mine-contaminated land. As a result, Sri Lanka struggles to progress in infrastructure development, resettlement of internally displaced persons, operation of social services, restoration of livelihoods in conflict-affected areas and the establishment of Sri Lanka as a mine-free country.
Mine-action Workshop
UNICEF facilitated a Technical Working Group workshop in Sri Lanka in August 2010. Key government entities that participated included the Ministry of Economic Development, Ministry of Education, Ministry of Social Services, Sri Lankan Armys Humanitarian Demining Unit, and Social Departments of the Northern and Eastern Provincial Councils. Partner nongovernmental organizations such as Community Trust Fund, Handicap International, Motivation, Rural Development Foundation, Sarvodaya and Social Organizations Networking for Development also attended the workshop. Participants developed new strategies to educate people in mine-safe behavior, how best to ensure support for victims of landmines and other explosive devices, and how to strengthen mine-action advocacy. Discussion topics focused on victim assistance; coordination among the mine-action stakeholders; how MRE can prevent injury and fatalities; and the need for MRE prior to safe resettlement and development in the north and east.
A commemoration ceremony for the International Day for Mine Awareness and Assistance in Sri Lanka. SL National Mine Action Centre Emerges
In Jaffna, Sarvodaya uses drama to teach MRE.

Photo courtesy of SLNMAC/UNICEF.
n 2009, Sri Lanka ended nearly three decades of protracted conflict. Unfortunately, the country was also left with thousands of landmines and pieces of unexploded ordnance, especially in the North and East, which has posed a major threat for the island nations people, environment and biodiversity.
Photo courtesy of Sarvodaya.
Humanitarian mine action began in Sri Lanka in 1997 with the implementation of a mine-risk-education program, coordinated by UNICEF and the United Nations Development Programme.1 The next year, the government partnered with UNDP to conduct some clearance and Technical Surveys, but an offi-
cial mine-action project did not begin until July 1999. This U.N. project implemented mine-awareness activities, Technical Surveys, emergency clearance and the gathering of a mine-action database. However, as mine-action operations proceeded, mines were continuing to be laid. This made a systematic clearance of
The Sri Lankan government, in a recent Cabinet decision, approved the setup of the Sri Lanka National Mine Action Centre under the Ministry of Economic Development, a coordinating body of the Presidential Task Force, as a new stepping stone toward a mine-free Sri Lanka. As SLNMAC National Director Money Ranathunge said at the TWG workshop, the centers mission is To develop and implement a sustainable national mine action program able to plan, coordinate, implement and monitor all aspects of mine action in Sri Lanka and mobi-
lize the required resources to make Sri Lanka free from the threat of landmines/ERW [explosive remnants of war] through education, threat prevention and elimination in accordance with SLNMAC. This centers establishment will enhance Sri Lankas mine-action efforts and encourage concerned parties to efficiently partner with the mine-action program in Sri Lanka. SLNMAC plans to prepare a national victim-assistance strategy in the coming months with the support of UNICEF, which will help coordinate work among stakeholders and provide technical support for strategizing victim-assistance efforts. The strategy is expected to call for ensuring that existing health-care and social-service systems, rehabilitation programs, and legislative and policy frameworks are adequate to meet
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notes from the field | the journal of ERW and mine action | spring 2011 | 15.1
15.1 | spring 2011 | the journal of ERW and mine action | notes from the field
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Technical Working Group participants.

Photo courtesy of the author.
all citizens needsincluding landmine survivors and deceased victims family members.
Demining Progress
Currently, nine organizations are demining in Sri Lankas northern and eastern parts: the Sri Lankan Armys Humanitarian Demining Unit, The HALO Trust, Danish Demining Group, Fondation Suisse de Dminage, MAG (Mines Advisory Group), Sarvatra, Horizon, Milinda Moragoda Institute for Peoples Empowerment and Delvon Assistance for Social Harmony. The Ministry of Economic Development released information in September 2010 stating that, according to the Sri Lankan Army, military and humanitarian demining had cleared 366,870 mines since mine-action efforts began in 1999. As of 31 August 2010, recently conducted Technical Surveys in the north and existing data from the east revealed that mines/ERW still contaminate 552 square kilometers (213 square miles). Clearing the most af-
fected areas by 2020 to allow people to begin rebuilding their livelihoods from the land is LNMACs current goal. Factoring in the annual clearance average since 2002 of 171 square kilometers (66 square miles), however, indicates that the required time to clear the remaining areas would be nearly 15 years. To reach SLNMACs clearance goal in the 10year time frame, increased contributions of human resources, as well as physical and financial support will be required. According to the United Nations Development Programme, mineaction agencies are struggling to keep up with the sudden increase in demands for mine and UXO clearance, MRE and survivor-assistance services. Agencies are working to expand their technical capacities to meet the needs, and UNDP is stepping up by adding more staff to its district mine-action offices, hoping that will satisfy complex and growing demands for coordination and management. Mine-action agencies are also looking
for new opportunities to partner with the Sri Lankan Army, government authorities and nongovernmental organizations to speed up demining and post-clearance recovery programs.
MRE Campaigns
Sri Lankas Ministry of Education has taken a broader approach to MRE with UNICEFs support. One important step in this approach was educating the educators; principals and selected teachers from all northern and eastern schools have received MRE training. Numerous schools in the most affected areas are taking a creative approach to MRE: Educational messages are displayed through wall paintings; activities such as dramas and art competitions are held; and messages printed on stationery, schoolbags and water bottles are distributed. To ensure MREs sustainability, the MoE will include MRE in next years school curriculum as well. The MoE is not the only entity delivering MRE; national NGOs in 2009 reached more than 250,000
people in 61 divisional secretariats3 and IDP camps with community-based MRE. As of 31 December 2010, the MRE program had reached 392,540 people (87,326 men, 99,540 women, 102,179 boys and 103,495 girls). MRE recipients demonstrated mine-safe behavior by reporting 672 suspected dangerous objects and hazardous areas during 2010. The program hopes to reduce civilian landmine casualties, which included 123 killed, 453 injured and 734 unknown from 19992009, according to the Landmine & Cluster Munition Monitor.4 The Sri Lanka Police Service also hopes to strengthen, expand and sustain countrywide MRE. The SL Police Service is currently being trained to deliver MRE. Using the SLPolice Service to deliver MRE has some advantages: It employs bilingual police officers (there is a widespread police presence throughout the country) and it can easily mobilize its people and hold officers accountable for achieving maximum results. In addition to current MRE campaigns, Sri Lanka needs sustainable MRE campaigns that will lead to total landmine and ERW eradication. Utilizing social marketing strategies can draw religious and community-based organizations to partner with government and current MRE organizations in this long-term goal. Temples, churches, mosques and centers for community-based organizations can deliver life-saving messages by becoming voluntary MRE centers in their respective communities. The private sector has a pivotal role to play if it uses its corporate social responsibility programs to support Sri Lankas mine-action program. Even the Sri Lankan Armys HDU participates in
educating the public regarding mine dangers. Public participation and support at all levels is needed; government and partner organizations alone cannot educate all citizens.
Survivor Assistance
Sri Lankas survivor-assistance strategy will take a rights-based approach, as specified in the International Campaign to Ban Landmines framework and the U.N. Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. As per U.N. policy, concerned parties will ensure that activities benefit all people with disabilities, including mine survivors and the families of those killed by mines. The Sri Lankan government and concerned parties need to take a leading role in survivor assistance and mobilize the long-term resources. The outcome of these coordinated efforts by various stakeholders will be that survivors can access quality and sustainable medical, social and economic rehabilitation services, and will be empowered to advocate for their rights.
Future Steps
ternational community. Hope for campaign support was seen in The National Strategy for Mine Action in Sri Lanka,5 released in September 2010 by the Ministry of Economic Development. The strategy encourages grassroots movements and senior decision-makers in government, security forces and civil society groups to support the ban. Sri Lanka is making progress toward becoming a mine-free nation, which could be a good example for other countries. Further demining efforts will ensure that humans and animals can walk anywhere in Sri Lanka in a few years time without fear of landmines and UXO. see endnotes page 83
Sri Lanka is now free from wars threat, but its land must still be freed from the lingering dangers of landmines and UXO. Beyond implementing the national mine-action plan, the time has come for the Sri Lankan government to accede to the Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction (also know as the AP Mine Ban Convention or APMBC), which would support the goals of the Campaign to Ban Landmines in Sri Lanka. By acceding to the APMBC, Sri Lanka would also receive more assistance from the in-
Vidya Abhayagunawardena received a Bachelor of Business Administration from the University of Northwood (United States). He holds a diploma in marketing from The Chartered Institute of Marketing (United Kingdom) and a mass-media diploma from Media Foundation in Colombo, Sri Lanka. Currently he is enrolled in a postgraduate masters program in development studies at the University of Colombo. Abhayagunawardena works as a freelance researcher in socioeconomic development and is a campaigner for the Sri Lanka Campaign to Ban Landmines. Vidya Abhayagunawardena No. 69, Gregorys Road Colombo 7 / Sri Lanka Tel: +94 112 682380 Mobile: +94 77 355 9878 E-mail: vidyampa@hotmail.com
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White Phosphorus Disposal in the Gaza Strip

White phosphorus disposal in a central demolition site is a difficult task when faced with storage limitations, environmental and humanitarian issues, as well as a complex political and security situation. Despite these constraints, innovative and specialized demolition techniques were used in removing and destructing WP unexploded ordnance in the Gaza Strip over the period of MarchMay 2010 as this article describes.
by Kerei Ruru and Mark Alan Russell [ United Nations Mine Action in Gaza ] Six WP shells are prepared within demolition bins for demolitions with donor explosive charges attached.
Photo courtesy of Kerei Ruru/UNMAT.
etween 27 December 2008, and 18 January 2009, the Israeli Armed Forces conducted Operation Cast Lead, a bombardment of the Gaza Strip by sea, air and land, leaving behind significant amounts of unexploded ordnance. In March 2010, the United Nations Mine Action Team reported that of 1,632 assessed sites covering an area of 882,570 square meters (1,056,545 square yards), 36 percent have a medium to high risk of containing UXO. In February 2010, 171 pieces of UXO were discovered, of which 60 were white phosphorus artillery rounds from Operation Cast Lead.1 Used for incendiary purposes, WP is a spontaneously flammable material, and can result in painful chemical-burn injuries which cause delayed wound healing.2 Once the political and logistical challenges in establishing a mine-action program within the Gaza Strip were overcome, the need to plan, facilitate and implement WP-UXO disposal was immediate. The UNMAT-Gaza Office, with support from implementing partner MAG (Mines Advisory Group), was responsible for the planning, coordination and facilitation of establishing a central demolition site within Gaza. The site was designed to destroy the WP in a strictly controlled security situation that met the requirements of the Israeli Defense Forces and Hamas, the de facto authority in Gaza. Conscious of the safety requirements regarding the possibility of civilian casualties resulting from wandering into the hazardous area, the UNMAT was restricted in terms of available, safe space within Gaza to facilitate WP-UXO explosive destruction. As a result of the WP residue on the surrounding environment and on the large water aquifers below the Gaza Strip, these environmental factors represented yet another constraint on the project.
A 155-mm WP shell split by explosives exposes the white phosphorus sponges (black sponges seen to rear of shell).
Photo courtesy of Mark Russell/UNMAT.
An innovative technique was developed, which differed from the open-pit demolition other countries generally use. Countless discussions, meetings, debates and workshops resulted in the development of what is now called the cut and burn technique. Essentially, an improvised, locally manufactured triangular-shaped charge packed with plastic explosives was used to cut open the WP UXO, exposing the WP content and allowing the burning process to take place. The main WP-UXO type found in Gaza was the M825 A1-155mm projectile filled with WP-impregnated felt wedges. The complete projectile weighs 46.72 kilograms (102.8 pounds) and it contains 116 sponge wedges impregnated with a WP liquid weighing 5.78 kg. (12.72 lbs.). Metal spacers separate and divide the wedges into four quadrants of 29 wedges each. The wedges are not easily disposed of, due to the mass and density of the sponges. Furthermore, the wedges require a prolonged time to burn, causing the felt wedges to cauterize. This prevents further burning and puts
anyone who may pick up the cauterized sponge at risk. If handled, the wedges may break open, reigniting the WP with dangerous and harmful consequences. UNMAT was not permitted to destroy the WP UXO in situ, which was an additional problem. However, most items were located in the rubble of destroyed buildings and areas where civilians were living in close proximity, and in some cases, on top of the destroyed buildings, so destroying the WP UXO in situ was not a viable option. When found by the explosive-ordnance-disposal teams, the WP UXO were in varying deployment states. In cases of partial deployment, the UXO were either full rounds with canisters remaining inside the projectile body, canisters with no projectile body, canisters that had partially deployed from the projectile and were either spilt or intact, or split canisters varying in length and size depending on how much burning, if any, had taken place.
Environmental Considerations
spread of the felt sponges. Additional manual raking was conducted to ensure the complete burning of all residual WP sponges. Rails were tack welded at a height of 500 millimeter (9.68 inches) from the base of the concrete so the targets could sit neatly with an air gap between the support rails. Once the charge detonated, the projectile would split open and fall between the support rails onto the container floor below. To further reduce WP spreading, a spring-loaded, steel roof was constructed to contain the WP within the shipping container. The roof was designed to open momentarily and was strengthened with sandbags to help absorb the explosive shockwave, while reducing the number of WP sponges expelled. Chicken wire was positioned around the perimeter, between the roof and the container, to help reduce the spread of the WP sponges.
UXO Preparation for Disposal
When destroying WP UXO, the main consideration was capturing the spread of the felt WP-impregnated sponges during demolition. This was achieved by utilizing an old 40-foot-long (12.19 meters) shipping container, cut in half along its length then buried at a depth of 1.5 meters (1.64 yards), flush with ground level. A 300-millimeter-thick (11.81 inches) concrete layer was laid inside each half to provide a floor and prevent WP seepage through the containers bottom. Below each munitions position was an 8-millimeter (0.31-inch) mild steel plate pinned to the concrete to prevent the explosive plasma jet from destroying the concrete base. The target WP UXO had to be positioned above the containers base to facilitate cutting and control the
Prior to the disposal of the WP UXO found in agricultural areas or the rubble of destroyed homes, materials had to be stabilized in order to be safely moved to temporary storage facilities. Some WP UXO was safe to move without prior preparation, while other WP UXO was damaged or, in some cases, leaking, which presented a risk to the EOD team. The WP UXO was leak sealed before being moved to the demolition site. This process involved completely submerging any leaking WP UXO in large water-storage drums to cut off the oxygen supply and stop the WP from burning. The WP UXO (projectile or canisters) was then removed from the water bath, and the entire munition was immediately wrapped in Plaster of Paris bandages. Once the bandages dried, this effectively sealed off any air supply to the WP and thereby made it safe to handle and transport to the demolition site. UNMAT-Gaza was responsible for coordinating the importation of plastic explosives into Gaza in coordination with the Israeli authorities and local authorities, to be used to destroy the WP UXO. This was completed 16 times over the period MarchMay 2010 without incident or compromise to security.
Demolition Technique
Specially designed shaped charges were manufactured in Gaza to UNMAT specifications. The moulds were made locally to hold the plastic explosives to form the linear cutting charges required. To conduct demolitions, UNMAT had limited detonating cord and on average, only two to
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Kerei Ruru served in the New Zealand military from 19802001 and has been involved with U.N. humanitarian mine action in several capacities, including U.N. Chief of Operations Lebanon,and U.N. Chief of Staff Afghanistan. He is currently Gazas U.N. Programme Manager. Kerei Ruru Programme Manager UNMAS Jerusalem c/o UNOPS JMOC Office 8 Nur A-Din St. Wadi Joz, P.O. Box 55157 Jerusalem, 97200 / Israel Tel: +972 543 447 853 E-mail: KereiR@unops.org Website: http://mineaction.org
WP canisters, post-demolition.
Leon Magnussen, MAGs Explosive Ordnance Disposal Technician, attaches an explosive shaped charge used to split 155-mm WP shells to expose WP.
four electric detonators for 68 kilograms (1318 pounds) of plastic explosives per day of demolitions. Once completed, the linear cutting charges were used to cut through the thick projectile casing, inner canister, metal right-angle separators, busters charge, delay detonator and the expulsion charge, allowing for the full destruction and burning of the WP sponges. After conducting tests, the optimum standoff between the charge and the munition proved to be 42 millimeters (1.65 inches) on a full projectile intact with canister. The amount of plastic explosives used varied during the initial testing period; the optimum amount was set at 1 kg. (2.2 lbs.) for a fully intact WP-UXO projectile. While a smaller amount of plastic explosives was used to slit open the projectile, it did not open the WP enough for it to spread and burn fully; therefore, pro-
jectiles occasionally required a secondary charge. On the other hand, a charge too large would cause a violent detonation and result in an unacceptable spread of WP sponges around the surrounding demolition site. In instances where only the WP-UXO canisters without the thick outer casings were disposed, reduced charges were used in the metal linear cutting charge with no standoff. When part canisters and projectiles were encountered, a mixture of the large and small linear charges, with and without standoffs, was incorporated.
Post-demolitions Procedures
EOD technicians responsible for the final manual confirmation and residual WP-clearance process. For the final clearance process, a twoman team, wearing protective clothing and respirators, inspected the pits and separated scrap metal from any remaining WP sponges. This allowed the remaining captured WP sponges to be broken up using longhandled metal rakes. A 50-percent petrol and diesel mixture aided the final sponge-burning process, ensuring complete WP consumption.
Summary
After the demolition was initiated, the WP demolitions pit was not approached for 40 minutes after last smoke, ensuring that any dangers remaining from leftover boosters, busters, etc., were no longer a threat to the
The specialized demolition techniques and the construction of the tailor-made demolition range were developed to cater to the Gaza Strips unique environmental conditions
while alleviating the concerns of the Israeli Defense Forces and Gaza's de facto authorities. Through this technique, UNMAT destroyed 92 WPUXO items in Gaza during 16 range days without incident, while ensuring minimal environmental impact. The successful WP-UXO destruction has contributed to civilian safety within the Gaza Strip while enhancing the safety and security of the wider humanitarian community working inside Gaza. UNMAT would like to publicly acknowledge the Israeli Authorities, Gazas de facto authorities and the donor community for providing UNMAT with the support and trust to facilitate this crucial life-saving program. see endnotes page 83
Mark Allan Russell was an Explosive Ordnance Disposal Royal Navy Clearance Diver for 23 years. Since leaving the armed forces in 2002, Russell has been involved in humanitarian mine action, initially working for Handicap International - Belgium, then later for MAG and is currently working with the United Nations Mine Action TeamGaza as Operations Officer. Mark Allan Russell UNMAT-Gaza Tel: +972 597 777 142 (Jawal) Tel: +972 54 620 3953 (Orange) E-mail:Markr@unops.org
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ERW in the Republic of Serbia

