MCW '07 TICKNER FEMINISM K KRITIK LAB

1NC: LINK 1NC: IMPACT 1NC: ALT SOLVENCY (X2) LINKS: ECONOMIC THEORIES LINKS: ECONOMIC THEORIES LINKS: ECONOMIC NATIONALISM LINKS: CAPITALISM LINKS: CAPDEVELOPMENT LINKS: CAPDEVELOPMENT LINKS: CAPIENVIORNMENT LINKS: ENVIORNMENT LINKS: ENVIORNMENT LINKS: ENVIORNMENT LINKS: ENVIORNMENT LINKS: ENVIORNMENT LINKS: NATURE LINKS: ENVIORNMENT EXTS: STATE FAIL LINKS: ENVIORNMENTDEVELOPPMENT LINKS: ENVIORNMENTDEVELOPPMENT LINKS: DEVELOPMENT REPS LINKS: DEVELOPMENT LINKS: DEVELOPMENT LINKS: DEVELOPMENT LINKS: THIRD WORLD DEVELOPMENT LINKS: THIRD WORLD DEVELOPMENT (X2) LINKS: THIRD WORLD DEVELPPMENT LINKS: THIRD WORLD REPS (X2) LINKS: THIRD WORLD ENVIORNMENT LINKS: SECURITY/ENVlORNMENT LINKS: SECURITY LINKS: SECURITY (X2) LINKS: IR GENDERED LINKS: IR GENDERED LINKS: IR GENDERED LINKS: IR GENDERED LINKS: IR GENDERED LINKS: 1R GENDERED LINKS: AUTONOMYiOBJECTIVITY LINKS: WAR LINKS: NUCLEAR WAR LINKS: CITIZENSHIP LINKS: CITIZENSHIPREPS OF WOMYN LINKS: REPS OF WOMYN LINKS: AGRICULTURE (FAMINE) LINKS: SCIENCE LINKS: WESTERN THOUGHTISCIENCE LINKS: EURCENTRISWSCIENCE IMPACTILINKS: 1R GENDERED IMPACTILINKS: MILITARIZATION IMPACTS: DISCOURSE IMPACT: PATRIARCHY

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M C W '07 TICKNER FEMINISM K KRITIK LAB IMPACTILINKSIALT SOLVENCY: ENVIORNMENT IMPACTIALT SOLVENCY: DECONSTRUCTIONIMF'ACT/ALT SOLVENCY: DISCOURSE (X2) ALT SOLVENCY: DISCOURSE ALT SOLVENCY: DISCOURSE ALT SOLVENCY: DISCOURSE ALT SOLVENCY: REORIENT RELATIONSHIP ALT SOLVENCY: REORIENT RELATIONSHIP ALT SOLVENCY: REORIENT RELATIONSHIP ALT SOLVENCY: DEVELOPMENT ALT SOLVENCY: DEVELOPMENT ALT SOLVENCY: DEVELOPMENT ALT SOLVENCY DECONSTRUCTION ALT SOLVENCY DECONSTRUCTION ALT SOLVENCY: DECONSTRUCTION ALT SOLVENCY DECONSTRUCTION (X2) ALT SOLVENCY: DECONSTURCTIONICOALITIONS 0[2) ALT SOLVENCY: IR ENVIORNMENTALISM ALT SOLVENCY: ENVIORNMENT ALT SOLVENCY: INCLUSION ALT SOLVENCY' EQUALITY ALT SOLVENCY DYNAMIC OBJECTIVITY ALT SOLVENCY SECURITY ALT SOLVENCY: IMAPCTS FRAMEWORK: EUROCENTRISM BAD FRAMEWORK: GENDER AS A CATEGORY OF ANALYSIS (X2) STATE FAILS A2: REALISM A2: REALISM: NO ALT A2: NUKE WAR A2: THEY SOLVE ENVIORNMENT A2: BUTLER A2: BUTLER AFF TURN: ESSENTIALISM

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TICKNER FEMINISM K KRITIK LAB

LINKS: THIRD WORLD DEVELOPMENT

Development ideologies in Third World countries viewed WOmyn'S "backwardneSS'' as justification for modernbation; however, the development and spread Of Capitalism by Western states exacerbated womyn's marginalization and subordination
( J . Ann, Professor ofInternational Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in Infernfitional Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Securiry, 1992, Pg. 75- 76)

Tickner, 92

<While feminist economists are just .~. beginning to explore - . . . . -. .. the differential effects . . . . . _ - of,.the,opera$on.of the market icon. . . .~~~~~ where , . .. . thesqeffects h a k omy on men and women, one area bti~ examin<-&;& ~. sam-g.xef;2is in stu&es of Thir'd W;,.ld
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. Liberal -. . .~ modernization .. theory. a women anhdevelopment2 body of literature that grew out of assumptions . . that fie .
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.~...

