CHAPTER 4 ROAD ACCIDENT AND SAFETY

ROAD ACCIDENT A road accident is a rare, random, multi-factor event always preceded by a situation in which one or more road users have failed to cope with their environment, resulting in a collision on the public highway which should be recorded by the police Accidents are rare because they do not occur very often to an individual Accidents are random because they tend to occur at a variety of relatively unpredictable locations. Accidents are multi-factor events because they can be viewed as sequential chain of events. ROAD ACCIDENTS: HOW THEY AFFECT US

CONTRIBUTORY FACTORS IN ROAD ACCIDENTS Human Factors Perceptual errors - driver or pedestrian looks but fails to see - distraction or lack of attention - misjudgment of speed or distance Lack of skill - inexperience - lack of judgment - wrong action or decision Wrongful manner of execution - deficiency in actions (e.g. too fast, improper overtaking, failure to look, following too closely, wrong path) - deficiency in behaviour (e.g. irresponsible or reckless, frustrated, aggressive) Impairment - alcohol - fatigue - drugs - illness - emotional stress Environmental Factors Adverse road design - unsuitable layout and intersection design - poor visibility due to layout Adverse environment - slippery road - flooded surface - lack of maintenance - weather conditions Inadequate road furniture or markings - insufficient and/or unclear road signs and carriageway markings - poor street lighting Unexpected obstructions - roadworks - parked vehicles

Vehicle Factors lack of regular maintenance by the user of the vehicle - defective brakes - tyre blowouts SAFETY MANAGEMENT AND STRATEGIES Is a structured approach to accident prevention and casualty reduction both in the urban and rural areas. This may be achieved by the following 2 approaches: i. Accident reduction and prevention approaches ii. Injury reduction approaches A) Accident Reduction Approaches - REDUCTION The application of appropriate road and traffic engineering schemes on hazardous locations or blackspots. - The injury reduction approaches involves i. Safety policies. ii. Vehicle and road engineering approaches. iii. Medical and trauma management. - There are four basic strategies for accident reduction: i. Single Site/ Blackspot treatment identification of sites with higher than average number of accidents (> 5 accidents) ii. Mass Action Schemes involve the application of a remedy to locations or areas with a common accident problem e.g.: crash cushion iii. Route Action Plan involve the application of remedies along a route with a high accident rate e.g.: motorcycle lane iv. Area-wide Schemes involve the application of a remedy to accidents locations involving vulnerable road users e.g.: pedestrianised the school area B) Accident Prevention Approches - PREVENTION Through road safety auditing on existing roads or new proposed roads.

TRANSPORT POLICY ON SAFETY To reduce the loss of life, injuries and damage to property resulting from transport accidents. To provide a more secure environment for travel.

By: Ikhwan Zainuddin

Injury Reduction Approches - Application of appropriate safety policies, vehicle and road engineering approaches to reduce injury during crash phase. - Examples of injury reduction strategies: i. New helmet standards (MSI:1996) ii. Campaign on proper usage of safety helmet iii. Development of motorcycle safety helmets specially designed for children iv. Child seat in car v. Wear glove and shoes for motorcyclist vi. Wear long sleeve jacket and jeans for motocyclist DIAGNOSIS FRAMEWORK FOR BLACKSPOTS In general, there are at least three main stages: i. Determining sites suitable for remedial actions ii. Diagnosis of problem iii. Selection of remedies most likely to produce maximum accident reduction.

ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION, DIAGNOSIS AND COUNTERMEASURES Step 1 : Collection and Compilation of Accident Data in Malaysia Step 2 : Computerisation and Processing of Accident Records Step 3 : Identification and Prioritisation of Accident Blackspot Location Step 4 : Blackspots Prioritisation and Diagnosis Step 5 : Detailed Diagnosis and Countermeasure Step 6 : Evaluation of The Effectiveness of The Countermeasure Preliminary Accident Investigation i. Listing of accident keyfields ii. Searching and compilation of individual accident records iii. Production of stick diagrams iv. Site survey and inventory v. Production of location sketch vi. Production of collision diagram Interpretation of Collision i. Where ii. When iii. Who iv. How v. Why Preliminary Diagnosis i. Primary Factors ii. Associated Factors In-depth Investigation and Diagnosis of Blackspots