As a result of operations conducted during the Balkan Wars, World Wars and Yugoslav Wars, Serbia remains affected by numerous pieces of unexploded ordnance. The author explores the magnitude of UXO contamination and reveals the extensive process by which it is removed from and destroyed within southern Serbia, an area that has been plagued by explosive remnants of war for the past century.
by Dragan Jovanovic [ Serbian Ministry of Interior ]
n the 20th century, several wars were waged on the lands of the Republic of Serbia. As a consequence of these wars, a large presence of explosive remnants of war exists in Serbia. The marking, clearance, removal and destruction of ERW presents a complex problem due to the various types of unexploded ordnance, which differ in construction, size and origin. These pieces of UXO derive from the First Balkan War (191213), Second Balkan War (1913), World War I (191418), World War II (193945), Yugoslav Wars (199195) and the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia (1999). Large numbers of ERW continue to be found in new locations within Serbia, presenting an ongoing threat to the population and the environment. When found in developing regions, ERW slow or halt construction. In addition, farmers cannot use land for agricultural development. The full extent of the ERW contamination in Serbia is unknown. A General Survey (an investigation of landmine locations where affected and unaffected areas are catalogued) has not established the scope of the problem. A study is needed to define the contaminated areas, determine the types of ERW expected to be found, establish the type and purpose of the land, determine the social and economic consequences, and identify clearance priorities, available resources and incident statistics. All activities related to the clearance and removal of ERW in Serbia are planned, implemented, controlled and verified in accordance with international standards, Serbias legislation, and lessons learned from neighboring countries, while maintaining the unique differences of Serbia in mind. Operational capacities for clearance and removal of ERW in Serbia involve specialized teams of the Serbian Armed Forces for military locations and the Ministry of InteriorSector for Emergency Situations Explosive
Locations massively contaminated with UXO as a result of intensive combat operations in WWI and WWII Areas contaminated with anti-personnel and antitank mines UXO. Single items of UXO that are found accidentally are those found by citizens during agriculture, construction or other activities. These items of UXO also can be found in forests, junk yards and even in urban settings near public buildings, residential neighborhoods, roads and schools. When UXO is found, it is reported to the Sector for Emergency Situations. These pieces of UXO are removed and destroyed by the Ministry of Interior EOD teams. Cluster Munitions. Unexploded cluster munitions are found in several hundred micro-locations within 16 Serbian municipalities (Brus, Bujanovac, aak, City of
A BLU-97 bomblet submunition is found in Ni, Serbia.

All photos courtesy of the author.
Preparing for destruction of UXO in Kraljevo, Serbia.
Ordnance Disposal teams for civilian sites. There are also several commercial companies registered that conduct humanitarian demining.
Extent of ERW in Serbia
Based on the type of ERW, period of occurrence and the degree of danger to the population, ERW problems are classified as one of the following categories: Single items of UXO that are found accidentally Areas contaminated with cluster munitions from the period of NATO intervention Unexploded aerial bombs and missiles from NATO intervention and WWII Areas contaminated as a result of accidental detonation of ammunition depots stemming from the periods of WWII, the NATO intervention and after the NATO intervention
NiMedijana and Crveni Krst municipalities, Gadin Han, Kni, Kraljevo, Kurumlija, Leposavi, Preevo, Raka, Sjenica, Sopot, Stara Pazova and Vladimirci). To determine the extent of contamination for suspected cluster munitions, a General Survey began in 2007 for those areas suspected of being contaminated with cluster munitions. Each suspected hazardous area is assigned a risk level, areas are marked and each SHA that requires further processing is estimated. So far, it has been determined that cluster munitions are located in 260 high-risk micro-locations, totaling an area of 14.32 square kilometers (5.53 square miles). In addition, 144 suspicious micro-locations were identified, comprising 8.4 square kilometers (3.2 square miles). These locations are subject to an additional survey, proposed to be carried out in 2011. Serbia estimates that the area to be cleared is approximately 17 square kilometers. (6.6 square miles). About
182,000 people live in SHAs while about 90,000 live close to the SHA perimeter. In addition, a large number of people use SHAs at their own risk and a number of them even use marked risk areas since many make a living by farming the land. In Serbia, specific methods and techniques have been developed and used to clear cluster munitions with positive results. Armored construction equipment is used in debris clearance, and demining machines with remote controls are used effectively for the removal of shrubs, small trees, and other vegetation. These things not only make the land safe for civilians, but they improve working conditions and increase the safety of EOD technicians. Bombs and Missiles. An estimated 180 unexploded aerial bombs and missiles from the NATO intervention have been found in more than 100 military and civilian sites at depths greater than 20 meters (22 yards). Although a General Survey of these sites has not been conducted, existing plans will be implemented when adequate funds are provided. Available data derive from reports collected by EOD teams, in addition to witness interviews and statements. The completion of a General Survey would confirm or reject the existence of bombs reported in witness testimonies. Ammunition Depots. Between 1941 and 2006 several ammunition depots exploded. According to the available data, an area of about 22 square kilometers (8.5 square miles) at 12 sites in nine municipalities has been polluted with UXO as a result of ammunition depot explosions (City of Belgrade, municipalities of Novi Pazar, Novi Sad, Kraljevo, Poarevac, Parain, Smederevo, Valjevo and Vranje). With the exception of the work being currently done in the Parain municipality after the 2006 explosions, clearance has not yet been conducted in these areas. Wars. In areas where intensive war operations, such as Kolubarska Battle and Cerska Battle of WWI and the Battle for the Liberation of Belgrade of WWI, as well as sites that contained the front lines, there are large quantities of unexploded and abandoned explosive ordnance. Five of these sites are located in the municipalities of Doljevac, Kragujevac, Loznica, Obrenovac and Mitrovica Sremska. In the past, no General Survey had evaluated these sites and available data had been collected on the basis of interviews and statements from the witnesses. According to a 2006 survey of the erdapska klisura (Iron Gates of the Danube River),
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AP and AT mines and UXO are found in the municipality of id, Serbia.
near the Prahovo port, 22 sunken warships were found, at least four of which contained UXO, presenting an ongoing danger to people, ships and the environment. Landmines. In the 1990s, most AP and AT mines were placed along the border with Croatia, in the northern part of Serbia in the villages of Jamena and Morovi, within the municipality of id. These mines contaminated more than six square kilometers (2.3 square miles). In this region of Serbia, forests are old and the soil is fertile. These landmines obstruct agricultural development and the free movement of the population, and reduce the effectiveness of border police. The presence of landmines and improvised explosive devices was discovered in late 2009 in the municipalities of Bujanovac, Kurumlija, Medvea and Preevo, in the southern part of Serbia, along the administrative line with Kosovo and Metohija. Survey preparations for this area have begun. The mine-affected area of the Bujanovac municipality covers about one square kilometer (0.4 square mile). A General Survey in Kurumlija, Medvea and Preevo municipalities has not been completed, but the mine-affected area is estimated to be 1.5 square kilometers (0.6 square mile).
Clearance Operations Progress
The prioritization of ERW removal is decided according to the level of risk to the population. UXO Threat. UXO that is found accidentally represents a constant threat to civilians, especially children. To protect the population from this threat, the Ministry of Interior EOD teams perform explosive ordnance re-
moval on a daily basis. From 2006 to 2010, EOD teams performed more than 1,600 UXO spot tasks, removing and destroying more than 10,000 items of UXO, 800 kilograms (1,760 pounds) of explosives, 120,000 pieces of pyrotechnic devices and 8,000 other ERW. During this period, EOD teams were in the field for more than 700 days and cleared more than 500,000 square kilometers (310,686 square miles). Cluster Munitions. During and immediately after the NATO intervention, specialized teams of the Serbian Armed Forces and the Ministry of Interior conducted a visual examination, removal and destruction of thousands of unexploded cluster munitions in most of the contaminated areas. This fast action contributed to human security and significantly reduced the number of victims, especially civilians. This surface clearance, conducted without the use of metal detectors, did not remove or destroy cluster munitions that had penetrated the ground. Additional clearance will be carried out as personnel, material and financial resources become available. By the end of 2009, in accordance with international standards, cluster munitions in Serbia were cleared from an area of 4.3 square kilometers (1.7 square miles). During 2009 and 2010, six cluster-munitions-clearance projects were executed and an area of 0.93 square kilometer (0.36 square mile) was cleared. In the period after NATO intervention, specialized teams of the SAF cleared several military micro-locations, totaling an area of more than 1.2 square kilometers (0.46 square mile) and removed and destroyed more than 500 cluster munitions that had penetrated the ground to a depth of more than 50 centimeters (20 inches). These cleared micro-locations are the military airports of Batajnica, Laevci and Ni. Significant reconstruction took place following clearance. Industrial buildings and a hospital were repaired, residential buildings were built, lifts to transport skiers were reconstructed, a ski resort was built and the civilian part of the airport in Ni was reconstructed. Unexploded Aerial Bombs and Missiles. Specialized teams of the SAF and the Ministry of Interior, in the period after NATO intervention, conducted a survey, assessment, excavation, deactivation, removal, transportation and destruction of more than 120 unexploded aerial bombs and missiles dropped during the NATO intervention on 53 military and civilian locations. In addition, Ministry of Interior EOD teams performed deactiva-
An MK-83 is found in Sabac, Serbia.
to the Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-personnel Mines and their Destruction (also known as the Anti-personnel Mine Ban Convention of APMBC) Serbia is working to clear its remaining landmines by 1 March 2014. In May 2007, Serbias stockpiles were destroyed. The country is no longer a producer of AP mines. provement of relations between the people of Serbia and Croatia. The last minefields to contain AP and AT mines, which were laid in the border area with Croatia in the 1990s, were removed in November 2009. A total of 6.2 square kilometers (2.4 square miles) have been demined and the northern part of Serbia has been cleared of mines. These activities were executed through 44 demining projects from 2003 to 2009. The clearance teams found and destroyed 5,139 mines and items of UXO (3,997 AP mines, 842 AT mines and 300 pieces of UXO). The agricultural land from which mines were removed has been returned to the owners and is in use. Local roads, drainage channels and the low-voltage electricity transmission network have improved. In addition, the police can now more efficiently monitor the border, thereby preventing illegal migration and other criminal activities, including human trafficking. The minefields in the southern part of Serbia have not yet been cleared. Along with the international community, donors will be asked for assistance in mine clearance when appropriate projects are developed. Upon completion, it will be possible to declare Serbia cleared of mines. As a signatory
Conclusion
tion, removal, transportation and destruction of 19 unexploded aerial bombs that remained from WWII. Thus far, an area of about 3.9 square kilometers (1.5 square miles) of the river Danube in Novi Sad municipality and Beka community and on the Sava River in Ostrunica community were cleared. Seven aerial bombs weighing from 250 to 1000 kilograms (551 to 2,205 pounds) were found and removed. Ammunition Depot Detonation. Following the ammunition depot detonation on the territory of Parain municipality in 2006, specialized SAF teams conducted a visual examination of about 8 square kilometers (3.1 square miles) of the contaminated area and removed and destroyed more than 130,000 pieces of UXO from the surface. In 2009 and 2010, full clearance was carried out on an area of about 1.8 square kilometers (0.7 square mile) through three clearance projects. More than 1,500 items of UXO were found and destroyed, including ammunition and German bombs from WWII. This work will continue in 2011 and 2012. Clearance. In addition to security, environmental and economic issues, demining in the CroatiaSerbia border area is especially important since clearance contributes to the further strengthening of trust and the im-
The removal of ERW will create the conditions for increased human security, environmental protection, agricultural production, forest usage, drainage-channel maintenance, reconstruction and construction of tourist and industrial buildings. Without the help of the international community and donors, Serbia cannot resolve the numerous problems related to full clearance by its APMBC deadline
Dragan Jovanovic , MSc, is currently Chief of Section for Planning and Quality Control and EOD Manager in the Sector for Emergency Situations within Serbias Ministry of Interior. Following the NATO intervention, he worked as an EOD Team Leader and EOD Manager in the Ministry of Defence at Batajnica Airport. He has extensive field experience in cluster munitions and UXO clearance and aerial-bomb defuzing and disposal. Dragan Jovanovic , MSc Chief of Section for Planning and Quality Control EOD Manager Ministry of Interior Sector for Emergency Situations Kneza Milosa 101 Belgrade 11 000 / Serbia Tel: +381 64 8929 463 E-mail: draganmjovanovic@gmail.com
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The Surprisingly Constant Cost of Landmine Impact Surveys