markets and private investment could best promote eco...~ . - . .... nOmiC .~ ~. growth.-in .. . .the Third.Worl4 sawi'ivomenTs . . .. . . relatjqe "backwardness" as the irrational persistence of traditional ~..~ .Nation_s' Decade for the attitudeKFoiexampree; the United Advancement of Women (1975-85) assumed that women's ~. . ~in ..~ the Thud World were rerated 'to insufficient problems . ~. .~ .in,theprocessl~of modemuation and developparticipation me,nt,.~Inm970, however, Esther kserup, the first of many women scholars to challenge this assumption, claimed that in many parts of the colonial and postcolonial world, the ~. ~. .. .. . . . .. . position .,. of ~ rural ~ . . women . .. . actually ..... declinedwhen .~ ~. they became ~into the globa!~market e ~ o n o m y .Women's '~ marassmdated ~. . . ;.. i exacerbated s bythe spread of Western capi@nalization ~ .. . . .. .. - - .. ~~. talEman-zcdture. .__I..___, In the preindependence period, Western - ~. ~. ~. rarely had any sympathy for the methods women colonizers ... . to . cultivate used . crops; assuming that men.would be more . ~ ~~~~. . they ~ attempted to replace efficient as-a~culturar.producers, women's culhvation practices with those of men. Bos .e .S p ~ and .- others . . . - - ---.claim.that development aid in the
~

FO!sh!!Qnid .. ~.~~ .. .period . hiis act~ally rfducrd thestatus of ivomen~ ~

relative .~~ to men, .After World War .II, Western development ~.. kprovement ~.. ~.~ .~ of a d ~ . . ... . ~ for the experts taught new - techniques PulfCrre to inen who were able to generate income &om cash ... . . . . ~. ..~ . . . crops. When land enters (he market, . h d tenure often passes inEYthe hands of men. Hence women's access to land and ~ . . ~ .~~ . techno!"gy_a_ctually.often.de.creases .as. land reform is instir w e d and ~. agriculture,is. . . modernked.. Land refogm, traditionally thought to be a vital prerequisite for raising agricultural productivity. frequentlv . . . . . . . reduces women's ~. . control .~ ~. .~over ~.,..~ tio*a!._use..rlghts a n d .@v.es. .titles. .to, male heads of households. During the early pears of development assistance, the concept oi. male head oi household was incorporated)lnto ~.~ ~. f"-r-e.i. . gn..assistance . proEams; .-.. according to. the ..traditionak ~ Western-sexua! division -of labor, imposed on societies wsh . . . quite .. .. different .social norms, were seen as child ;Garers and homemakers, thus further marginalizing their pro> . . . . c . . . .. ...
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MCW '07 TICKNER FEMINISM K KlUTIK LAB

IMPACT MILITARIZATION
The kritik outweighs- the masculine, Western approaches to war apparent International Relations allows for the militarization of "the South;" the resulting security issues risk extinction Tickner, 92
(J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern Califomia, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving GlobalSecurify, 1992, Pg. 19- 21)

These new threats to security demand ne* solutions quite . . . __~ . . . . . . . . . . . at ._.___-odds ~ ~ " o w m ~ l i t i prescnphons i c _ . . s __. of traditional ... ... international relations theory. As we Gce The prospect that, . _ _ . . . . . . . . _ . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I _ _ _ , ... ~- . . . . . by tlie year 2000, 80 percent .__._. of the worlhs .. population . . . . . . . walive in the South, we in the West can no ionger affGrir'.o privilege a tradition of scholarship that focuses on the con. . ...................... cerns anFm5thons of the great powers. Faced with a stus.... ......... ... born gap ililiving standards6etween the rich and the poor that some observers doubt can ever be overcome, <eali_t. prescriptions of self-help . . . are . . . . . . . . inappropriag;the-hea!th~.of~ the gloEiEZiiomii?Te~ends ......... on the helth,af all its .-hem Environmental deEadation -_ a relatively new item on the agen'da of international r&&ofii, threatep nc an . . '2aEe-and appears intransigent to state-cente~d.-~-o~.tiorsl . . Along with the trad~tional issues of ..war -. . and - ...... peace, -~--.'&@ dk. . cipline of international -. . relations is increasiniyhallenged . by ....... thcrzaliities --.~ of economic and ecothe necessity of a n a l y b g . . . . -...... logtca%terdependence. . 4 finding . . .__. ways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . of mitigating their , . negahve consequences. . . .............. We must also face the realiQ ,-.,of how .thi -these - wider securiQsues; W ._ h i i 6 ; the s y -

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MGW '07 TICKNER FEMINISM K W T I K LAB