ROAD SAFETY PROGRAMS, STRATEGIES AND INTERVENTION 3E Solution To Road Accidents Education - Pendidikan early childhood road training to initial driver training. attitude changing programs road safety education in school exercises in pedestrian and cyclist safety driver training courses safety programmes for the elderly campaigns (anti-speeding, seatbelt, helmet, drink driving etc) Enforcement - Penguatkuasaan Based on Road Transport Act 1987/1999. Impose summons (drank drivers, seatbelt, helmet, speeding etc) enforcing speed traps speed limits on all roads introduce public service as penalty

non-wearing

Engineering - Kejuruteraan Road and traffic developments: Access control improved geometric design improved lighting and carriageway delineation improve road signing separation of vulnerable road user identification and treatment for a blackspots

By: Ikhwan Zainuddin

HARDDON SAFETY PLANNING MATRIX

Pre-Crash Human
Education Campaign Enforcement Type Approval, Road Worthiness & Active Safety Devices Programs

Crash
Compliance to Safety Devices

Post-Crash
Skill of Paramedic and First Respondents

Vehicle

Installation of Ease of Passive Evacuation Safety Better Rescue Devices Tool Furniture Rehabilitation Centre (trauma)

Environment Road Engineering Safer Road

The main focus of the intervention strategies adopted was aimed at the target group of the road user are: i. Motorcyclists, ii. Pedestrians iii. Car Drivers The contributing factor to motorcycle accidents are: i. lack of conspicuity ii. bad habits and behaviour iii. less forgiving road conditions iv. lack of stability MOTORCYCLE SAFETY PROGRAM Motorcycle Lane - Segregating motorcycle from other traffic - Malaysia has the worlds first lane in 1970s. - Radin et al. (1995,1998) studied the impact of the motorcycle lane. - The reduction in motorcycle accident was highly significant (p<0.05) with an average reduction of about 39% motorcycle accidents per year. Running Headlights - In Malaysia, this initiative was implemented in middle of 1992. - Raden et al (1996) reported reduction of 29% in conspicuity related motorcycle accidents using multivariate modelling technique. - On site obserbvation data shows about 82% of motorcyclist comply with the running headlights regulation (Raden et al.,1996) Safety Helmet - No other vehicle in traffic use has an associated demand for head protection like the motorcycle. - Motorcyclist involved in a casualty are three times more likely to be killed if not wearing a helmet (Cameron et al.,1994- Aus). - Safety helmet is able to reduce head, neck and face injuries (Hurt et al., 1991).

Example Question Two people were traveling at 120-130kph for the past 10km since leaving a bar where they had excessive drink. The driver loses control on a sharp curve and the vehicle strikes a tree. The passenger is partly ejected and killed. The driver had minor injuries. The rescue team arrived within one hour later Based on the incidence, how it can be relate with the Hardon safety planning matrix?

Five Strategies in safety interventions i. Exposure control ii. Crash prevention iii. Behaviour modification iv. Injury control v. Post injury management

Conspicuous Clothing - Dark clothing creates less visibility which might in turn be dangerous for the riders as they are not visible enough to other road users. - About half (53%) of Malaysian riders choose dark attire while riding (Raden et al.,1998) Fluorescent Attire - Fluorescent clothing colour can increase the day conspicuity by 235% (Raden, 1996). - Thus fluorescent jacket can significantly increase motorcyclist conspicuity in day light in some circumstances. - The benefits afforded by conspicuity aids varied between places due to environmental factors (road layout, lighting condiyions and presence or absence of other traffic. Anti Speeding - Speeding increases the risk being involved in a crash and increases the severity of a crash. - Generally to ensure a vehicle stops in time, a 3 sec gap should be allowed between a vehicle and the next car in front. In wet conditions this gap should be increased to 5 sec. - An increase in speed limits from 55 to 65 mph on highways in US resulted an increase in mean speed of 2 -4 mph and 19%-34% increase in fatalities. Anti Weaving - Close to half of motorcyclists agreed that a rider who is good at weaving in traffic will be able to save a lot of time. - Close to two-third of motorcyclists are also aware that other drivers are disturbed by their weaving behaviour. - About a quarter of motorcyclist love to ride motorcyclist because the weaving oppurtunity. paved shoulder - Significantly lower accident experience and accident severity indexes at paved shoulders in North Corolina (Heimbach,1974). - Suprisingly higher number (80%) of motorcycles are not using paved shoulder and instead prefer the main carriageway (Raden et al.,2002) By: Ikhwan Zainuddin

TARGET GROUP Children < 15 years Elderly People > 50 years Adult 31 50 years Young 16 30 years