Landmine Impact Surveys involve survey teams that work with the local people to evaluate how landmines and unexploded ordnance affect daily lives. The Survey Action Center, United Nations and the affected countries closely regulate this process to ensure the preservation of high standards.1
by Russell Gasser [ Humanitarian Technology Consulting Ltd. ]
Country Afghanistan Angola Armenia Azerbaijan Bosnia and Herzegovina Cambodia Chad Eritrea Ethiopia Iraq Kosovo Lebanon Mauritania Mozambique Senegal Somalia (all three phases) Sudan Thailand Yemen
Year Cost US$ Finished 2005 2007 2005 2003 2003 2002 2001 2004 2004 2006 2000 2003 2006 2001 No Data 2007 2009 2001 2000 3,004,494 6,778,163 669,800 1,236,000 2,006,730 1,360,000 1,842,000 2,291,992 4,029,672 No Data 111,000 1,500,000 No Data 2,272,000 No Data 1,906,900 No Data 1,656,000 1,645,000
Suspected Post-LIS Positives Actually Notes Before Visits Impacted 4,655 2,365 4,384 1,988 99 60 610 480 2,939 1,366 13,908 2,776 No sampling 1,361 249 352 132 3,281 1,492 12,010 2,117 No sampling No Data No Data 1,065 306 No Data No Data 2,057 791 No Data No Data 496 482 Not aggregated 296 1,491 530 1,294 592
to exist between the costs and suspected positives. (See Figure 1) The fixed costs are surprisingly high, meaning that the larger the survey, the lower the cost per affected community. Although this varies from one country to another, Afghanistan and Bosnia and Herzegovina were less costly than average, whereas Angola, Eritrea, and Somalia were more expensive.3 These increased costs may be explained because the Angola LIS had to be stopped and restarted, and Somalias survey was undertaken in three phases.1
Future Outcomes
Table 1: Landmine Impact Survey data available from reports found on http://www.sac-na.org.
Locals from landmine-affected communities draw community maps in Sudan.
T
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All graphics courtesy of the author.
here is no obvious reason that a Landmine Impact Survey should cost the same in a small European country like Bosnia and Herzegovina as it does in Chad or Thailand, but analysis of the 13 surveys with published costs shows that most surveys do cost about the same amount.1 The two largest surveys (Afghanistan and Angola) show more variation. This analysis provides a way to deduce which of the past surveys were most cost-effective and could lead to ways of
reducing LIS costs, while providing estimates for future survey costs. Several surveys have been stopped and restarted due to funding shortfalls; therefore, a better cost estimate would help in planning. It is important to remember this is not a rigorously predictive method but an observation on worldwide experience. Surveys are conducted as defined by international protocols.2 This method probably accounts for the fairly constant fixed costs, which are more than US$900,000
per country (See Figure 1 next page). In addition to these fixed costs, a variable component averages about $800 for each community suspected of being affected by landmines and/ or unexploded ordnance from the start of the main data collection. Before the main survey starts, an LIS undertakes a Recollection of the Opinion of Experts in the affected country that results in a list of each community in which people are considered mine- and/or UXO-affected. These communities are known as suspected positives. At this point in the process, identifying potentially affected communities may eliminate areas within the country where there has been no conflict. In Senegal, only the southern province of Casamance has mined areas. In Thailand, mines only exist in certain border areas. Thus far, every survey has found that a significant proportionroughly one-half of the suspected positives are not
mine- and/or UXO-affected, and they then become false positives in the survey data. (See Table 1.) The correlation of total cost against parameterssuch as the number of communities suspected, the number visited, the number impacted, the number with mines, UXO or victims, plus several different combinations of this datawas analyzed for all available published surveys. This assessment showed that the best correlation is between the overall cost and the number of suspected positives after the initial data gathering and gazetteer preparation. This result may be expected, as a survey team usually must visit each suspected positive community. The correlation strength between costs and suspected positives was unexpected at the beginning of the analysis. After eliminating the countries with missing dataincluding Cambodia, which did not use a sampling methodologya strong correlation of 0.8 for all surveys was found
I suggest the mine-action community can draw some useful conclusions from this analysis: 1. The set of protocols closely regulating the LIS probably contributes to the relatively constant cost. To improve efficiency and cut costs, either the protocols will need revision or future surveys will need to reduce the implementation of only the most essential protocol elements. This situation poses a dilemma: Reworking the protocols is likely to be slow and expensive, but surveys not in compliance are less likely to receive funding. 2. First estimates of the overall cost of any future surveys can be made. The number of surveys that have run out of money suggest this exercise could be useful. A better measurement of the likely cost-benefit before investing millions of dollars in a survey will result. 3. As cost is related to the number of suspected positives and about half of these are found to be false positives, it seems that
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The Rise in Terrorist Attacks in the Western Sahara

The Mauritanian government is taking steps to prevent Al-Qaedas terrorist acts, including suicide bombings and kidnappings in the region. Added to this threat are the explosives Al-Qaeda is able to obtain from landmines and unexploded ordnance scattered throughout the region after years of conflict in Western Sahara. The United Nations Development Programme and various countries work to remove these landmines and items of UXO, which is complicated by the lack of a Landmine Impact Survey.
by Lt. Colonel Mohamed Taghioullah Ould Nema [ Cabinet of the Mauritanian National Army ]
I
Figure 1: Landmine Impact Survey costs available from reports found on http://www.sac-na.org.
spending more time and effort on the initial data collection could be useful. If the number of false positives can be reduced, it is reasonable to assume that overall costs will also decrease. The Expert Opinion Collection is usually a relatively small part of the overall survey cost, so investing more resources on accurately collecting data early in the process may be a useful approach to improving the LIS cost-benefit ratio.
Conclusion
The initial data collection in an LIS designates communities as potentially impacted by mines and UXO. Distinguishing between suspected positives and false positives
early in the process can reduce the costs of the LIS. Based on analysis of the correlation between costs and suspected positives, evidence supports that efficient planning can reduce future survey expenses. Given the small number of countries that still require an LIS, the outcome of this analysis can give better cost estimates to potential donors and identify the survey parts where savings are most probable in the future. At this stage, with so many Landmine Impact Surveys completed worldwide, rewriting the protocols is likely not useful. Focusing on more efficient implementation and collecting core data in different countries is a better route to cost savings overall. see endnotes page 83
Russell Gasser is an engineer who became interested in mine action while helping start a wheelchair repair workshop in Nicaragua in the late 1980s. He returned to Warwick University Development Technology Unit in the U.K. in 1996, to write a Ph.D. thesis about advanced technology research failing to deliver new demining tools and equipment. He received his Ph.D. in 2000. After working for the European Commission for three years, he formed a consultancy, Humanitarian Technology Consulting Ltd., to provide mine-action program evaluation. Russell Gasser, Ph.D. Humanitarian Technology Consulting Ltd. Alzey 55232 / Germany Tel: +49 6731 547 1501 Fax: +49 6731 547 1503 E-mail: RG@htc.eu.com
n 2009, while driving toward the French embassy in Nouakchott, Mauritania, I suddenly encountered a large blast. As I approached the scene, I saw the worst sight I have ever seenthe results of a suicide bombing explosion. A 20-year-old man had blown himself up trying to kill two innocent embassy staff members while they were exercising. The explosion split the mans corpse into three parts: His head to stomach was dismembered and lying in the center of the path; his lower part was thrown about 12 meters (13 yards) away; and pieces of his legs and other small bits were strewn about on the pavement. He committed this action during the daytime, in front of everyone, and I saw it myself. Immediately following the attack, fear paralyzed the people nearby. No one wanted to move because they were shocked and revolted by the explosion, and they were worried about additional attacks.
Al-Qaedas Terrorism in Mauritania
This was the first suicide bombing in the country and the beginning of many Al-Qaeda el Maghreb Islmi (Al-Qaeda of the Islamic Maghreb) attacks in Mauritania. For example,
the Israeli embassy in Nouakchott was blown up by a grenade and assaulted by terrorist fighters, wounding three people. Three French tourists were killed at Aleg (in the deep country). Finally, AQIM killed French captive Michel Germaneau in retaliation for a French raid that killed six AQIM militants.1 AQIM had kidnapped Michel Germaneau in Niger on the border with Mali and Algeria, but where he was killed remains unknown.1,2 The Mauritanian government is determined to fight terrorists. Many specialized units in counterterrorism are stationed on the borders between Algeria, Mauritania and Mali. The soldiers comprising these units were highly trained in counterterrorism techniques by American and French experts. In addition, the Mauritanian government essentially provided all the needed equipment to the units (e.g., helicopters, vehicles, radar, an armored personnel carrier, night-vision goggles, etc.). Using technology and satellite data, Mauritanias counterterrorism team is gathering accurate intelligence extending beyond the countrys borders to stop the extremists before they can launch new at-
A sentry guards the approach road to a lightly guarded Mauritanian Army munitions supply point.
All photos courtesy of John Stevens, PM/WRA, U.S. Department of State.
tacks. A joint tactical-operational center was created in Algeria. This center provides updated intelligence information, assesses the security situation and coordinates shared actions against AQIM. Other bandits, arms traffickers and drug dealers are located in the same region as the AQIM fighters and can collaborate with them in terms of resupply or equipment support, although AQIM mem-
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Remnants-of-War and Minefield Removal
Mauritanian Army officers and an official from the NATO Maintenance and Supply Agency, during an assessment visit to one of Mauritania's remote and lightly guarded munitions supply points.
bers govern all the military actions. Many AQIM fighters are former soldiers of Groupe Salafiste pour la Prdication et le Combat (Algerian Islamic insurgents). AQIM is building its capacities in many ways: It recruits young people and trains them through Islamist conditioning; it kidnaps hostages for ransom; and it obtains weapons and ammunition from abandoned minefields and fragile military camps. Various arms and explosive remnants of war that can be utilizes illicitly are readily available to terrorists in the Western Sahara region. This area was a battlefield, and it has not been cleared of the UXO. This means AQIM and others can take advantage of this situation to resupply their arms coffers. Moreover, many government weapons stockpiles and military bases are not built according to modern standards. Some of these ammunition and light-weapon warehouses, therefore, are not secure, and AQIM fighters could conceivably penetrate them without too much difficulty and obtain weapons from them.
Mauritanias humanitarian-demining office has cleared many minefields since signing the Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction. More than 150,000 mines of various types were removed, but the danger continues because many battlefields from the Western Sahara have not been cleared. Data is lacking about the exact mine and UXO locations since no comprehensive Landmine Impact Survey has been completed in the region.3 Western Sahara is contaminated following years of Frente Popular de Liberacin de Sagua el Hamra y Ro de Oro (Popular Front for the Liberation of Saguia el-Hamra and Ro de Oro, or Frente POLISARIO) and the Morocco conflict. The UXO and mines are especially prevalent along the walls called berms created by Morocco to protect against the Frente POLISARIO. In addition, terrorists can easily reactivate some minefields (marked areas that are not entirely cleared but have a small safe path within them) by adding one or two landmine strips to change the pattern. While military-camp security is very tight in the main towns, the situation is far less secure in the deep country, which makes it easy for terrorists to obtain weapons. The main mine-action actors are the Mauritanian Army Engineering Corps and a few Mauritanian nongovernmental organizations. The United Nations Development Programme, Canada, the United States and France have supported mineclearance and mine-risk education programs. However, the lack
of accurate assessment and Technical Survey, coupled with a lack of good management, have undermined Mauritanias success in making its lands safe. As a result, mines can still be found in many locations along Mauritania's northern frontier and these weapons are used by bombers, terrorists or arms traffickers, who can then sell these devices to extremists. The international community must act quickly to help the greater Western Sahara region solve this issue. Preventing terrorists from obtaining weapons and ammunition is important. Strengthening and better securing warehouses, military premises and camps where arms and munitions are obtainable is one solution; however, the government must also organize an awareness campaign about the danger of these issues and train its personnel to properly store and secure weapons and ammunition. see endnotes page 83
RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