ALT SOLVENCY: DISCOURSE

Our language defines the hierarchical construction of gender; we must challenge these binary oppositions to prevent them from becoming permanent Tickner, 92
( ' . A W Professor OfInbmk&?nal Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in ~ Perspectives on Achieving GIobalSecuri@, 1992, pg. 7- 8)
I- LonneKs definition ot hegemontc mascullntty .depends . . . . . . on _-. ... - .. .................. relationship with various zuhits oppositioqto and unequal ordinatiJ .......... femininities. Many contemporary feminists. .... draw . . . . . . . . . . . . . on s M r l y socially constructed, or engendered, relationshps 'in-their .deh<tion ~f g&der~difference. Histb;;cally; differences between men and women have usually been ascribed to biology. But when......... ieminists .. use thc . term..!.. ycnrier . today, t h e ~ - a r ~ . _ n o t . . g a l lr&mi&Jc.hto!ogcal y differ..~~~. encea b f i r r n males and females, hut to 3 wt of u.,,-_.. ktirdly
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agross time~and place. I n this view, biology may,~constrain behavior, . . . . . . . . . . . . but it should . . not be used "deterministicall_v" or . " . . ~. . "naturally" to . . . . jushfy.practices,-iris~tutions, . . . .- ...... or choices that could be other than they are. W hat it means to be a .... ...................... man or a xomm yams a c m s i' iiiJ j i i s i r w ) , ~ I III I cultures gender different'es sign* relationships of inequa ......................................... do-mation of women by men. a d the ........................ ........... similarly~characterizes __ . . . . . . . . gender . . . as "a constitutive Ioan .......... Scott . . element of social ~. relationshies ~ . . ........... based on perceived differ: ........... ences between the sexes,. and . . . a primary w a y of signif.*.. inp relafionshipsbf'power." Indeed one could characterize ..................... most contemporary feminh scholarship in terms of the dual an important .. and beliefs that gender ................. difference . . has . played . essential role in the structuring of socia1,inequalities . . . . . in-much ... ..... ....... ........... of human history and'th_at the resulting ... differences in seff. . identifications, -. human' understand s, so_cial..status, and ......... . . . . . . . . . . . are . . . . unjustified. ...... wer relationships - .. whi ...........ur understanding ..... of Scott claims that the way.in of power .... _ is . . .through3 . . . . . . . set of gender ~- sipifies relationships . . . . . . . . . no,G.atixe..c.o-nsepts that set forth interpretations of the . In Western . . . . . . culture, . . . . . . . . . . . . these ......... concepts . meanings of symbols. _ ; , . take . . . the ....... form of .- fixed binary . opEositions . . . . . . . . . that.categorically ... . _ . . . . . I the . . . . . . . . . meaning , I of mascubKe and feminine and henceassert ...... legitimize a set of .................. and . ~~.
~

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many other contemporary feminists assert that, through ___ ... our ._t9pe~ce~v.e...th~~~!d.. through use of.Jk%!zis binary-. opositions. Our Western understanding of gender is based on a set of culturally determined.biriaj . . .. d i s t -i n c ~ r d ~ s u ~ h - a s - p u ~ ~private, ~ersus objechve versus subjective, self versus other, rerlsan Perm3 emotion, autanc omy x'ersus relatedness, and culture versis nature; the first of each pair of characteristics is typically associated with masculinity, the second with femiknity.' Scott claims that

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of these differences between women and men ~. are - . ~no longer c ~-...~.-*---. .& ? m X to be natural or fled, we can examine how relations..o .f E d e . . . r-.I inepuality _ -.are gmxt,-rted-and. sustained in -_Life. . In committing itself various arenas9ubLic and private to , ilender as a catezory of analysis, contemporary fepinism . also commits itself to gender equality as a social goal.>
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MGW '07 TICKNER FEMINISM K KRITIK LAB

LINKS: ECONOMIC THEORIES

Economic disciplines render womyn invisible by marginalizing their thoughts on political and economic development Tickner, 92
(J. Ann. Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Ptwpectiws on Achieving Global Security, 1992, P g . i 70) - 1 ,

'c Having critiqued each model from the perspective of gen-

der, I shall offer some feministperspectives on international political economy. Just as __ women have ............. been abs-enjfrom the field of internatioriZXations,. . . the few ............ feminists who . write about-ecoGmici-.claim--that . . . . . . . their ,disnpline has rendered wo?iencomple~ly~~~-ible. The field of ec$nomics has shown .... in.household . production and volunteer work, lit6Xferest or ETwomen's particular problems and.accomplishmentsin ........................ .2 .A-. ...... a market ......... economy. growing literature on women and . . . . . . . . . . . . . has been .~ marginalized . ..... from~ mainsheam theofdevelopment rie'sof political and economic development. Since very little Ii&fire- o n women 'and &ternational p&fiCal economy exists, once again I shall be drawing on feminist literature from other disciplines and approaches. Common themes in these various feminist approaches suggest that feminist perspectives .......... on international .political economy wfluld start .. with - .... assumptions .... about the indivi . . al, the . . . . . . state,. and:class-,that are very different from those of Gilpin's ................ ..... I . . . . ; " ;.;---- at the foundation .. . three . . ideologies.. . ,' o
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MGW '07 TICKNEK FEMINISM K KRlTIK LAB