ROAD SAFETY AUDIT (RSA) Definition A formal examination on Planning, Design, Construction and,Operation of new road project or existing road. Goals Highest practical standards Identification of potential safety hazard on, New projects and Existing road Mitigation measures Reduce through life cost to community Why Need RSA Identify or eliminate potential/future/existing i. unsafe features ii. unsafe operations - Accident potential - Injury potential Provide a more Cost-Benefit system Prevention is better than cure Do it right during the first time Easier to change while on the drawing board How RSA Can Help Us Eliminate unsafe features at design stage (easier) Avoid lock in condition Identify and eliminate out of date standards and practices Identify hazards due to combination of elements (intersection) Review changes due to later operational changes/safety enhancement Legal Liability Issues RSA concept: i. Pro-active measures ii. Accident prevention and reduction approach iii. Avoid costly payouts Thus, the legal system should embrace such concept

Children Below Eight Years safety They are too young to be able to deal safely with traffic. They cannot recognize danger, judge speeds and react accordingly. Drivers often do not notice them on the roads. Adult Pedestrian Safety Walk on pavement, not on the road Walk facing the oncoming traffic if there are no footpaths, so that you can see. Wear something bright (yellow/orange are best) so that drivers can see you easily especially at night. Follow the six step crossing code. Think ahead and plan the safest road Pedestrian safety program: Cross at zebra crossing Accompany children Be considerate to senior citizen Traffic law vulnerable group Be aware of children Be alert of approaching cars Safety For Special Group (Orang Kurang Upaya) If you are a person who can walk but cannot run, make sure you carry a bright coloured walking stick when you crossing the road. This not much to help you walk, but to make youself more visible to the drivers so that they have to slowdown and be very careful. Car Safety Program Seat belt use Anti speeding Drink driving Child seat

WHO SHOULD CARRY OUT RSA ? Independent examiners Qualified examiners Individual examiner - P. Eng (Ir) - Experience in Analysis and Diagnosis of Accidents - Design experience Group of examiners

The Auditors Skilled and Experienced in: i. Traffic Engineering (must) ii. Traffic Management (must) iii. Road Safety Engineering (must) iv. Human factor/behaviour (necessary) v. Vehicle/Driver/Environment interaction (necessary) vi. Accident Investigation and Countermeasure (preffered) vii. Design experience is desirable Either : i. Individual with the criteria ii. Audit Team: - composition of each stages - more pairs of eyes - Principal Auditor/RSA Manager iii. Independent of Auditors: - Credibility - Fresh Eyes - Impartial - Focus on safety aspects - Communication skills/PR iv. Accreditation of Auditors Government Policy that RSA auditors must be accredited Meet the set criteria All stages or part of the stages

By: Ikhwan Zainuddin

THE FIVE STAGES OF RSA Stage 1 : Feasibility/Planning Earliest recognized stage Not always applicable for very small projects/improvement Major transport infrastructure projects (planning stage): i. Concept ii. Route option iii. Network safety iv. Interchange type/location v. Access control vi. Vulnerable road users Stage 2 : Preliminary Design Traffic Engineering Features i. Cross section element ii. Intersection layout iii. Lane iv. Traffic control option v. Geometric standard vi. Right of way Stage 3 : Detailed Design Test Design Decision Identify potential hazards i. Combination vertical/horizontal alignment ii. Max/min design criteria iii. Final grading iv. Lighting v. Signing vi. Marking vii. Street furniture

Client/Designer/Construction Manager

Client/Designer/Construction Manager

Client/Designer/Construction Manager

STEP

By: Ikhwan Zainuddin

Stage 5 : Existing Road Identify Safety Problems Wear and Tear Accident Data needed Different from Blackspot Identify/correct hazards before it is too late What to Audit? i. Vertical & Horizontal Alignment ii. Cross Section iii. Intersections iv. Expressway & Other Interchanges v. Traffic Signal Installations vi. Street Lighting

Assembling Background Information, Plans to be audited and other documents

Initial Meeting with Auditor(s); Handing over of plan etc for audit; Discussions, arrangement for inspections etc

Doing the Audit, examining the plans, site inspection, etc

Auditor(s)

Auditor(s)

Clients/Designer

Preparing the Audit Brief Appointing the Auditor(s) Appointing the Independent Assessor

Preparing the Audit Report

Completion Meeting (if required), Presentation and discussion of Audit Finding

Deciding the action required on the Audit Finding

ACTION

Client/Independent Assessor

Stage 4 : Pre-Opening Site Inspection or just prior opening/practical completion Able to visualize 3D and changes made, as build Last chance for best condition for safety Traffic Management Carried out at least 3 times Beginning of construction Periodically during construction Just before opening

PROCEDURE FOR RSA

RESPOSIBILITY

CHAPEER 3 TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL

TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT It is a process of adjusting or adapting the use of existing road systems to improve traffic operations without resorting to major new construction. OBJECTIVES ease traffic congestion enhance road safety improve traffic flow improve the transportation of people and goods reduce the impacts of traffic on the environment create a balanced modal split WHY DO WE NEED TO MANAGE TRAFFIC? Traffic congestion problem in cities High urban population growth results in the increase of vehicle ownership. The number of private automobiles traveling in cities is high, resulting in traffic jams. Public transport is affected by jams Conflicts between Private and Public transport occur. Traffic jams causes disruptions in Public transport services. Passengers are late for work, stressed out, and exposed to fumes, noise and heat. Criticisms on new road constructions Road networks are extended to accommodate increasing number of vehicles. It does not solve the problem of traffic jams. It uses up government funds (taxpayers money) and causes scarcity of land.