Lt. Colonel Mohamed Ould Nema is a graduate of the Mohamed V University in Rabat, Morocco. He participated in several training programs, including courses in France, Egypt, Algeria and Syria, as well as the 2005 UNDP Senior Managers Course presented by the Mine Action Information Center at James Madison University. Formerly Head of the Mauritanian National Demining Office, he is now Inspector in the Cabinet of the National Army Chief Of Staff. Mohamed Ould Nema Inspector Cabinet of the Mauritanian National Army Chief of Staff P.O. Box 208 Nouakchott / Mauritania Tel: +249 915 471 820 E-mail: ouldnema@yahoo.fr
Research and Development Section Sponsored by
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Remote Explosives Scent Tracing of Explosive Remnants of War: A Perspective from the 2010 Morogoro Workshop
In March 2010, a workshop was held in Morogoro, Tanzania, to consider the past, present and future status of the Remote Explosive Scent Tracing system for explosive-remnants-of-war detection. This article summarizes the workshops discussions and explains lessons learned from the REST research project in Morogoro.
by Brent Max Jones [ University of Massachusetts Medical School ], Rune Fjellanger [ Fjellanger Dog Training Academy ], Christophe Cox [ APOPO ] and Alan Poling [ Western Michigan University ]
ver the past decade, there has been considerable interest in the possibility of remotely detecting areas of land contaminated with explosive remnants of war using a system known as Remote Explosive Scent Tracing. Since 2005, research has been underway in Morogoro to develop an operational REST system using dogs and giant African pouched rats as detection animals. The typical procedure is summarized as follows. A team uses a suction pump to vacuum the air over a road section, typically 100 or 200-m long and about 5-m wide. The air is sucked through a filter, and careful records are kept of the road section that each filter represents. The filters are transferred to a laboratory where they are presented to trained detectors (usually dogs or rats) using a standard methodology, such as on the arms of a carousel or in a line of stands. REST refers to a method for identifying areas of land that contain chemical residues of explosive remnants of war (landmines, unexploded ordnance, etc.). REST involves collecting samples of air or dust from defined locations and presenting those samples to mechanical or animate detectors in a remote location. Areas producing samples judged to be positive by the detectors are then either searched more thoroughly by other methods, such as direct-detection animals or humans with metal detectors, or cleared by machines. Areas producing negative samples are exempt from further inspection except for quality control. From 200210 the Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining joined other agencies to support a series of REST workshops and a REST research project centered in Morogoro, Tanzania. The research project recently came to an end and its findings, along with the status of REST in general, were the topics of a GICHD workshop held in Geneva from 2325 November 2010, and a forthcoming GICHD publication that will appear in early 2011, titled Remote Scent Tracing (REST) of Landmines: 19902010. A few peer-reviewed publications directly relevant to REST for ERW have been published,1,2,3 but no systematic overviews are available. The GICHD publication, therefore, will be of value as a reference work and the present manuscript may interest a general audience.
Early REST Activities
was used to detect explosives and small arms in vehicles and transport containers during the South African Border War.4 When applied in humanitarian demining, it was reported to be fast, inexpensive and able to detect ERW that were missed by prior searches. 5 Given the apparent success of Mechems system, Norwegian Peoples Aid contracted Mechem in the late 1990s to supply dogs, equipment and personnel when they sought a REST program to support their demining activities in Angola. Several months into this contract, NPA asked GICHD to evaluate the accuracy of their system, as well as the general methods used in it. The first major study of REST was subsequently conducted in 2000. Unfortunately, in situations where their handlers did not know the number and position of positive samples, the accuracy with which dogs indicated (sat in front of) samples taken from mine-contaminated areas was less than satisfactory. NPA subsequently suspended their planned operational use of the system in favor of conducting research and development, and forged a relationship with GICHD for that purpose. GICHD supplied the services of Dr. Ian McLean (an environmental biologist) and Mr. Rune Fjellanger (a dog-training specialist) to develop more effective procedures for NPAs system. Fjellanger, McLean and Espen Kruger Anderson (who works at the Fjellanger Dog Training Academy)2 focused on the preparation of dogs as the detectors in a REST system. They demonstrated that with about six months training, each of the four dogs learned to indicate filters through which air had been vacuumed over 2-4-6 TNT, the explosive found in many ERW. The functional utility of Fjellanger et al.s system 2 was then assessed in a subsequent pilot study3 using the same dogs but filters from test minefields in Bosnia. Positive filters were created by drawing air through filters in the near vicinity of landmines, whereas negative filters were created in the same manner but in mine-free areas. Overall, the dogs indicated 60 of 88 of the positive filters (a hit rate of 68%), suggesting that the system had potential but that further work was needed to improve its accuracy.
Land Release and REST
system appeared feasible for two reasons. First, Mechem was already using such a system. 5 Second, the animals in REST perform a detection task fundamentally similar to that faced by ERW-detection animals in minefields, which had had reported success. In February 2002, the first REST workshop was held in Morogoro. Attendees were generally enthusiastic about the value of REST, particularly for minefield detection. Nonetheless, the challenges posed by this application were also discussed at length (as by Bach and McLean1) and attendees endorsed the need for a substantial program of research to optimize a REST system. Despite the complexity of the issues they faced, the researchers were confident that operational REST for ERW would soon be developed. That confidence is evident in the 2003 publication of International Mine Action Standards 09.43: Remote Explosives Scent Tracing.8 This document, and the revision that followed in 2005, provided guidelines and minimum detection accuracies for operational REST systems. Similarly, in 2004 McLean and Dr. Rebecca Sargisson noted that REST is likely to be implemented for road clearance in Sudan and Angola by the end of 2004.9 Furthermore, this confidence was matched by increased resourcing of research and development. GICHD employed Sargisson to work on the project, NPA and GICHD shared the costs of a research facility in Lubango, Angola, and APOPO joined the fold by allocating staff and resources for REST research. In addition, GICHD contracted the analytical chemist, Dr. Kai-Uwe Goss, to investigate filter materials and sampling techniques, and assisted APOPO in establishing a chemistry laboratory.
Early Findings from Morogoro and Elsewhere
A pouched rat identifies a positive sample by pausing and scratching at a hole above an aluminum pot containing soil to which mine water has been added.
Photo courtesy of Jessie Poling.
REST for ERW is not new. In the early 1990s, a South African company, Mechem Consultants, began using REST with dogs to search for ERW in Mozambique and Angola. Their system evolved from one that
By 2000, many operators in humanitarian demining had embraced the principles of land release 6,7 in order to maximize returns from limited resources. The promising results reported by Fjellanger et al. combined with the appeal of REST for land-release applications generated considerable interest in the technique. In addition, an operational REST
While chemists were studying filter materials and sampling methods, polyvinyl-chloride gauze filters developed by Mechem were used to construct training samples for NPAs dogs and APOPOs rats. Unlike Fjellanger et al.s method, however, positive samples were created by drawing air from immediately above a buried landmine through a filter, whereas negative samples were created by drawing air above ground distant from mines. Preliminary results appeared quite promising in that pouched rats reliably indicated filters (by scratching at them) from APOPOs training minefield, but they did not indicate filters from other locations where mines were not present. When tested with positive samples from other locations where mines were present, however, the rats failed to indicate (missed) most of them. These results suggested that their training had failed to establish
stimulus control by the intended target odor (the odor of landmines) and instead allowed some other odor difference between positive and negative samples to serve as the basis for the rats discrimination. Apparently, because all of the positive training samples came from APOPOs minefield, the rats learned to respond to odors unique to that location, and not to odors unique to landmines. NPAs REST researchers in Angola had recently observed similar inappropriate stimulus control in dogs. Unfortunately, in both cases it was impossible to establish exactly what odor features were functioning as cues. The Angola research did, however, yield some interesting results. For example, a recently published study by Sargisson and McLean,10 who were then employed by GICHD, shows that for six dogs in the Angola program the hit rate was higher and the false alarm rate lower when the rate of reinforcement was medium or high than when it was low. That is, the dogs performance was poorer when a low percentage of correct responses was reinforced (i.e., rewarded) than when the percentage was substantially higher. The results of the filter tests in Angola and the reinforcement experiments clearly illustrate the value of applying signal-detection analysis to the performance of explosives-detection animals and the importance of reinforcement (reward) scheduling in influencing that performance. Although APOPOs and NPAs test results were viewed as setbacks, in hindsight they were useful because their similarity highlighted the need for greater cooperation among NPA, APOPO and GICHD, and for a coordi-
nated R&D program. Consequently in 2005, NPA built research facilities for dogs adjacent to APOPOs rat facilities and in early 2006, NPA moved its dogs and equipment there from Lubango. McLean and Sargisson had recently resigned from GICHD, but Dr. Max Jones had been hired to direct the dog program. Jones established an Advisory Committee (comprising chemists, psychologists and dog-training specialists) and lobbied for a new approach to REST R&D; namely, one that relied less on experts opinions and more on findings with the animals. He stressed the importance of carefully controlled research using the methods characteristic of a field known as behavior analysis.11 This approach is described in the following section.
Behavior Analysis and REST
The field of behavior analysis favors within-subject experimental designs, which involve comparing repeated measurements of an animals performance across different conditions of interest, in order to obtain meaningful information with a small number of animals. Jones team tried to replicate procedures precisely across training sessions, and to control all those variables that could affect the dogs' detection accuracy, so that the variation in accuracies across sessions was minimized and the effect (if any) of a single procedural change could be assessed. To this end, all procedures were carefully documented, staff received regular training and reliability checks were conducted. The overall plan was to add complexity to the training and testing procedures gradually and
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selected to appear in samples according to specific rules. In addition, each animals hit and false-alarm rates were analyzed for each contaminant and soil type separately. Although results were often promising, consistent detection of TNT solution did not occur across all soil types and contaminants, and the animals were not tested with samples taken from areas that actually contained landmines.
Disarray and Brief Renewal
A dog sniffs a container with soil samples, some of which contain a small amount of TNT (positive sample) and others that are TNT-free (negative sample). The dog moves around the carousel, sniffing samples at the end of the arms and identifying positive samples by sitting beside them.
Photo courtesy of Max Jones.
systematically (by making single procedure changes), eventually developing operationally viable techniques. Jones and his assistant, Yolande Dunn, also devised a brief test methodology to regularly assess whether irrelevant odor features of positive training samples had acquired stimulus control. Two general procedural changes were made in the APOPO and NPA programs at this time. First, both ceased using filters and began presenting measured amounts of sieved soil in aluminum canisters as samples. This change was in anticipation of collecting loose surface dust in operational REST samples because Goss had discovered that such dust yielded higher and more consistent levels of explosive compounds from mines/ UXO than air samples. In response to this finding, the Morogoro team also began developing a prototype device for collecting dust particles. Second, rather than using operationally viable devices and methods to collect training samples from field sites, researchers began manufacturing samples under laboratory conditions. Specifically, a measured amount of TNT in solution appeared on positive samples to mimic the soil above a mine or UXO. Unlike using field samples, constructing samples in the lab potentially offered precise control of target and other odors presented to animals. Moreover, as previous findings illustrated, positive field samples needed to come from a large number of contaminated locations, including actual minefields that were discovered with minimal application of detection technologies and thus left virtually undisturbed, as well as negative field samples from minimally inspected
locations that were previously considered hazardous but actually free of ERW. Collecting a large quantity of field samples posed insurmountable logistical and safety challenges. The first attempts to train dogs and rats to indicate the presence of TNT in solution involved making a uniform set of positive samples and a uniform set of negative samples with the only difference between sets being, in principle, that the positives contained TNT. Both NPA and APOPO researchers found that animals trained with these samples readily learned to indicate only positive samples, and that detection accuracies generally decreased as the amount of TNT in a sample decreased. This decrease suggested that the odor emanating from TNT in solutionand not some other odor common to all positiveswas the stimulus controlling the indication responses. However, several challenging phenomena were also revealed in this work. For example, both groups found that hit rates fell more rapidly wiht the decrease in TNT concentration when concentration was varied within a training session than when it was varied between sessions. They also found that detection accuracies usually declined on the first few sessions in which a different soil type was used in all samples. This latter result illustrated the importance of varying the irrelevant odors on positive and negative samples, and both programs implemented systems (albeit different ones) for doing this. A library of around 600 contaminants (including foods, plants and inorganic materials) and about 20 soil types was established and the contaminants/soil types were
NPA sponsored the dog program until Since it began, the primary goal of R&D April 2007, when it was replaced by the Swedinto REST was to develop an operational, emish Rescue Services Agency. In addition, Jones pirically validated system for ERW detection resigned from GICHD in August 2007, leaving that comprised procedures sufficiently docDunn to direct the dog project. Another Moumented to allow others to replicate the sysrogoro REST workshop occurred in October tem. When the project started, the future of that same year. Although REST looked promising: NPA significant progress was had real need for such a sysreported, the Advisory tem, Mechem was winning Committee and the MoroUnited Nations contracts with Despite these struggles, goro researchers drafted a its REST system, and GICHD much has been learned from plan for evaluating procewanted REST technology to dural changes that moved be documented and in the the Morogoro research. This the system closer to being public domain. operationally viable, and Unfortunately, an operknowledge has valuable for investigating a subset of ational REST for ERW systhe behavioral phenomena tem has not yet resulted from applications in the trainthat had been discovered. the Morogoro project. MoreUnfortunately, severover, the need for REST has ing and testing of animals in al months after the 2007 been reduced by the appliworkshop, Dunn resigned cation of long-leash minea range of odor-detection from the dog project, SRSA detection dogs for clearing roles (including direct detecterminated its sponsorsuspected hazardous areas ship, and research actividuring Technical Survey. Mr. tion of ERW), and efforts, ties rapidly deteriorated. Terje Berntsen, manager of In fact, plans were laid to NPA's Global Training Centre perhaps to be supported by terminate employment of for Mine Detection Dogs, delocal staff, give the dogs to scribed this system at the 2010 GICHD, are underway to pubanother organization and workshop. Not unexpectedly, donate the infrastructure NPA and GICHD represenlish some of those findings. to Sokoine University of tatives revealed at that workAgriculture in Tanzania. shop that neither organization Members of the advisory had funds available to spontrain rats and dogs to detect a mines bouquet. committee argued successfully for the projsor further REST R&D. Put simply, the projTo accomplish this, all of the dogs and some ects worth, however, and after several months ect had failed to produce an operational of the rats began receiving positive samples without adequate project supervision NPA resystem by the agreed deadline and would not where so-called mine water was added to a sumed control of it in April 2009. At that time, be continued. Therefore, the dog-training fameasured amount of soil, and negative samGICHD recontracted Fjellanger to direct the cility closed quickly and APOPO reduced its ples where only water was added to soil. Mine project and hired Dr. Adee Schoon, an expert R&D of REST for ERW. water was produced by soaking a given type of in establishing and evaluating scent detection Although many of the researchers involved landmine for several weeks in tap water that by animals, to consult on the project. They with the Morogoro project aspired to a procovered the mine completely. were given to the end of the calendar year to gressive, scientific approach, the actual work Dogs and rats readily learned to indicate establish an operational system and quickly often involved attempts to produce an operamine-water samples, but their performance planned training and testing steps for the dogs tional system as quickly as possible. Therefore, was strongly affected by the type of soil preand APOPOs rats, and some chemistry studies procedures sometimes were changed radicalsented and preliminary tests indicated that for APOPOs laboratory. In August 2009, Dr. ly and without adequate investigation of the soil samples collected near mines in APOPOs Alan Poling was appointed as APOPOs Scienrelevant behavioral phenomena when probminefield were not reliably detected. Plans tific Advisor and assisted with REST R&D. lems were identified. Throughout the projwere made to use a headspace analyzer and As Fjellanger and Schoon were impleect, changes in sponsorship and high staff mass spectrometer recently purchased by NPA menting their plans, chemists from APOPO turnover reduced research productivity and to analyze potential odor cues in training and and other labs learned that soil around landquality. Moreover, the absence of consis-
mines contained much higher concentrations of TNT-breakdown products (2,4-DNT; 2-ADNT; 4-A-DNT) than of TNT itself. These findings caused the REST researchers to question whether TNT in solution was in fact the best training stimulus. Despite knowing little about the relative salience of various chemicals as odor cues for rats and dogs, participants as another REST workshop in January 2009 concluded that presenting the whole bouquet of a mines odor in positive training samples should result in a more accurate REST system. After tests demonstrated that rats trained on only TNT did not reliably identify field samples collected over mines, in the summer of 2009, Fjellanger and Schoon began to
field samples and to use this information to create training samples, to train animals with these samples, and finally to test them with samples obtained from mined areas (in Mozambique and Angola) and nearby areas with no mines. Unfortunately, the analytical chemistry proved more difficult than expected, and this work was in its early stages when the 2010 REST workshop convened.
The Current Status of REST
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tent daily supervision by senior researchers made it difficult to ensure that procedures were consistently implemented correctly by laboratory assistants and trainers. Finally, in part because procuring required equipment and supplies was slow and difficult, detailed chemical analysis of samples proved extremely challenging and failed to provide useful information for preparing training samples. Despite these struggles, much has been learned from the Morogoro research. This knowledge has valuable applications in the training and testing of animals in a range of odor-detection roles (including direct detection of ERW), and efforts, supported by GICHD, are underway to publish some of those findings.
The Future for REST
Using Encapsulated Fluorescent Bioprobes to Detect Explosive Materials in Soil