LINKS: ECONOMIC THEORIES

The use of political economic theories that ignore gender distinctions masks the inequality experienced by womyn Tickner, 92
(J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving GIobalSecurity, 1992, Pg. 69 ) 70

5 Depending on their normative orientation and area of concern, contemporary scholars of international political . . . . .won..~~. ..... ............. omy have used different approaches to investigate these variGuit0nm-s.Kese.appiQachesfit broadly into what Robert Gilpin has described as the three constituting ideologies of international political economy: liberalism,...... economic nationalism, and Marxisml' Gilpin defines an ideology as a belief system that includes both scientific explanations and normaof these approaches discusses tive prescriptions. Since none ......... .................................. 'gender, we must assume that their authors believe them t o be..... e-. ......................... g naer ..neutral, . .... meaning that they claim that the interaction between states and-.markets, .. .- ......... as Gilpin defines political be understood without reference to gender economy;--can~
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distinctions. ......... Feminists would disagee.with-this_cjaim;. as 1 argued in chapter I, ignoring gender ..... -. distinctions ............ hides a set . .~. . ~ inequality of .social and economic relations characterized by ....................... between men and wpmen. In order to-understand how these unkual relationshipsaffect the workings of the world econfor both women and meno m y k n d theG

relationsexplilicit . .'must be conskctedl:

moilel36f !fiiFi%a~onalFeiiiical iconom) that make gender

consequences

MGW 07 TICKNER FEMINISM K KRlTlK LAB

LINKS: ECONOMIC NATIONALISM

Conceptions of economic nationalism disfavor womyn by economically rewarding men through institutions of state power; the military spending in these states sacrifices womyns economic wellbeing, causing security threats as big as external military threats Tickner, 92
(J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relafions: Feminist
PenFpecfives on Achieving Global Securiq, 1992, Pg. 83- 84)

Using game theoretic models to explain states behavior in the international system, economic nationalists, like the neorealists discussed in chapter 2 , often portray states asxniactors; concentrating at the interstate level, economic . ..... ~.nationfocus their attention-on the-intemal alltsts do not %en=~ dishibution of gains. But if, as I have argued, women have ZZXZ3ZG been penpheFa1 to ons of s t a t e m e r........ economically rewar . . n, . .the . .validity. of the~unita? a c o tmustbePxamned.. from _- the ,.~ perspective of ............... gEinder. we mu w t h e r women.are-gL@geguaUy .. to men G i i i X C r n Ationalist prescriptions to pursue w G W p K w e r . l n - a T.,___I_l states, women tend to .- be c m g e d m of the sucroeconmit Scale; in the United States $ZZiF%WpeopIe living in poverty were women or children under eighteen.29 In the United States, certain feminists have noted a trend toward what they term the increasingfenhization of poverty:in the 1970s and I+OS, families maintained by women alone increased from 36 persocieties wherq cent to 51.5 percent of all poor families.30In 7 . . ~ _. - highJ-,women are often th&t;kra.f@ militaTspendingis .. social welfare pro___I__I._-,-.-._._. of economic hardship-,.when -the effects p i & ~ are sacrificed f ~ c piori-titie& As I have mentioned before, for econ nalists the military-industrial complex is an important part of the domestic economy . .. . . . . . -. to special protection. FofEodiwomeri; however, t entitled trade-off between military and economic spending can PO ..___-... . a security threat as real as external militaiy threats. ... rfiaveshown that the economic nationalist explanation of states behavior in the international svstem, which focuses .. on instrumental rationality, is biased toward a masculine representation. Moreover, the evolution of the modern state .... system anathe capitalist world economy changed tradltional ~. that were not alwoys beneficial to gender-Foies-in ways women. Contemporary economic nationalist prescriptions for m a x i m i z i n ~ ~ a ~ ~ p ~ ~ hve impact on women since wonen are often sifuaEiat1Fie F@-Smz;iiZiX?Erthe liottOmoWsmioeconomic.sca
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M G W '07

1ICKNER FEMINISM K KRITIK LAB

LINKS: CAPITALISM
African economics, embedded within the social order, is deemed "deviant" by Capitalism; its ideologies of individualistic, competitive market behavior of rational economic man also excludes womyn's experiences Tickner, 92
(J. Ann. Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in lniernorional Relntions: Feminist Perspe&s on Achieving Global Security, 1992, Pg. 72- 73)