Negative impact on the environment and health High energy (fuel) consumption. Exhaust fumes, heat and noise causes pollution and health problems. Mobility, accessibility and safety problems for nonmotorized road users Conflicts between vulnerable road users (pedestrians & cyclists) and motorized transport. These users find it hard to travel, access is intruded, and their safety is at risk. Increased travel cost Cost, in terms of money and time, increases as more time is spent on the road due to traffic jams. WHAT PROBLEMS MAY OCCUR IF TRAFFIC IS NOT WELL MANAGED? Traffic Congestion Road Accidents Disruption of Public Transportation Adverse effects on Environment Safety Risk for Pedestrians and Cyclists Increased Travel Cost Using up of Funds and Land TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

IMPROVE CAPACITY Link & Intersection Improvements Aims: i. To increase capacity ii. To enhance safety iii. To reduce delays iv. To control speeduntuk meningkatkan kapasiti Techniques:: i. Provide channelization ii. Use traffic signals iii. Create safe crossing for pedestrians: Provide large waiting areas, pedestrian refuges, and shorter crossing distances Treatment for crossing at an intersection Treatment for crossing at a midblock iv. Control speed on the approaches Neckdown Parking & Loading Control Parking and loading control should be implemented on main traffic routes, especially during peak hours and near pedestrian Techniques: i. Parking & Loading Restriction Benefits: - Relieves traffic congestion - Improve safety - Improves visibility for and of pedestrians who want to cross When on-street parking restriction is enforced, provide sufficient off-street parking spaces. Designated loading areas must be allocated for loading activity. Loading can be permitted only on the back lane, where access is only for goods vehicles

By: Ikhwan Zainuddin

One-Way Street Proper street signing is very important for one-way streets. advantagesn: i. Reduces conflict points ii. Increases capacity iii. Increases speed & flow iv. Reduces delay v. Eliminates head-on collisions vi. Eliminates dazzle vii. Easier for pedestrians to cross the road Turning & Entry Restriction Turning restrictions may be imposed: i. if the road is not able to accommodate large volumes of vehicles (No Right-Turn). ii. if the maneuver is obstructive and dangerous (No U-turn). iii. if the road or junction geometry is not adequately designed for turning movements of large vehicles (Light Vehicles Only). Entry restrictions may be imposed: i. for one way street schemes ii. for certain periods of the day iii. for certain vehicle classes Contra Flow (Tidal flow / Reverse flow) Contra flow is applied when there is an imbalance in directional distribution of traffic during peak hours. Traffic on one direction is in excess while traffic on the opposing direction is low. Justified when 65% or more of the total traffic during peak periods is in one direction. One lane in the lower volume direction is used for traffic on the higher volume direction. This lane is separated using barricades and channelizing devices and provided with proper signing.

ALLOCATE PRIORITIES Pedestrian Segregation Separate pedestrians from vehicular traffic. Objectives: i. To reduce pedestrian-vehicle conflicts ii. To enhance pedestrian safety iii. To enforce No Jaywalking regulations Technique: i. Pedestrian Precinct ii. Pedestrian Guardrails iii. Sidewalk separation using planting strip Cyclist Segregation Bicycle Lanes Bus & Hov Lanes Bus Lanes - Contra-Flow Bus Lane - With-Flow Bus Lanes - Guided Bus Lane (Busway) HOV Lanes - Contra-flow HOV Lane - Segregated HOV Lane - With-flow HOV Lane Bus Priority Smart Intersection uses bus detector to manipulate traffic signal which allows green phase for buses. TRAFFIC RESTRAINT Traffic Restraint i. Do Nothing - Drivers will eventually make trips during offpeak periods, choose to use alternative routes, and take alternative modes of transport.