Dr. Brent Max Jones is a behavioral psychologist and presently an associate professor in the Behavioral Technology Group at the Eunice Kennedy Shriver Center of the University of Massachusetts Medical School. His research interests are in learning of simple and conditional discriminations between stimuli by animals and children with intellectual disabilities. Dr. Brent (Max) Jones University of Massachusetts Medical School Eunice Kennedy-Shriver Center 333 South Street Shrewsbury, MA 01545 / USA Tel: +1 508 856 4246 E-mail: brent.jones@umassmed.edu Christophe Cox leads APOPO as its Chief Executive Officer. Cox holds a Master of Science in product development and development sciences and has many years of management experience in East Africa. He created most of APOPOs training strategies and devices. Christophe Cox APOPO PO Box 3078 Morogoro / Tanzania Tel: +255 71 374 0740 E-mail: christophe.cox@apopo.org
This article examines the methods involved in using fluorescent bioprobes to detect explosive devices within soil. By genetically modifying plants through the injection of certain chemicals, visible responses indicate the presence and placement of explosive material, aiding demining agents in the process of mapping and removing various landmines or other explosive remnants of war. The adoption of these tools proves useful for stand-off detection of low TNT concentrations in the laboratory and controlled microcosm studies.
by Clint B. Smith [ U.S. Army ERDC ] and Joel S. Tabb [ Agave BioSystems ]
Developing an operational REST system for ERW detection is an extremely complex interdisciplinary undertaking that poses significant challenges for engineers, analytical chemists and behavioral scientists. In the end it may be impossible to overcome those challenges and develop a workable system. It is, however, premature to assume that this is the case. In our opinion, the best way forward is to focus generally on the variables that affect odor detection by animals while endeavoring to develop a variety of useful operational Remote Scent Tracing applications, including ERW detection. Doing so affords opportunity for obtaining funds outside humanitarian demining and enlisting the services of experts in a range of industries. APOPO presently is taking this tack with its R&D. see endnotes page 83
Rune Fjellanger leads Fjellanger Dog Training Academy as its Chief Executive Officer. Rune holds a Master of Science in zoological and human physiology and has many years of practical experience in many kinds of detection dog training. He is especially interested in remote scent tracing by animals. Rune Fjellanger Chief Executive Officer Fjellanger Dog Training Academy Lyseklostervn. 310 NO-5215 Lysekloster / Norway Tel: +47 9345 3667 E-mail: rune@fjellanger.net Web: www.fjellanger.net
Alan Poling has a Ph.D. in psychology and is a Professor at Western Michigan University. He is an experienced researcher with articles in 40 different journals and more than 250 publications. Poling has particular expertise in within-subject research designs and behavior analysis. He recently joined APOPO to further its scientific activities. Alan Poling APOPO Department of Psychology Western Michigan University Kalamazoo, MI 49012 / USA Tel: +1 269-387-4483 E-mail: alan.poling@wmich.edu
Call for Papers