Feminist critiques of liberdism should b- e-. + ... with _ . an . exami......... man/ a cons.t@Athat, whiie 3 nati~n%'5itionZ~&noG& --. . _ extiapolates from roles and behaviors associated with certain w.... .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . estem men anzassumes cha:-acteristics that correspond to ~_~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . theae~~tiOn-Ofhe~e-mOn~C-maSfllt~ty ......... . . discussed in chap& s been used by liberal economists represent the be. . . . . . . . . -~ - . - to ...... ......... havior . of h u ........... m a n i c s a whole. Nancy Hartsock suggests -~ . ..that rational economic man, appearing coinadentally with the birth of modem capitalism, is a social construct based on the reduction of a variety of human passions to a desire for economic gain.4 Its claim to universality across time azd culture must therefore be questioned. For example, Sandra Ha&!!s Afri~.wofidrl~w, discussed in chapter z,in which within a the economic behavior of individuals is embedded ......................................... ..... . social order, is a communal orientatian seen as "deviant" by ...... . . . . . . . . . . ............................
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neoc!a~sjca!,e s ~ o . i c _ . & o ~&itisone i

different type ,_ of- . economic behavior specific to .. .............. . .

that represents
'

w e s :A S .....Harclmg .... claims, ..... it. also ..... contains ...... s6nw s k i
dIelS with the ....................... worldview of man)r Western women
&Kafisock and Harding are thus claiming that the -._ hishlv ._.I__ incbdualistic, competitive market behavior of rational eco__ .- ____ . .. .............. .............. nomic man could .... not ......................... necessarily..be assumed as a norm~.if . . . . experiences, .. - or ... the experiences . . . . . . ~.. of..ind(viduaIs in women's noncapitalist ........... societies, were taken as the prototype for hui .- .-. . . man behavior._.W.omen in their reproductive and maternal ...... not conF6~-io-tfi-~eKavio.r. .Ofins-tGm-e.ntalia tie.

$ 3 ! h e nwomen ... enfFr?he ..... ma?kni.t ........ economy, thrj ...........

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riaE~~~ ~ - M u c......... ~'~Of ome n .sw work in t h e provision of basic ............. .- . . . . . . . . . . . . . needs~ takes place outside ,~"I. the - - ~ market, in households or iii_ ~. ~. _ . . . . . . tFe.&usibieike seCtur 01 I lira vLorld econom -- .I_._.__cI__. -. . . . . -. . . . _ I _ _ _ . _ .
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tionately represented in the caring 'professions as teachers,. ~___ .... ....... ., . . . ~.~~~. nurses, or sociarworkers, vocahons that are more likely to bF.&oseri .on-ffie EasiFoFthe values and expectations that are often emphasized in female socialization rather than on the basis of profit maximization. If this is the case, we must . as well as some men?s, moti-conclude that many. women's, _ . ........ ~iiHofi6 aiid bekavior cannot be explained using a model-of ............... . - ......... instrumental rationdiw; tathtk, &ese be'naviors call for models based-'ondifferent unaersfanaings oftlie meaning of ratio-

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MGW 07

TlCKhER FEMINISM K M T I K LAB

LINKS: CAPDEVELOPMENT
Masculine, Capitalist development of the Third World legitimizes the destruction of the environment, marginalizes the poor, and dramatieally disfavors womyn

Tickner, 92
(J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Security, 1992, Pg. 120-121)

Like certain feminists, many ecologists are critical of modern society, given its dependence on an excessive appropriation of natures resources. They suggest that th~~~values~of modem society are based on an incomplete model of human. . _* . . . -. ity that empliaslzes mstrumental rationalitylproductioxand . . . c E G u m p f i i i a F 3 ~-.~.xpense of humaneness, creativity, ....... an . .d compassion. .- _EFonomc manIr is a .~ compdsive producer and. -_ . . ~.. consumer, with little thought f o r ecological constraints. ... which has beModernization, ..... . IeQtimized these destructive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . led to a loss of control over soence and technolhaviors,fiaZ .,... . . . . -........... ......

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ogy ............. that is. c a u s~_Se~re....en~ronmenta!..stress ~ today? Mode@zation,a product of the European Enlightenment, ,is now . . . . being, - - .reEoduced in the Third W.grF, w h e t q $ e ~ e l ~ p ment . . projects . . . . . __ Qften further ____strain ~ limited . re.. -. --~ environmental ... .. sources and reproduce inequality. Irene Dankelman and Joan --.~~-~-.-~.I__
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9Xiimson c k m at o c ~ ~ ~ ~ - ~ n i p ~ z?~; ~ ! 3 ~ ~ , ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . ~ u ~ ~
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ik;tec! in ..,-.--,projeds II x ..,I s~ch 3 ; the Green ._ Rcxwlukion,~ . . . . fh,rer!igc &e-KGEZ-environrnent and rnsr+dize poor people. -.As . ___~_I_--___---____.,_..__ mixfFmX5cKniques are used to incw<i.,? r,)i: -,,Tclds, water _ I . . .-, siipplie235egn to . __ suffer . from i n i.rtiiizei,+ ~ --_ __contaminahon . and pesticides, -- . making them less a v a i l a E f ; ; ; drinking. MoXemization of agriculture in the Third World has encourII_____-....-.......__..______I_........ .. ___-. mon . o d t u r e and . . . cash . --__ cropping, which makes aged . . wom....... ..... ens tasks of feedinglamilies . more difficult. The authors
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EfO,*ders..ST;