ii. physical measures - Banning or prohibiting entry of certain classes of vehicles. - Examples: Introduction of Bus & HOV Lanes, Bicycle lanes, Pedestrian precincts, iii. Regulatory Measures - Parking, waiting & loading control. - Impose stiffer penalties and fines if regulations are violated. - Limit the number of parking spaces in the city. - Impose higher taxes for parking operators.Tempat letak kenderaan, menunggu & pemunggahan kawalan. iv. Fiscal Measure - Vehicle tax - Fuel tax - Road Pricing / Area Licensing Traffic Calming Traffic calming involves changes in street alignment, installation of barriers, and other physical measures to reduce traffic speeds and/or cut-through volumes, in the interest of street safety, livability, and other public purposes. i. Vertical Deflections - Speed Lumps - Speed Bump - Speed Hump - Speed Table - Textured pavement - Raised Crosswalk - Speed Cushion - Raised Intersection ii. horizontal deflections - Chicane - Traffic circle - Roundabout iii. horizontal narrowings - Central Island Narrowing - Neckdown - Choker

By: Ikhwan Zainuddin

CONTROL OVER ACCESSES AND DEVELOPMENT i. Bad Planning

Houses have direct access to mainroad. Future development on the opposite land will add on to more access points on the mainroad. Accident risk is high.

SPEED LIMITS AND SPEED ZONES Speed control can be achieved through imposing speed limits and implementing speed zones. Speed limits should be realistic depending on the road design standard, road geometry, and type of area. Speed zones should be introduced at areas with high pedestrian activity, such as schools. Enforcement is vital. Road signing, pavement marking, and traffic calming can complement these speed limits and speed zones. MANAGING HEAVY GOODS VEHICLES (HGV) HGVs are a nuisance to traffic: i. causes damage to road pavement and other road structures ii. impedes traffic iii. when involved in an accident, can cause serious injury and damage, or be fatal HGV operations are not adequately regulated. Vehicles may be defective. There may be no criteria set for hiring HGV drivers. Due to long distance travel, drivers may take alcohol and drugs to stay awake. Vehicles are grossly overloaded (axle loads of 25-30 tonnes are common). Techniques: i. Areawide HGV Management Scheme - Prohibition of HGVs from entering or passing an area or section of a road. - HGV cordons can be used to prevent through movement while still permitting access. ii. Off-peak Travel for HGVs - HGVs are permitted to use specified routes only during off-peak periods. iii. Loading Restriction - Implemented during peak periods to ensure traffic is not impeded on major routes. Deliveries and collections can be made early in the morning or late at night. - In pedestrianized areas,they must be done using rear servicing facilities.

ii. Better and safer planner

PROVIDING FOR PUBLIC TRANSPORT Encouraging the use of public transport is the best solution to reduce congestion (by reducing private automobile usage). Problems with Public Transport Service i. Inadequate services during peak hours. ii. Overcrowding. iii. Delays and inconsistent schedules. iv. Transit facilities are in deplorable state. v. High fares for poor service. vi. Journey is too long. Techniques/solution: i. Bus Rapid Transit, Busway, Exclusive Bus Lanes, Bus Streets ii. Improvement of transit facilities iii. Light Rail Transit, Monorail, Express Rail Transit, Bullet Train PROVIDING FOR PUBLIC TRANSPORT i. Entry for Bus & Taxi ii. Bus Only street iii. Bus Priority iv. Bus Rapid Transit v. Inter-modal Transit vi. Mass Transit PARKING (To provide or to restrict?) It must be recognized that parking demand is always high at a Central Business District (CBD). Time and fuel is wasted, while congestion and pollution is created by motorists driving around to find parking spaces. Therefore provision of adequate parking spaces is necessary. Illegal parking is rife and often, pedestrian footpaths are encroached. This, coupled with on-street parking, creates accident risks for pedestrians as they become inconspicuous and are forced unto the roadway. Adequate off-street parking facilities (multi-storey car parks, parking lots, basement parking) should be provided. But there should be a limit because it may encourage more people to use private automobiles. By: Ikhwan Zainuddin

Houses have direct access to a service road that is connected to the mainroad. Future development is located away from the mainroad. This is a lot safer! ENFORCE TRAFFIC LAWS Traffic law enforcement is meant to achieve safe and efficient movement of all road users, including pedestrians. Stiffer fines and penalties should be imposed on traffic offenders in order to prevent repeat offences. Regular patrols should be made by law enforcers. Road users will learn to respect other road users and become more responsible and tolerant

 The use of private automobiles can be discouraged through: i. Parking restrictions ii. Limiting of parking spaces iii. High parking fees iv. High taxes for parking operators City planners will then have to shift the demand of parking away from the CBD: i. Provide ample parking at mass-transit stations (train & LRT stations) ii. Provide park-and-ride facilities. iii. Create satellite car parks.

By: Ikhwan Zainuddin