Research, Technology and Development in Mine Action
For submission guidelines, please visit:
http://tinyurl.com/4kq6cso
JAMES MADISON UNIVERSITY 800 S. Main Street, MSC 4902 Harrisonburg, VA 22807 USA ph +1 540 568 2718 | http://cisr.jmu.edu
The Center for International Stabilization and Recovery
ost of the current methods for analyzing explosive contaminants involve chemical extraction of explosives from collected soil samples. The complexity of these techniques typically requires that the samples be moved off-site. In addition to requiring extensive handling, expensive equipment and highly skilled workers, these methods involve transferring soil samples to a laboratory and using extraction techniques according to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Method 8330.1 Over the past decade, novel efforts for detecting landmines in field environments included using genetically modified plants, which have been one of the focuses for biosensors. The idea involves plants that have been genetically modified to consume trace explosive materials and aid in landmine detection via a fluorescence or visual response when interrogated with an external light source. Plant leaves glow a brighter green when consuming the trace explosive material. These genomic analyses of plants may one day provide a range of bio- and nanotechnologies for development to look for trinitrotoluene (TNT)based materials using fluorescent or bright tags such as green fluorescent protein. 2 These plant alterations will need to withstand the natural constraints of the environmental conditions, i.e., changes in soil pH. In addition to using plants as biosensors, genetically modified microorganisms have been investigated for their potential to detect various chemicals, namely TNT. 3,4,5,6 While GFP may serve as a useful bioreporter in the laboratory setting, recent reports suggest that this reporter may not be suitable for soil-contaminant detection. Smith et al. demonstrated that expressed GFP produced high fluorescence levels at pH 7.0, but at more acidic or alkaline pH levels,
such as those likely encountered in potentially contaminated soil, fluorescence output was diminished, rendering the ON switch unreadable for a potential end user or operator.7 With support from the United States Army Engineer Research and Development Center, via the U.S. Army Small Business Technology Transfer program, Agave BioSystems is developing a novel fluorescent system capable of detecting explosive materials present in surface
functional part, the bioprobe was encapsulated to protect and preserve the ON/OFF switchs functionality. When free TNT is present in the soil, the soil containing the TNT turns the dust ON, causing an increase in fluorescence and a brighter soil area when illuminated, indicating that a landmine is present beneath the soils surface. Using the dust material, TNT concentrations from low levels (0.02 ppm) to higher levels (200 ppm) were readily detected
Figure 1: Measurement of silica microspheres comprised of fluorescent antibody-based bioprobes at a concentration range of 0.2 ppm TNT in solution to 100 ppm TNT in soil samples. Y-axis clarification: Tecan fluorescence is a measure of relative fluorescence.
Graphic courtesy of Joel Tabb/CISR.
soils. The research initiative involves the proof of concept and experimentation on TNT detection in select soils using solution-based bioprobe slurries. The bioprobes, or dust material, use f luorescent-labeled biological components called antibodies (known as the ON switch) and fluorescent quencher analogs (known as the OFF switch) to detect the presence of specific explosive residues like TNT. To provide environmental stability to the dust materials
at room temperature by spiking soil samples with TNT within our laboratory experimentation microcosm. Future efforts will focus on scale-up of materials for attempting experiments at larger ranges and keeping the bioprobe at the soils surface to adapt for stand-off detection in field conditions and testing in various soil types and conditions (wet/dry, hot/cold, low pH/high pH, low salinity/high salinity). This research focuses on the technical clearance stages and non-daylight exercises to
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Dr. Clint Smith is a Research Scientist for U.S. Army Engineer R&D Center. He has nine years experience as a scientist for R&D basic and applied research efforts based on non-explosive and explosive technologies. Clint Smith, Ph.D. Research Scientist U.S. Army ERDC 7701 Telegraph Road Alexandria, VA 22315 / USA Tel: +1 703 428 8203 Fax: +1 703 428 3732 E-mail: clint.b.smith@usace.army.mil
Figure 2: Soil-based detection of TNT using fluorescent bioprobe. Samples were excited with a HORBIA Jobin Yvon Spectrofluorometer with the fiber optic attachment positioned nadir or 90-degree geometry at 355 nm Excitation. The 495 nm fluorescence emission is viewed in this data plot.
Graphic courtesy of Clint Smith/CISR.
maximize output from the fluorescence emissions obtained from the bioprobes interaction with the explosive materials.
Methods
BRITE MINE, or Bioprobe Immunoencapsulated Microspheres with Nanoporebased Energetics, is a hybrid organic and inorganic approach to detecting explosive agents within the environment. The advantages of this design are that the materials are not associated with recombinant DNA or genetic alterations, and are based on an environmentally stable silica (sand) construct. The silica microspheres (Millipore, USA) are nontoxic and inactive with the environment after use. Tested for TNT, the bioprobe detector has shown high sensitivity and high specificity. This biologically-based detection probe has disadvantages involving the necessary stabilization of antibodies in the environment. In other words, this technology requires proper storage prior to application and does have a shelf life; however, that is not uncommon with organic-based approaches. Expanding the shelf life and stability of this approach, the inorganic silica-based microspheres containing nano-size pores are used for antibody encasement and protection. In addition, there are potential signal-to-noise problems; part of the investigation continues in later stages of the research with use of fluorescence detector amplification or enhancement techniques illustrating that the ON switch works properly. Finally, as these detectors are scaled up and produced, materials will face certain challenges over a wide area of applications.
Results from use of the laser-imaging system from 1-m stand-off distances have suggested that an optimization of the fluorescent ON switch would need to be used with a greencolored emission of the fluorescent tag when visualized by the operator. By using Dansyl-X (Sigma-Aldrich, USA) rather than the Blue/ Green Alexa Fluor-488 nm (Invitrogen, USA), the tag could potentially amplify the distances at which greater stand-off distances could be seen. To visualize landmine or TNT detection in contaminated soil samples, using an airborne imaging system is necessary to sufficiently detect and measure fluorescence from the dispersed bioprobes on soil surfaces contaminated with landmines.
Bioprobe Soil Testing
Preliminary experiments demonstrated that the fluorescent bioprobes could readily detect low (0.2 ppm) to high (100 ppm) TNT levels dissolved in 99.9% spectral grade acetone (Sigma-Aldrich, USA) in soil samples at room temperature using a Tecan spectrofluorometer (See Figure 1 on previous page). To further characterize the TNT detection in soil, additional experiments were conducted using standard topsoil from a local garden-supply center as a test matrix. For these studies, topsoil was placed into 100-mm black Petri dishes or plastic tubs. To keep the soil moist and the bioprobes from being drawn into the soil matrix during TNT detection, samples were mixed with 10% (weight volume) water prior to being placed in containers. Tap water was used for mixing with
the soils. Soil samples were then compressed into the containers using 1530 lbs of weight for 15 min. This compression flattened the soil surface, making photography and bioprobe detection easier and more consistent. To reduce the amount of Alexa Fluor-488 nm-labeled bioprobes used in each experiment and to increase consistency between sprayed samples, additional soil tests were conducted using 1-kg (2.2-lb) plastic tubs. In these experiments, soil samples with known TNT concentrations were placed into the tubs and compacted with 13.6 kg (30 lbs) of weight for 15 min. Alexa Fluor-488 nm bioprobes were incubated with BHQ10-TNB [Tri-Nitrobenzene] quencher first. This mixture was then sprayed onto the soil surface for TNT detection with a 15-min minimum incubation time. BHQ10 quencher was acquired from Bioresearch Technologies, USA and then synthesized with TNB to produce the BHQ10-TNB complex after a 1-hour incubation which was completed in the laboratory. Figure 2 (above) and Figure 3 (next page) show the experiments results. Figure 2 shows spectral plots of the 1-kg plastic tubs 15 min after the bioprobe application. Several points related to the plots shown in Figure 2 need addressing. First, in the absence of TNT (soil control), fluorescence intensity is near 0 photon counts per second due to the lack of TNT and activated bioprobes. Second, without activated components and TNT measuring 0 ppm, the addition of bioprobes had an increase in the fluorescence spectral signature from residual Alexafluor-488 nm that was unquenched. This minimal fluorescent
Figure 3: Experimental setup with spectrofluorometer (HORIBA Jobin Yvon) measurements with fiber-optic attachment. 1 kg sample soils (not shown) were placed in this larger tub (shown) to obtain spectral measurements of non-active and active bioprobes with and without TNT.
Graphic courtesy of Clint Smith.
yield can be reduced with further experimental technique that shuts down the fluorescence spectral signals; this is related to the bioprobe manufacturing process. Finally, the increases in bioprobe fluorescence were readily apparent 15 min after application. Bioprobes were comprised of the fully activated components in the presence of 100 ppm TNT. The maximum time at which the highest fluorescence was observed was about 20 min. The fluorescent magnitude of the fully activated bioprobes is greater than the bioprobes background fluorescence without full activation or the added quencher. The results shown in Figures 2 and 3 demonstrate that the fluorescent bioprobes were capable of detecting TNT presence in soil samples. Currently, the shelf life of the bioprobe is at least one year stored at 4 C in a phosphate buffered saline solution. The detection system used for these experiments is a tripled Nd:YAG [Neodymium-doped Yttrium Aluminium Garnet] laser-induced fluorescence imaging system (Big Sky Laser Technologies, USA) used to excite (355 nm) the bioprobes at a 1-m detection distance. As such, this projects objectives were achievable within the controlled soil conditions. Even with a greater magnitude order, this increase of fluorescent
emission may not be enough for making a positive identification when investigated at stand-off distances greater than 100 m. Future efforts will focus on the investigation of the utility of retroreflecting particles. These particle types would aid in amplifying the detection mechanism for better TNT signal output, thereby providing a better detection visual for the end user.
Conclusions
Dr. Joel Tabb is a Scientist for Agave BioSystems Inc. He has more than 20 years experience as a scientist for R&D basic and applied research efforts based on nonexplosive and explosive technologies. Joel Tabb, Ph.D. Research Scientist Agave BioSystems Inc. 401 East State Street, Suite 200 Ithaca, NY 14850 / USA Tel: +1 607 272 0002 Fax: +1 607 272 0089 E-mail: jtabb@agavebio.com Website: http://agavebio.com
The results presented above demonstrate that novel inorganic and organic approaches can work for the stand-off detection of low TNT concentrations in the laboratory and controlled microcosm studies. Incorporating bioprobes into future minefield exercises may come about from these results; however, more research must be completed to enable the technology to be operationally field-ready. Future endeavors need to focus on the scaleup of materials for attempting experiments at larger ranges, the adoption of long stand-off detection, and development of materials or material modifications to aid in enhancement. Furthermore, research efforts such as this one may lead to more novel studies involving explosives-detection applications for identification of post-conflict landmine proliferation. see endnotes page 83
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Clutter Reduction in ManualDemining Operations with the Help of a Handheld Magnet Tool
The authors discuss a study investigating the potential of permanent magnets for the reduction of metal clutter in manual demining operations.
by Arnold Schoolderman and Yolanda Rieter-Barrell [ TNO Defence, Security and Safety ]
improvements in the close-in detection phase yield very significant benefits on the efficiency of the total operation. The studys results show that decreasing the number of metal-detector false alarms by 50% will yield efficiency improvements of 2147% in demining operations in 10 of the 12 scenarios defined in this study. In the last five years, a few different types of dual-sensor detectors, in which a metal detector is combined with ground-penetrating radar, have been developed in Europe, Japan and the United States. These developments are aimed at the reduction of metal-detector false alarms by using the GPR alarm. The GPR will ideally only give an alarm if an object with a certain volume is present that has different electromagnetic properties3 than the soil in which this object is buried. Hence, a small piece of shrapnel or a nail will only result in a metal-detection alarm, while a mine will also set off the GPR alarm. Although the benefit of dual-sensor detectors in reducing the false-alarm rate has been shown in trials,4 it is questionable if dual-sensor detectors will be applied for humanitarian demining in large numbers in the future because these devices have a number of disadvantages. These disadvantages include the high price of the devices, complicated operation resulting in long operator training, the need for modifying the SOPs (since the use of a dual-sensor detector will generally not fit in the current SOPs for manual demining) and the need for implementation of a suitable quality-assurance method.
Permanent Magnets
Images 14 show examples of the magnet-tools that were trialed in Cambodia and Angola. Please note that the checkered ruler has a length of 10 cm. Image 1 (top left): Bare ring magnet with a diameter of 10 cm. Image 2 (top right): Magnet-tool with cover and handle, including a ring magnet. Image 3 (bottom left): Large rigid rake with magnet attached above the teeth (handle is 40 cm long). Image 4 (bottom right): Flexible rake with small magnets (black) attached to the teeth and ring magnet in cover.
All images courtesy of the authors.
handheld metal detector is the most common detection tool in humanitarian demining, not only in manual-demining operations but also as a follow-up to mechanical demining. Most demining organizations adopt the metal detector as the prime detection tool since it is easy to learn and operate, is affordable, and fits well in the standard oper-
ating procedures. However, organizations and deminers are also aware that false alarms occur frequently when metal detectors are employed. It is, generally speaking, not possible to distinguish between an alarm due to a piece of harmless shrapnel or due to a dangerous mine. False-alarm rates in manual-demining operations have been reported as high as 250 false
alarms for every one alarm resulting from an actual mine.1 It is obvious that a technique to reduce the false-alarm rate would enhance the manual-demining process greatly. This assertion is confirmed in a study2 by the Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining on the different phases of a manualdemining operation. The study concludes that
Another method to remove metal clutter is magnet use; if a magnet is moved manually over the surface, ferromagnetic metal parts on and just under the grounds surface will stick to the magnet. If the magnets are attached to a small handheld rake, the topsoil can be manipulated in order to loosen metal fragments from the soil. The magnets can then pick up these fragments. Though this idea is not new and several individuals and demining organizations have tried it over the past 10 years, substantiated information on the benefits is lacking. Magnets made from niobium, a socalled rare-earth metal, are nowadays affordable. These magnets are much stronger than those tried in the past. In order to investigate the efficiency increase obtainable by using handheld permanent magnets in the close-in detection phase, a project was started by the Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research (TNO). The Netherlands Ministry of Defence financed this project as part of the
Images 5 (top) and 6 (bottom): Use of two types of magnet-tools during the trials in Cambodia (Image 5) and Angola (Image 6).
Netherlands contribution to the International Test and Evaluation Program for Humanitarian Demining, which ended in July 2010.
Trials
Based on criteria applicable to humanitarian demining, such as cost, weight, robustness, exerted force, etc., suitable magnet tools were selected and designed. Images 14 show examples of the magnet tools trialed in Cambodia
and Angola. The data necessary to quantify the clutter reduction by applying the magnet tools was gathered during live demining operations in Cambodia and Angola with the Cambodian Mine Action Centre and Norwegian Peoples Aid, respectively, as partners. To this end, a procedure was set up to train the local deminers in the magnet-tool use. During the trials the deminers were divided into several groups. All deminers in one group worked with one
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Dr. Arnold Schoolderman, Ph.D., is the manager of the four-year research program on countering improvised explosive devices and landmines, executed by the Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research by order of the Netherlands Ministry of Defence. He initiated and chairs two NATO Research and Technology Organization Task Groups focused on aspects of countering IEDs. He was involved in a number of metal-detector and dual-sensor detector tests and trials conducted under the International Test and Evaluation Program on Humanitarian Demining which ended in July 2010. Schoolderman has a doctorate in theoretical physics from the University of Amsterdam. Dr. Arnold Schoolderman TNO Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research P.O. Box 96864 2509 JG The Hague / The Netherlands Tel: +31 8886 61080 Fax: +31 8886 66575 E-mail: arnold.schoolderman@tno.nl Website: http://www.tno.nl
Images 7 (left) and 8 (right): A deminer working with the final version of the magnet tool at the Camabole task in Malanje, Angola in October 2010. In Image 7 the deminer is using the magnet tool during the detection phase and in Image 8 the deminer is using the magnet tool during excavation.
type of magnet tool. Additionally, one extra group did not use any magnet tools and served as the reference (control) group for the trial. Images 5 and 6 (see previous page) show impressions of the use of the magnet tools during the trials. Data-gathering procedures were set up that fit into the SOPs the demining organizations used. After proper instruction, the deminers executed the data-gathering according to these procedures, recording the cleared area day by day, all encountered metallic clutter and how each metallic clutter piece was found (visually, with the magnet tool, or during excavation). The TNO project team analyzed the data after corrections for the absence of deminers due to other duties, vacation days, illness, etc.
Trial Results and Pilot Implementation
The trials of several types of magnet tools were conducted in Cambodia in 2006 and in Angola in 2007. Although many aspectssuch as the mine threat, SOPs of the two demining organizations, etc.were different, the results of these trials were quite similar. For this reason, only the results of the trial conducted in Malanje province, Angola are presented. 5 Figure 1 shows the average area cleared per deminer per day (in square meters) for the deminers working with the magnet tool under trial (this tool is shown in Image 2 and Image 6) and for the deminers of the reference group, working without a magnet tool. Surprisingly, the deminers without the magnet tool were the most productive: On average they cleared 11% more land per day. This revelation can only be explained when considering that the deminers with the magnet tool encountered 26% more metal parts per square meter (Figure 2). At the end of all trials in Cambodia and Angola, all participating deminers were asked their experiences with the magnet tools. Without any exception they responded that the magnet-tool use sped up their work. Hence, the authors concluded the deminers lower productivity with the magnet tool is a result of working in an area with more metallic clutter. Because
the trials were conducted in live demining operations, controlling this aspect of the trials was impossible. The deminers used the magnet tool not only during the detection phase of the demining procedure, but also during excavation to find metal fragments in the removed soil. The deminers who worked with magnet tools during the trials not only responded positively to the question of increased productivity by the magnet tools, but also recommended adding one of the trialed magnet tools (the ring magnet with the plastic casing and handle, shown in Image 2) to their demining toolbox. As a result of this recommendation, NPA Angola requested TNO to support a pilot implementation of this tool for all NPA deminers in Angola. For this pilot implementation, the tool was redesigned to allow production at the lowest price possible. One hundred samples were transported to Angola where the tools were handed over to the NPA deminers in October 2010 and were used in the clearance of a former military position at Camabole near the town of Malanje (Images 7 and 8).
Conclusion
Figures 1(top) and 2 (bottom): Average area cleared per deminer per day (Figure 1) and the average number of metal parts found per square meter (Figure 2). Here the results of the trial in Malanje province, Angola, with NPA deminers are given. The blue represents the deminers using the magnet-tool and the purple represents the deminers in the reference group who did not use the magnet-tool.
Figures courtesy of author/CISR Acknowledgements
Strong handheld magnet tools with niobium magnets can be used in manual-demining operations to remove metal clutter and thereby reduce the number of metal-detector false alarms. The magnet tools are cheap and easy to handle in comparison to a dual-sensor detector. Various magnet-tool trials in live demining operations did not show a quantitative increase in the cleared area per day. This is most likely due to the fact that the deminers working with the magnet tools encountered more magnetic clutter than the reference group. However, the deminers experience the tools as a useful addition to their toolkit as they are convinced the magnet tools speed up the demining process. Therefore, the magnet tools are useful in supporting a deminers strenuous job and are now included in the toolkit of the NPA deminers in Angola. see endnotes page 83
The authors thank the Netherlands Ministry of Defence (and especially Lt. Col. Alex Keijzer and Lt. Col. Leen Lagerwerf) for its support. The Cambodian Mine Action Centre and Norwegian Peoples Aid Angola were partners in the projects trials and pilot implementation. Without the support and feedback of their staff and deminers, this project would have been impossible. Erik Tollefsen from GICHD and Noel Mulliner formerly with the United Nations Mine Action Service are acknowledged for their enthusiastic support throughout the project. Finally, Goudsmit Magnetic Supplies in Waalre, the Netherlands, is acknowledged for its effort in redesigning and manufacturing the magnet tools used for the pilot implementation with NPA in Angola.
Yolanda Rieter-Barrell, M.Sc., has managed the research programs on protection against high-power microwaves and integrated technology for naval mast systems, executed by the Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research by order of the Netherlands Ministry of Defence. She has worked on a wide range of subjects at TNO varying from HPM and electronic warfare to humanitarian demining and sensor integration. Rieter-Barrell has a masters degree in applied physics from Eindhoven University of Technology. Yolanda Rieter-Barrell, MSc. TNO Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research Tel: +31 8886 63952 Fax: +31 8886 66575 E-mail: yolanda.rieter@tno.nl
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OBITUARIES
In Remembrance:
Mark Fitzpatrick
ark FitzpatrickFitzy to his friendswas killed during a weapons-demolition operation in Afghanistans Parwan province on 20 November 2010. Fitzy, a 34-year-old British deminer, worked with DynCorp International, a global government-services provider, as part of its weapons removal and abatement team. Mark gave his life working to support a safer and more secure Afghanistan, said DynCorp International Chairman and CEO Steve Gaffney. Thousands of brave men and women put their lives on the line each day to support our operations in remote and hostile areas around the worldtheir courage and sacrifices cannot be measured. We are deeply saddened by this loss and our hearts go out to all of Marks family, friends and colleagues. The Shropshire Star, a paper serving Fitzys Telford hometown, quoted his father, Ian Fitzpatrick, as saying, Its a tragic loss for the family to lose such a loving young man. ... He has made us immensely proud with the work he did and from the recognition he has had from around the world.
UNIFIL Peacekeeping in Southern Lebanon, Greene [ from page 7 ] 1. Resolution 425: Israel Lebanon. The United Nations Security Council. 19 March 1978. http://bit.ly/gUttxn. Accessed 1 December 2010. 2. Resolution 1701: The Situation in the Middle East. The United Nations Security Council , 11 August 2006. http://snipurl.com/1efeml. Accessed 15 November 2010. 3. This refers to a demarcation line (not technically a border) between Israel and Lebanon set up by the United Nations in 2000 as a way to determine whether Israel had fully withdrawn from Lebanon. 4. Blue-marker barrels are large painted oil barrels perched on top of a solid concrete base to physically mark the Blue Line border. For more information, see: Demining Volatile Israeli-Lebanese Frontier. BBC News. 10 September 2010. http:// bbc.in/a6vm8k. Accessed 1 December 2010. 5. The Role of the Military in Mine Action. Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining. http://snipurl.com/1bqujd. Accessed 15 November 2010. AMATC: Sustainable Solutions for Humanitarian Mine Action, Reed-Matthee [ from page 11 ] 1. The deminers name has been changed to protect his identity. 2. Bozena 4 demining machine is a wheeled/tracked mechanical mine-clearance machine remotely controlled by transmitter designed for disposal of anti-personnel mines (both the pressure and tripwire fused) and anti-tank mines. For more information, visit http://bit.ly/ibELLm. Accessed 20 December 2010. Capacity Building in Western Sahara, Caswell [ from page 13 ] 1. The Berm (also known as the Moroccan Wall and the Wall of Shame) is a 3-kilometer high man-made defensive structure which completely divides Western Sahara between the Moroccan-controlled and Frente POLISARIO -controlled territories. Initially built to prevent Frente POLISARIO from seeking Western Saharas independence, it has since forced many of the native Saharawi population into Algerian refugee camps. 2. Since the completion of the survey report in December 2008, more dangerous areas have been identified. The updated numbers are: 245 Dangerous Areas (206 cluster strikes, 38 minefields and one ammunition dump). 3. Level 3 EOD qualification is for a deminer with specific explosive ordnance disposal training in the clearance by unexploded-ordnance detonation, such as rocket and tank-gun ammunition, and artillery ammunition up to 240 mm; this includes High Explosive Anti-tank charges. Under the supervision and direction of a qualified supervisor, a Level 3 EOD deminer should be qualified to render safe UXO for removal from the demining worksite, and to undertake its final destruction. As stated in IMAS 09.30: Explosive ordnance disposal , First Edition, UNMAS (1 October 2001). http://tinyurl.com/2apsqf3. Accessed 18 November 2010. 4. Level 2 EOD qualification enables a deminer to undertake the destruction in situ of single small UXO such as submunitions, grenades and mortar ammunition up to 84 mm; this includes High Explosive Anti Tank charges. These categories of munitions normally represent the majority of UXO found in and around mined areas. As stated in IMAS 09.30: Explosive ordnance disposal , First Edition, UNMAS (1 October 2001). http://tinyurl.com/2apsqf3. Accessed 18 November 2010. Peer Support and Trauma Recovery, Macauley [ from page 17 ] 1. Figley, C. Traumatic stress: The role of the family and social support system. In Trauma and Its Wake: The Study and Treatment of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, edited by C. Figley. New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1986 (3958). 2. Herman, J. L. Trauma and Recovery. New York: BasicBooks, 1997. 3. Fisher, D. and L. Miller, D. Romprey, B. Filson. From Relief to Recovery: Peer Support by Consumers Relieves the Traumas of Disasters and Recovery from Mental Illness. Presented at the After the Crisis: Healing from Trauma after Disasters Expert Panel Meeting, The National GAINS Center and the Center on Women, Violence and Trauma (CWVT) through The Center for Mental Health Services, SAMHSA. Bethesda MD, 2425 April 2006. http://tinyurl.com/2fxhm49. Accessed 27 October 2010. 4. The New York Times Current History of the European War, XVII (OctDec. 1918: 123). 5. Care of the Combat Amputee. Washington DC: Borden Institute, Walter Reed Army Medical Center, Office of the Surgeon General, United States Army, 2010 p. 20. 6. Questions & Answers on Sponsorship. Alcoholics Anonymous World Services, Inc., 2005. http://tinyurl.com/24d765w. Accessed 27 October 2010. 7. National Limb Loss Information Center (2005). Understanding ACAs National Peer Network. Amputee Coalition of America , Knoxville, TN. http://tinyurl.com/2cgbl7x. Accessed 27 October 2010. 8. White, J. and K. Rutherford. The Role of the Landmine Survivors Network. To Walk Without Fear: The Global Movement to Ban Landmines, edited by Maxwell A. Cameron, Robert J. Lawson and Brian W. Tomlin. Cambridge: Oxford University Press, 1998. 9. Afghan Landmine Survivors Organization (ALSO). http://tinyurl.com/2uapbad. Accessed 26 October 2010. 10. Landmine Survivors Initiatives (LSI). http://www.ipm-lsi.org. Accessed 26 October 2010.
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Mark Fitzpatrick
Photo courtesy of the Fitzpatrick family.
Evidence of Fitzys worldwide impact is clear from the messages on his Facebook wall, which is blanketed with condolences from places like Afghanistan, Lao PDR, Sri Lanka and Thailand. Comments noted his camaraderie and dry humor. Fitzy spent about 11 years in the Royal Air Force before leaving it to join DynCorp, where he continued with explosive ordnance disposal in the field. He spent time in Cambodia, Guinea Bissau, Lebanon and Vietnam before his final tour of almost two years in Afghanistan. He is survived by his parents and three older sisters. Mark Fitzpatricks funeral was held 6 December 2010, at St Johns Church in Bishops Wood, Staffordshire, UK.
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Clear Path International (CPI). Cambodia. http://tinyurl.com/3ypq455. Accessed 26 October 2010. For information about The Association for Empowerment of Persons with Disabilities (AEPD) see: http://www.aepd-vn.org/index.php?newlang=english. Accessed 8 January 2011. For information about The Association for Empowerment of Persons with Disabilities (AEPD), see The Advocacy Project. http://tinyurl.com/2dsogjy. Accessed 22 December 2010. Solomon, P. "Peer support/peer provided services underlying processes, benefits, and critical ingredients." Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal, 2004, (27(4): 392401). Sarason, I. and H. Levine, R. Basham, B. Sarason. "Assessing social support: The social support questionnaire." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1983, (44: 127139). Shubert, M. and T. Borkman. "Identifying the experiential knowledge developed within a self-help group." In Understanding the self-help organization, edited by T. Powell. Thousand Oaks: Sage, 1994. Salzer, M. and S.L. Shear. "Identifying consumer-provider benefits in evaluations of consumer-delivered services." Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal, 2002, (25: 281288). Festinger, L. "A theory of social comparison processes." Human Relations, 1954 (7: 117140). Riessman, F. "The 'Helper-therapy' principle." Social Work , 1965 (10: 2732). Skovholt, T M. "The client as helper: A means to promote psychological growth." Counseling Psychologist, 1974 (43: 5864). The Balkans Project. Interview with UDAS. http://tinyurl.com/383plqf. Accessed 26 October 2010. Red de Sobrevivientes y Personas con Discapacidad. http://bit.ly/ey8zq2. Accessed 26 October 2010. Cori, J. L. and R. Scaer. Healing from Trauma: A Survivor's Guide to Understanding Your Symptoms and Reclaiming Your Life. Da Capo Press, 2008, p. 138. Greenberg, N. and V. Langston, et al. "A cluster randomized controlled trial to determine the efficacy of Trauma Risk Management (TRiM) in a military population." Journal of Traumatic Stress (23(4): 430436). Trippany, R. L. and V. E. W. Kress, et al. "Preventing vicarious trauma: What counselors should know when working with trauma survivors." Journal of Counseling & Development, 2004, (82(1): 3137).
Building Knowledge and Partnerships in ERW Action, Shepp [ from page 18 ] 1. The 2009 ERWTC included participants from Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Cambodia, Chile, Ecuador, Guinea-Bissau, Iraq, Jordan, Lao PDR, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Mozambique, Peru, the Palestinian Authority, Sudan, Tajikistan, Vietnam, Yemen and Zambia. 2. The 2010 ERWTC included participants from 20 countries and one multinational institution: Afghanistan, Angola, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Cambodia, Chad, Colombia, Ethiopia, Iraq, Jordan, Lao PDR, Montenegro, Nepal, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Thailand, Uganda, Vietnam, Yemen and Zimbabwe, as well as the Organization of American States. (The participant from the OAS works in both Ecuador and Peru.) Lessons Learned: Sri Lankan Mine-action Staff Visit Cambodia and Lao PDR, Kasack [ from page 25 ] 1. Other measures include: training workshops for MRE NGOs, army, police, landmine safety briefings with security staff and Technical Working Groups at a national level that include all relevant stakeholders. 2. Only Lao PDR is party to the Cluster Munitions Convention as of October 2010; Cambodia and Sri Lanka are not signatories. Note that Sri Lanka states it has never used or possessed cluster munitions. 3. Convention on Cluster Munitions. Ratifications and Signatures. http://bit.ly/cwIV0v. Accessed 18 January 2011. 4. Cambodia visit participants: six government and three UNICEF officials, including: Director, Sri Lankas National Mine Action Centre/ Ministry of Nation Building, MRE Representative-Ministry of Education, Provincial Department Director and MRE Representative Eastern Province, Zonal Director Education Kilinochchi, Northern Province, Assistant Director General National Institute of Education; Project Officer NIE; UNICEF Child Protection Program Officer Mine Action (Colombo); UNICEF consultant to Ministry of Education/National Institute of Education; UNICEF Child Protection Specialist-Mine Action. 5. Laos visit participants: one army official, three MRE-implementing NGOs, four UNICEF officials: SLA Commanding Officer Field Engineers; MRE-NGOs Community Trust Fund, EHED-Caritas, Sarvodaya; three UNICEF Child Protection Program Assistants and MRE/VA specialists; UNICEF Child Protection SpecialistMine Action. 6. Sri Lankas Muslims are also Tamil-speakers but they form a distinct community. International Crisis Group. Sri Lankas Muslims: Caught in the Crossfire, International Crisis Group. http://tinyurl.com/268c59r. Accessed 14 January 2011.
In Remembrance:
O
Mehdi Mohammad Haraz