hon often falls most heavily on women in their role as family ................ I . . _ - ........................... ..........
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point out that the ecological dsrnaae caused by modernizn.... .........

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MGW ' 0 7

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TICKNER FEMINISM K

mrrm LAB

LINKS: CAPDEVELOPMENT
Capitalistic devetopment of the Third World marginalizes womyn through the infusion of Western gender roles Tickner, 92
(J.

professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Securiv, 1992, Pg. 80-81)

.-

Economic historians have s i d a r l y celebrated^ the rise o fa . ......... new economm:fliF&@nnings of the drive to moaern............. .- ..... izChiiXGEmarXet-~ system'that . . . . . .. was . . . . . .to . . . .generate ....... the unprecedentehwealth%fimodern capitalism. But at su* ....moments . of grea'l'histoiicar ~cliange usually 'identified with progress, iemirTrsi-historians daim that wutnm are oiten k f i behind ...... economically or even made worse off. Just as Third World ._._I-___Ix..,. ....... ............... women have been margjnalized. througK--ion of Westem_gnTeGGIG _.,__. .......... into G'A-Western cultures, concepts of -~ .~ I

gender and the gender linlung of productive roles were shiftiGg in -the ~sevenGiW FenEiy in.ways that were marginali . i . n ~ . . w o m e n ~ ~ ~ ~ r ~ - ~ -itself. Euro In p the e seventeenth century, definitions ... ~- of male -. .and . . . . female were becoming po. . . larized in ways that were suited.to the^ gro+ng diyision b&Geenwork and home required by early cajtalism but not necessarily tothe'kterests of women. The notion of "housewife'' began to place women's work in the private domestic sphere as opposed to the public world of the market inhabited by rational economic man. According to R. W. Connell, the notion of the "home" did not exist in Europe before the eighteenth century. As a combination of te+nology andindustrial politics grad&y =shed women out & m e hdus'tries during the Industrial Revolution, ........ gendered c o n s & the "breadwinner" and the "housewife" were constructed,
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concepts that have been .central% the mo$e~Ww.t~~n.d~fi-..

nition of mascuhnii;femnmity, and modem capitalism.= . . . . . . . . TFe-coiite~FZTousewlfee ....... .. has confinued to aUow for the provision labor as a free resource until the presaa.y.,-s~ of women's . . . . . . . .
i,
~

, .-

MGW '07 T I C W E R FEMINISM K KRITIK LAB

LINKS: CAP/ENVIORNMENT
Their Support of Capitalism allows for the gendered domination and destruction of the enviornmeot Tickner, 92
(I. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in lnternarional Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Globul Security, 1992, Pg. 105)

This t ~ a n ~ i ts k s2 Cjpitdist rgzi:k& axncitt?.; : e q ~ L e 2j greater exploitation of natural resources than did the suhsistence economy of feudal Europe. Merchant outlines changes in seventeenth-century lhglish agriculture, which began to encroach on woods and fen lands in the pursuit of the higher yields required for prod.xtion for the market. Seventeenthcentury scientists justified their goals of "mastering" and :"managing" the earth in the narhe of human progress and increasing material wealth, The demands of a market eronomy, and the increases in productivity that it generated, required the use of nonrenewable energy resources such a s timber and coal. Itendering nature as a dead, inert object was essential for eliminating fears that the mining of metals end fuels crucial for the coming industrial revolution \vat; a violation of nature's inner resources. .-a
I

MCW 07

TICKNER FEMINISM K
KRITIK LAB

LINKS: ENVIORNMENT
Environmental degradation is the result of the silencing of womyn in International Politics Tickner, 92
(J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California. Gender in InternationalRelarions: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Security, 1992, Pg. 97- 98)

&/until very recently e s & g x a L a LUxm have not been at the center of the agenda of international relations theory or practice. A global issue that defies nation$~ &tie& ! boundaries and calls for d . k h Eaiig for t k GiiViFiiiilm&iit does r i d j d . w-erwith the power-seeking, instrume_n ed tal behavior of states _ I . rs. Barry Commoners as the science of planetary housekeeping is not the busi-. such metapkws.e_vo.ke ness of Realpolitik; images of the devalued private domain of women rather than the important pub.. l i c X r ~ . ~ b i i a t i o n secu:. a T bumper stickers with such Ecological messages as Love Your Mother are hardly designed to appeal to those engaged in the serious business of statecraft and war. Therefore the inattention I to environmental problems and the si-

_--

_ I _

3.

lencing of women in i n t g a h n ii.L J E l a b ~ u o r e than coincidental. The term ecology, which means the study of life forms at home, is based on the Greek root for house; its modern meaning is the interrelationships between living organisms and their environment.2These definitions evoke images of a domestic space traditionally populated by women, children, and servants. Ecologys emphasis on holism and reproduction and metaphors such as global housekeeping connect it $41 -h to womens rather than mens life experiences. -~

MGW 07 TICKNER FEMINISM K KRITIK LAB

LINKS: ENVIORNMENT
The sexual gender central to the subordination of womyn by men uses the same masculine mechanic ideology justifying the attitudes of domination Tickner, 92
(J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminisl Perspectives on Achieving Globol Security, 1992, Pg. 103- 104)

Harding, and Evelyn Fox Keller, w h o k v e written about the

asks why certain metaphors, such as the rape of nature, have been dismissed by historians and philosophers as irrelevant to the real meaning of scientific concepts while others, such
as the metaphor of nature as a machine, have been regarded as huitful components of scientific explanati~n.~ Harding and Keller daim that th

jectivih.,sdence came to be defined .in-oppositiont a z y fhmgfeaule. Q i s kind of zwkdge-is. ___-sconfin-ma project that ha;;&dfie~.eqpso+m&and damhation of n a w . These fenumsts therefore believe t h q & w seventeenth-centurv eendered metaohors were fundamental to di -ng attitudes toward . na , ...~ as the racist attitudes toward~-n -----. bei I TeXiitiiC-these athtudes . s i. t..h ___- en consistent . - have the practiggL.of an expansive anc 1 dominating international . : . . * ..... ~.- ----,%._l__.~
~~ ~~ ~~

--.<.._._

_--

MCW '07

TICKNER FEMINISM K
KRITIK LAB

LINKS: ENVIORNMENT
The masculine, mechanistic regulation of the environment spreads ideologies of male domination Tickner, 92
(J. Am, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Security, 1992, Pg. 103 )

.- Although Ritvo's
c _ _

study is not specifically a feminist text, she makes reference to language employed bv naturalists and - animal __- breeders that sets both women and animals belowhuman males in the natural hierarchy." The use of feminists ___ believe had the~. effect of hierarchy, was also emideyed in tne language of the scientific revolution. The taming of ~.. nature was usuany describedin gendered terms that rp. . . _ i _ ~.~ ~.II_~.. .. . f l e ~ ~. o . & order. J emihist acholars have drawn atiention to the sexual metaphors employed by Francis Bacon and o s E d i g h t e n m e n t scientists. Central to Bacon's scientific investigations was a natural world, frequently described as a woman, that required taming, shaping, and subduing by the saentific mind: ''I am come in very-truth leading you to nature with all her children to bind her to your service and make her your slave." lZ Social ecologist William Leiss agrees that Bacon's scientific project was centrally concerned with mastery over nature. But while Leiss notes the sexually .agA ~~~~ ~ ~

~-

grf?siVf! - overtones in Bacon'!il;tngge,

he is less c o n u ~ c d
._____I_-

<

with the implications of Bacm's sexual mgtaphors than with a scientific tradition that has rezulted in the..dgm.inatiin of certain men over other huxmunbeings. This system of domination has spread outward from Europe to the rest o Y e world through the appropriation of nature's resources.' F w i s t sc&rSF-i%-<s~ "Caroryn Merchant,' -Sandrz
~ ~~

MGW '07

TICICNER FEMINISM ti KRITIK LAB

Links: Environment
Man's domination over nature is specifically linked to its domination of other people. Tickncr, 92
(J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Securify, 1992, Pg. 122-123 )

I Social ecologists such as William Leiss explicitly link man's

d o - G i n i o T n a t u r e with certain men's domination .over o t h ~ ~ ~ ~ . ~ s . ~ D ........ ~ n t& d i *..., . S ~ i..... i i ~ e ? o ~ f i o n - a ... an s attempt to liberate human beings ............ . . from the constramts of &ex natural envkoGentMindiii........ ~ e ~ S e ~ ~ - m ~ a r - w ~ claims - ~ g that ~ ~ the - ratio~ e , s s nalism of modem science became caught in a web of social through which human beings conkadictions. The hshumenk .............. . . . -. . . . . .
.-.--____-I_