n 26 October 2010, fragments of a cluster bomb killed Mehdi Mohammad Haraz, a Lebanese national working for Peace Generation Organization for Demining, while attempting to clear a cluster-bomb-infested tobacco field in Yater, Southern Lebanon. Haraz, 20, was working with PGOD for three months in an area heavily contaminated by unexploded ordnance. The explosion also injured four others: Abdel-Karim Ali, Hussein Hassan Mansour, Nabil Baalbeki and Kamel Ghandour. Funded by the Iranian company Ayman Sazan, the organization was operating 10 kilometers (six miles) outside of Tyre where the Lebanese Army reports that most of the UXO victims are deminers, farmers or children. The incident contributes to the 50 casualties and 350 injuries that have occurred from local UXO in the past three years.
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Bottomley, Ruth & Chan Sambath. Community Empowerment and Leadership in Cambodia, The Journal of ERW and Mine Action, Issue 14.2 (Summer 2010: 1116). http://tinyurl.com/2aa7mpp. Accessed 14 January 2011. Sutton, Sean. Prioritization and Partnership in Lao PDR, The Journal of ERW and Mine Action, Issue 14.2 (Summer 2010: 1720). http://tinyurl.com/274qxka. 14 January 2011. Durham, Jo. Needs Assessment in Lao PDR, Journal of Mine Action, Issue 11.1 (Summer 2007: 7780). http://tinyurl.com/2bvsbms. Accessed 14 January 2011. The officials and organizations participants were able to meet with included: the Cambodia Mine Action Authority and Cambodia Mine Action Centre, officials from the Ministry of Education, the National Centre for Disabled Persons, Cambodian Red Cross, Spirit of Soccer, United Nations Development Programme and UNICEF. These organizations included: the National Regulatory Authority, UXO Lao, Handicap International, MAG (Mines Advisory Group), World Education, Association for Aid and Relief, Japan, COPE at the National Rehabilitation Centre, Cluster Munition Coalition, UNDP and UNICEF.
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Building Mine-action Capacity through Management Training, Anderson [ from page 21 ] 1. About CMAC. The Cambodian Mine Action Centre. http://tinyurl.com/2vzfv3h. Accessed 7 December 2010. The Mine Action Technology Workshop, Nietzey [ from page 37 ] 1. Kruijff, Michiel. Space Assets for a Demining Assistance: Towards an Integrated Operational Service. European Space Agency. UNMAS/GICHD Mine Action Technology Workshop 2010, Geneva, 6 September 2010. http://bit.ly/fOreCX. Accessed 15 December 2010. 2. Bouvet, Thomas. Space Assets for Demining Assistance. The Journal of ERW and Mine Action, Issue 14.1 (Spring 2010: 4849). http://bit.ly/i62jgU. Accessed 15 December 2010. 3. Connell, T. and Johansen, J. UAV: A New Dimension in Survey Operations? DanChurchAid, Sky-Watch. UNMAS/GICHD Mine Action Technology Workshop 2010, Geneva, 6 September 2010. http://bit.ly/fINU1h. Accessed 15 December 2010. 4. Yoresh, Avi Buzaglo. Identification of Mine Fields by Aerial Photography. GEOMINE LTD. UNMAS/GICHD Mine Action Technology Workshop 2010, Geneva, 6 September 2010. http://bit.ly/hAhOhB. Accessed 15 December 2010. 5. Preetz, H. and J. Igel. Soil Impact on Metal Detector Performance and Soil Characterization Maps. Leibniz Institute for Applied Geophysics. UNMAS/GICHD Mine Action Technology Workshop 2010, Geneva, 6 September 2010. http://bit.ly/eirJxZ. Accessed 15 December 2010. 6. Igel, Jan, Holger Preetz and Sven Altfelder. Predicting Soil Influence on the Performance of Metal Detectors: Magnetic Properties of Tropical Soils. The Journal of ERW and Mine Action, Issue 13.1 (Summer 2009: 103107). http://bit.ly/gDOwAx. Accessed 20 January 2011. 7. Cepolina, Emanuela Elisa. Toward LOCOSTRA: Results from a Comparative Test on Blast-resistant Wheels. PMARlab, DIMEC, University of Genova, Italy. UNMAS/GICHD Mine Action Technology Workshop 2010, Geneva, 6 September 2010. http://bit.ly/fbwxnN. Accessed 15 December 2010. 8. This research is a follow-on to an earlier study: Cepolina, Emanuela Elisa and Matteo Zoppi. Could Local Agricultural Machines Make a Country Impact Free by 2010? The Journal of ERW and Mine Action, Issue 13.2 (August 2009: 4752). http:// bit.ly/aWeDwl. Accessed 17 December 2010. 9. Aliyev, Arif. Mechanical Demining Capacity ANAMA and an Efficiency of the MDMs. ANAMA. UNMAS/GICHD Mine Action Technology Workshop 2010, Geneva, 6 September 2010. http://bit.ly/hkL4DJ. Accessed 17 December 2010. 10. de Brun, Erik. Roller Trials and Concept of Roller Testing. Humanistic Robotics. UNMAS/GICHD Mine Action Technology Workshop 2010, Geneva, 6 September 2010. 7 September 2010. http://bit.ly/gjlpxH. Accessed 17 December 2010. 11. Heaton, Sarah. Humanitarian Demining Program 2010. United States Department of Defense Humanitarian Demining R&D Program. UNMAS/GICHD Mine Action Technology Workshop 2010, Geneva, 6 September 2010. http://bit.ly/ gCwneP. Accessed 17 December 2010. 12. Lodhammar, Pehr and Erik de Brun. Management of Mechanical Demining Operations. GICHD, Humanistic Robotics. UNMAS/GICHD Mine Action Technology Workshop 2010, Geneva, 6 September 2010. 7 September 2010. http://bit.ly/f54cen. Accessed 17 December 2010. 13. Swanson, Robin. Falkland Islands De-mining Programme; the Challenges of Clearance. UNMAS/GICHD Mine Action Technology Workshop 2010, Geneva, 6 September 2010. http://bit.ly/ecP58v. Accessed 17 December 2010. 14. Swanson, Robin. Falkland Islands Demining Pilot Project: Completion of Phase 1. The Journal of ERW and Mine Action, Issue 14.3 (Fall 2010: 5054). http://bit.ly/ dI3Lcv. Accessed 17 December 2010. 15. Barnes, Leonie. Mine Action and Technology Mechanical Clearance and Land Release. UNMAS Sudan. UNMAS/GICHD Mine Action Technology Workshop 2010, Geneva, 6 September 2010. http://bit.ly/hHGcEB. Accessed 17 December 2010. 16. Szynalewski, Waldemar. Environment-friendly and Safe Technologies for Destruc-
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tion of Ammunition Stockpiles. Jakusz Company. UNMAS/GICHD Mine Action Technology Workshop 2010, Geneva, 6 September 2010. 7 September 2010. http://bit. ly/fembbj. Accessed 17 December 2010. Eldred, Paul. Technical Solutions in Self Help Stockpile Destruction Programmes. Norwegian Peoples Aid. UNMAS/GICHD Mine Action Technology Workshop 2010, Geneva, 6 September 2010. http://bit.ly/eVv7CZ. Accessed 17 December 2010. King, Colin. Destruction of Cluster Munitions in Moldova. The Journal of ERW and Mine Action, Issue 14.3 (Fall 2010: 1315). http://bit.ly/fSgSLL. Accessed 20 January 2011. Austin, Len. Explosive Harvesting System (EHS) - From Initial Concept to Operational Reality. Department of Defense Humanitarian Demining R&D Program. UNMAS/GICHD Mine Action Technology Workshop 2010, Geneva, 6 September 2010. 7 September 2010. http://tinyurl.com/2d8wrps. Accessed 17 December 2010. Hess, Roger.Explosive Harvesting Program. The Journal of ERW and Mine Action , Issue 10.2 (Winter 2006: 9093). http://tinyurl.com/5ja7vs. Accessed 17 December 2010. King, Adrian. Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) - A Growing Threat to Humanitarian Demining Operations. Hazardous Management Solutions. UNMAS/ GICHD Mine Action Technology Workshop 2010, Geneva, 6 September 2010. 7 September 2010. http://tinyurl.com/2ez3s33. Accessed 17 December 2010. King, Adrian. The Growing Threat to Humanitarian Operations. The Journal of ERW and Mine Action, Issue 14.3 (Fall 2010: 5861). http://bit.ly/eakyFC. Accessed 20 January 2011. King, Adrian. IEDs and Their Impact on Mine Action. The Journal of ERW and Mine Action, Issue 13.3 (Fall 2009: 5459). http://bit.ly/evszMX. Accessed 9 February 2011.
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Humanitarian Law, Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 24 (No. 3; 237, 241), September 1987. Sage Journals Online. http://bit.ly/hO5HYC. Accessed 4 February 2011. Much of the credit for the CCMs strengthened victim-assistance provisions is due to Markus Reiterer from Austria who skillfully, diplomatically and effectively led the victim-assistance negotiations.
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Assisting Cluster-Munition Victims: A New International Standard, Reiterer [ from page 49 ] 1. Department of Foreign Affairs. Cluster Munitions Dublin Diplomatic Conference. 1930 May 2008. http://bit.ly/dwkmHi. Accessed 18 November 2010. 2. Draft Cluster Munitions Convention (Wellington Discussion). 21 January 2008. http://bit.ly/cyTNf6. Accessed 20 December 2010. 3. Closing remarks, Ambassador Wolfgang Petritsch, the Vienna Conference on Cluster Munitions. Harrison, Katherine. , Report from the Vienna Conference on Cluster Munitions. 57 December 2007. Womens International League for Peace and Freedom, January 2008. http://bit.ly/g3EIjd. Accessed 21 December 2010. 4. For a wider discussion of compliance with international obligations see Reiterer, M.A.Some Thoughts on Compliance with International Obligations. International Law between Universalism and Fragmentation. Isabelle Buford, James Crawford, Alain Pellet and Stephen Wittich (eds.) Brill, 2008 (p. 943). Sri Lanka Works Toward a Mine-free Nation, Abhayagunawardena [ from page 53 ] 1. Sri Lanka. Landmine Monitor Report 1999. October 1999. http://tinyurl. com/46f5ur9. Accessed 19 January 2011. 2. Sri Lanka. Landmine Monitor Report 2000. October 2000. http://tinyurl. com/4kr72nd. Accessed 19 January 2011. 3. Sri Lankas districts are divided into administrative subunits called divisional secretariats, also known as D.S. Divisions, which a Divisional Secretary administers. 4. Sri Lanka. Landmine & Cluster Munition Monitor Report 2010: Towards a MineFree World. New York: International Campaign to Ban Landmines. http://bit.ly/ ectV6D. Accessed 17 January 2011. 5. The National Strategy for Mine Action in Sri Lanka , the Ministry of Economic Development, Colombo, September 2010. White Phosphorus Disposal in the Gaza Strip, Ruru and Russell [from page 57] 1. Palestine; Mine Action: Contamination and Impact. Landmine & Cluster Munition Monitor. 18 June 2010. http://bit.ly/9fMWtx. Accessed 22 December 2010. 2. White Phosphorus (WP). Global Security.org. http://bit.ly/Dm09a. Accessed 22 December 2010. The Surprisingly Constant Cost of Landmine Impact Surveys, Gasser [ from page 64 ] 1. Completed Surveys Overview. Survey Action Center. http://bit.ly/fVqRWm. Accessed 20 January 2011. 2. How it works. Survey Action Center. 17 May 2004. http://bit.ly/aACpaG. Accessed 20 January 2011. 3. Surveys Ongoing Survey Somalia. Survey Action Center. http://bit.ly/ifXvfC. Accessed 21 January 2011. The Rise in Terrorist Attacks in the Western Sahara, Nema [ from page 66 ] 1. Sarkozy Condemns Killing of Hostage Michel Germaneau. BBC News. 26 July 2010. http://tinyurl.com/2vut8rj. Assessed 1 February 2011. 2. Al Qaeda Claims Kidnap of French Man in Niger: TV. Reuters. 6 May 2010. http:// reut.rs/gANqgb. Assessed 1 February 2011. 3. Western Sahara. Landmine and Cluster Munition Monitor. 2002. http://bit.ly/ gug7tv. Assessed 1 February 2011. Remote Explosives Scent Tracing of Explosive Remnants of War, Jones, et al [ from page 72 ] 1. Bach, Hvard and Ian McLean. Remote Explosive Scent Training: Genuine or a Paper Tiger? Journal of Mine Action, Issue 7.1 (April 2003: 7582). http://bit.ly/ d98iMU. Accessed 22 November 2010. 2. Fjellanger, Rune, E.K. Andersen, Ian G. McLean. A Training Program for FilterSearch Mine Detection Dogs. International Journal of Comparative Psychology, Issue 15.4 (2002). http://bit.ly/c5viP5. Accessed 30 November 2010.
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Humanitarian Disarmament, Rapillard [ from page 41 ] 1. Convention (IV) Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War and Land, The Hague, 18 October 1907. International Humanitarian LawTreaties and Documents. International Committee of the Red Cross. http://bit.ly/gyOANJ. Accessed 20 January 2011. 2. Convention (I, II, III, IV) Relative to the Protection of Civilians Persons in Time of War, Geneva, 12 August 1949. International Humanitarian LawTreaties and Documents. International Committee of the Red Cross. http://bit.ly/elOjUg. Accessed 20 January 2011. 3. Human Development Report 1994. United Nations Development Programme, Oxford University Press, 1994. http://bit.ly/g18KS3. Accessed 28 January 2011. Victim-Assistance History in International Humanitarian Law: From Somalia to Geneva to Laos, Rutherford [ from page 45 ] 1. LSN/Survivor Corps was an active member of the Cluster Munitions Coalition, providing support on victim assistance relating to the new cluster munitions treaty being discussed through the Oslo Process. 2. Protocol on Explosive Remnants of War (Protocol V to the 1980 Convention). International Committee of the Red Cross. International Humanitarian Law Treaties & Documents. http://tinyurl.com/3xmwq6e. Accessed 22 December 2010. 3. Convention on Cluster Munitions, 30 May 2008. Article 5, Sec. 1. International Committee of the Red Cross. International Humanitarian Law Treaties & Documents. http://bit.ly/hq35Ta. Accessed 9 February 2011. 4. Rutherford, Kenneth, Nerina evra and Tracey Begley. Connecting the Dots: The Ottawa Convention and the CCM. The Journal of ERW and Mine Action, Issue 12.2 (Winter 200809, 4244). http://bit.ly/h29I1u. Accessed 4 February 2011. 5. Convention on Cluster Munitions, 30 may 2008. Article 5, Sec. 2(e). International Committee of the Red Cross. International Humanitarian Law Treaties & Documents. http://bit.ly/hq35Ta. Accessed 9 February 2011. 6. The Nairobi Summit on a Mine-Free World is the name given to the First Review Conference of the Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-personnel Mines and on Their Destruction. The Nairobi Summit on a Mine-Free World was more than just another review of an international legal instrument. While the States Parties reviewed progress made to date, they equally identified remaining challenges, which led to the adoption of a powerful action plan to overcome these challenges. Moreover, the States Parties called for participation at the highest possible level in the Nairobi Summit's high-level session, which took place 23 December 2004. For more information: http://tiny.cc/a3yrr. Accessed 4 February 2011. 7. Canadian delegate Earl Turcotte formerly served as director of the Mine Action and Small Arms Team in the International Security Branch of Foreign Affairs Canada. He also served as senior development adviser to the United Nations Development Programme Mine Action Team based in New York. From 1982 to 2004, he was with the Canadian International Development Agency in various capacities. Austrian delegate Markus Reiterer acted as Co-Chair of the Standing Committee on Victim Assistance of the Mine Ban Treaty, as victim-assistance coordinator under CCW Protocol V and played a leading role in the CCM negotiations. Vienna Conference on Cluster Munitions. Vienna, Austria. December 6, 2007. 8. Meurant, Jacques. Inter Arma Caritas: Evolution and Nature of International
Fjellanger Rune, Ian G. McLean, Hvard Bach. REST in Bosnia: A Pilot Test of Detection Capability. Journal of Mine Action, Issue 7.3 (December 2003). http://bit. ly/dcIbEm. Accessed 30 November 2010. The South African Border War (also known as the Angola Bush War or The Namibian War for Independence) was started by the South West Africa Peoples Organization, a Marxist guerrilla group, in 1966 against the apartheid South African government. For more information see: http://tinyurl.com/48mgg4q. Accessed 21 January 2011. Joynt V. 2003. Mechem Explosive and Drug Detection System. In GICHD (Ed.), Mine Detection Dogs: Training, Operations, and Odor Detection (pp.165174). Geneva: GICHD. The Journal of ERW and Mine Action. Annual Issue: 13.2 (2009). http://tinyurl. com/2bkj65g. Accessed 4 January 2011. Mavlonkulov, Parviz. Land Cancellation and Release. The Journal of ERW and Mine Action, Issue 13.2 (August 2009: 5859). http://tinyurl.com/2bkj65g. Accessed 4 January 2011 IMAS 09.43: Remote Explosive Scent Tracing (REST), Second Edition, UMAS (1 August 2005). McLean, Ian G. and Rebecca J. Sargisson. Optimizing the Use of REST for Mine Detection. Journal of Mine Action, Issue 8.2 (November 2004: 100104). http:// tinyurl.com/2b8hgsy. Accessed 30 November 2010. Sargisson Rebecca J. and Ian McLean. The Effect of Reinforcement Rate Variation on Hits and False Alarms in Remote Explosives Scent Tracing with Dogs. The Journal of ERW and Mine Action, Issue 14.3 (Fall 2010: 6468). http://tinyurl. com/2det78a. Accessed 30 November 2010. Poling, Alan, Laura L. Methot and Mark G. LeSage. Fundamentals of Behavior Analytic Research (Applied Clinical Psychology). New York: Scribner, October 1995.
Using Encapsulated Fluorescent Bioprobes to Detect Explosive Materials in Soil, Smith and Tabb [ from page 75 ] 1. Halasz, A., Groom, C., Zhou, E., Paquet, L., Beaulieu, C., Deschamps, S., Corriveau, A., Thiboutot, S., Ampleman, A., Dubois, C. and Hawari J. Detection of explosives and their degradation products in soil environments. Journal of Chromatography A Issue 963 (2002: 411418). 2. Stewart, Jr. C.N., Cardoza V., and Mentewab A. Monitorying the presence and expression of transgenes in living plants. Plant Science, Issue 168 (2005: 14091424). 3. Burlage RS. (1999) Green Fluorescent Bacteria for the Detection of Landmines in a Minefield. Abstracts of the Second International Symposium on GFP, San Diego, CA. 4. Fischer, R.L., Burlage, R.S. DiBenedetto, J., and Maston, M.J. Using fluorescence imagery and microbes for ordnance and mine detection. Army AL&T. JulyAugust (2000: 1012). 5. Stocker J, Balluch D, Gsell M, Harms H, Feliciano J, Daunert S, Malik KA, van der Meer JR Development of a Set of Simple Bacterial Biosensors for Quantitative and Rapid Measurements of Arsenite and Arsenate in Potable Water. Environmental Science & Technology Issue 37 (2003: 47434750). 6. Yin S., Fuangthong M., Laratta, W.P., Shapleigh J.P. Use of a Green Flurorescent Protein-Based Reporter Fusion for Detection of Nitric Oxide Produced by Denitrifiers. Applied Environmental Microbiology Issue 69 (2003: 39383944). 7. Smith, C.B., Anderson, J.E., Fischer, R.L., and Webb, S.R. Stability of green fluorescent protein using luminescence spectroscopy: is GFP applicable to field analysis of contaminants? Environmental Pollution Issue 120 (2002: 2326). Clutter Reduction in Manual-demining Operations with the Help of a Handheld Magnet Tool, Schoolderman and Rieter-Barrell [ from page 78 ] 1. Boshoff, Chris and Roger Cresci. The HALO Trust and HSTAMIDS, Journal of Mine Action, Issue 12.1 (Summer 2008: 8689). http://bit.ly/hTftv. Accessed 27 January 2011. 2. Analysis of Capability Areas. Mine Action Equipment: Study of Global Operational Needs, GICHD, Geneva, June 2002. http://bit.ly/ewmaUP. Accessed 27 January 2011. 3. In fact, here the permittivity is the key factor. 4. Preliminary results of the ITEP dual-sensor test, October 2009, Germany. 5. A comprehensive report on all trials done in this project can be found in the following: Schoolderman, Arnold and Yolanda Rieter-Barrell. Magnetic Clutter Reduction Efficiency in Humanitarian Demining, TNO-report TNO-DV 2008 A064, February 2008. http://bit.ly/g6OEjN. Accessed 27 January 2011.
For a glossary of common terms used in many of our articles, please view The Journals Common Terms and Definitions list at http://tinyurl.com/JournalTerms.
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15.3
Call For Papers
Deadline: July 15, 2011 Publish Date: Fall 2011
NOTES FROM THE FIELD

Our Notes from the Field section is designed to capture the expertise and ideas of in-the-eld authors. We encourage deminers, EOD experts, mine-action authorities, physical security and stockpile management specialists, small arms/light weapons remediation experts, victim-assistance practitioners, management gurus, and others with boots on the ground to submit articles to The Journal about your programs and expertise. We especially encourage you to send us articles in the form of lessons learned, case studies or project summaries, updates on your programs, or reports on novel methods and problem-solving approaches.
FOCUS
Cluster Munitions
An M77 submunition, one of the types found in Lebanon in 2006.
PHOTO COURTESY OF COLIN KING
SUBMISSION GUIDELINES:
Article length: 1,0002,000 words, submitted in digital format (i.e., Microsoft Word). R&D articles can be up to 3,000 words. Images/photos: Photos must be scanned at 300 dpi or better. Line art, graphics and charts should be scanned at 600 dpi or better. Submit all graphics by e-mail or CD. When submitting photos you are giving e Journal permission to use the photos, with proper credit, in any media or publication under CISRs control now and in the future. Important: Please do not include images in your documents. e quality is too poor for printing. Contact information/bio: Articles must contain each authors name and full contact information at the end of the article (i.e., phone, e-mail and mailing address). Please include a headshot photo and biography (up to 60 words) of each author for inclusion at the end of the article. Consider including credentials, books authored and other biographical information. For complete submission guidelines, please visit: http://maic.jmu.edu/journal/index/guidelines.htm. Submit all materials to: Editor-in-Chief, e Journal of ERW & Mine Action Center for International Stabilization and Recovery/MAIC James Madison University, MSC 4902 800 S. Main Street Harrisonburg, VA 22807 / USA Phone: +1 540 568 2503 / Fax: +1 540 568 8176 E-mail: editormaic@gmail.com
The Journal is seeking articles on cluster munitions for its Focus section of issue 15.3. Article topics can include overviews of conicts involving the use of cluster munitions, impact of the Convention on Cluster Munitions and CCW negotiations, risk-education techniques, and victim-assistance considerations. Particularly sought are articles relating to progress in clearance of munitions, including standard operating procedures, best practices, lessons learned, challenges, interrelation with clearance of mines and other UXO, and R&D related to their detection and removal. We are also interested in submissions that discuss how the history of mine action and its successes and lessons can be translated to the cluster-munitions issue.
To subscribe to The Journal, visit http://www.maic.jmu.edu/journal/index/subscribe.asp
reaD tHis:
e Journal Editorial Sta reserves the right to reject submissions that include text copied from other sources in part or as a whole. Works that have been published previously and for which the author retains publishing rights may be submitted, but e Journal requires the author provide noti cation of this when submitting the article and give contact information for the original publisher so that reprint permission may be veri ed. Reprint submissions for which this information is not provided up front may be rejected. Please note that e Journal reserves all rights to content published and requires noti cation and written approval before content is used again by another source or publication. Authors who submit articles to e Journal are expected to do so in good faith and are solely responsible for the content therein, including the accuracy of all information and correct attribution for quotations and citations.

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Issue 15.

ON THE WEB : http://maic.jmu.edu/Journal/15.1/index.htm

Feature: Training and Capacity Development in ERW Action

Letters to the Editor

UNIFIL Peacekeeping in Southern Lebanon

An accredited Spanish mine-clearance team in 2010.

A Blue-Line barrel is completed and measured.

Integration of Clearance Assets

Why Does This Happen?

What Has Worked?

AMATC: Sustainable Solutions for Humanitarian Mine Action

by Karen Reed-Matthee [ Clear Path International ]

Capacity Building in Western Sahara

An EOD team receives advanced medical training in Western Sahara.

Peer Support and Trauma Recovery

by Cameron Macauley, MPH [ Center for International Stabilization and Recovery ]

Building Knowledge and Partnerships in ERW Action

by Jonah Shepp [ Independent Consultant ]

ERWTC Senior Managers' Course

by Sebastian Kasack [ UNICEF ]

Cambodian and Lao PDR Visits Realized

Practical Issues to Consider

Building Mine-action Capacity through Management Training

Teaching the Right Skills to the Right Person

Making a Case for Strategic Analysis in ERW/Mine-action Training

The Mine Action Technology Workshop

Photo courtesy of Erik Tollefsen/GICHD.

Outcomes and Conclusions

A plenary session of a mine-action conference.

The Concept of Humanitarian Disarmament

Women attending a mine-risk- education session in Sri Lanka.

Mine victims playing volleyball in Afghanistan.

APMBC Definition of Victim Assistance Victim Assistance Article None

Human Rights Clause

Assisting Cluster Munition Victims: A New International Standard

Human Rights and Humanitarian Law

The CCM Victim-assistance Package

NOTES FROM THE FIELD

Sri Lanka Works Toward a Mine-free Nation

In Jaffna, Sarvodaya uses drama to teach MRE.

Photo courtesy of Sarvodaya.

Technical Working Group participants.

White Phosphorus Disposal in the Gaza Strip

ERW in the Republic of Serbia

A BLU-97 bomblet submunition is found in Ni, Serbia.

Preparing for destruction of UXO in Kraljevo, Serbia.

An MK-83 is found in Sabac, Serbia.

The Surprisingly Constant Cost of Landmine Impact Surveys

Locals from landmine-affected communities draw community maps in Sudan.

All graphics courtesy of the author.

The Rise in Terrorist Attacks in the Western Sahara

Al-Qaedas Terrorism in Mauritania

Remnants-of-War and Minefield Removal

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

Research and Development Section Sponsored by

Using Encapsulated Fluorescent Bioprobes to Detect Explosive Materials in Soil

Call for Papers

The Center for International Stabilization and Recovery

18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24.

Mehdi Mohammad Haraz

NOTES FROM THE FIELD

To subscribe to The Journal, visit http://www.maic.jmu.edu/journal/index/subscribe.asp

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