. .~

have transformed the-~ resourceX.ofna&e~i.nto,-means for the sati3t%TioK5fmaEEd ~ desires . . . . ~ have .......... increasinglv . come to be ................ regarzed as objects of political conflict . both domestically ........ and _.___..c_.~ Internahonany~Accor~ng to Leiss's class analysis, the . real .- ...... -.. object of domination has ......................................... not been nature but human beings: fh~ou~.~~en -. ~ - - - ancehtechnological . . .......... capabilities .. certain ............ peop!e .... .ti. have a p p E o ~d...na. ~ ~ ture_I_sresources~ e and.. thereby domi' more rational science would understand the^ naX'others. A I.._..._....x_I... ........ ........ Gorla'in a.-way that would proauce harmony with the & .................. ........ ........... - nh can be realized only when the struggle for ronment. But this . -. ...... . . . . . . . Smination ends, along with disparities in power among ~. . .......... . . . ._. . .- ...... ........
i

-"

Social ecologist blurray Bookcnin, one of the tew ecolugists who raises the issueef gender relations, also points to the hierarchical structuring of the contemporary world embodied in man's domination over man, woman, and nature Bookchin believes that these modes .......................... of domination are historically constructed and.... can .................. therefore be transcended. He . . . . . . . stie~siisrfie Pmancipatory potential of ecology, a science that recognizes no hierarchy and is therefore in a position to i -. .# combat domination at all levels.63 \".' . i .La
,

Rroups and n_aiionsl"2

'-

MGW '07 TICKNER FEMINISM K

* -. ,

./'/

KRlTIK LAB

Links: Environment
Western Culture has placed womyn on a level closer to nature than men, fundamentally linking the subjugation of womyn and the subjugation of nature. Tickner, 92
(I. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Securiy, 1992, Pg. 123-124 )

Bookchin claims that - . this - Western hierarchical thinkin?.,

perspecother feminists' reluctance espouse an ecological I_. -to -.. . tive.@ The' immanent connection between women a n 3 n a ture, linked to women's biological.functions, has been criti&ed by many feminists as -- demean&, deterministically_ex: a u d x g women from *the male A G i n -&f-7&rc, anti transcendence. Yet recent work in feminist cultural a&(,I
~ ~ ~

^_

~&....

are quite compatible with those of these social constructionist ecofeminists since both make their chief goal the radical undermining of hierarchical dualisms. King argues that, Since ecofeminists believe is at the r O @ t o f t ~ ~ > ~ . __"I_. that misogyny . ~ , .. ism be&sen nature and culture that ecologists.deplore, . . @ :: ogy i s incomplete without feminism" 2 ~. 2. i t ,! "'. ~. ~

~-

MCW 07 TICIGVER FEMINISM K WUTIK LAB

. t / _ _

4 4

LINKS: NATURE
Western views of the natural environment as spaces to be tamed and used for profit stem from the depiction of nature as a female mother, thereby permitting its exploitation and domination Tickner, 92
(J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in international Relutions: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving GlobolSecuriry, 1992, Pg. 101- 102)

Mature, Women, and the State in Early Modern Europe

I _ &

tural environment as spaces to be

&@egxe&o
reflected in the shift tow.a_rd.aguu_ -.,aLrdure that.appaed i n seventeegbxenhury Europe @ ,the time the modem statesystemWaS-bOrp,, In her book The Deatii of

Nature, C a m n t documents this changing attitude

toNird nature generated by the .scientific revolution. Al-

though humans dominion over nature has been traced

kerous, howet

F
U

mined system of laws. According to Merchant, a s a l concern of the scientific revolution was to use these mathe. -

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MGW 07 TICKNER FEMINISM K KRITIK LAB

,i

/ ___-

-I

ENVIORNMENT EXTS: STATE FAILS

The current international relations only exacerbate environmental degradation; the mechanistic state-centric system fails in addressing the environmental impacts caused by the technological revolution Tickner, 92
(J. AM, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Security, 1992, Pg. 117- 118)

\Traditional international relations theory, which describes the self-seeking, conflict-prone behavior of states and its detrimental effects on the natural environment, also offers a pessimistic view of the potential of the state as an environmental manager of the global commons. As Rousseaus metaphor uf the stag hunt suggests, collective action for the common good is hard to achieve in anarchical realms with no legally sanctioned method of enforcement. When public goods such as clean air and water can be consumed by all members of the system whether or not they pay for them, states tend to act selfishly, hoping that others will bear the costs. The Sprouts claim that when national governments !uok to spaces outside their own territory, their concerns reflect their own national values rather than the shared valties of a global community.53 Paradoxically, the great powers, the traditional managers of the international system, pose the greatest threat to the environment by virtue of their dk.jwporrionatr cunsumption of resources, their high level d pullutiuii, ~ \ ctheir i possession of large npmbers oi environmentally threatening weapons. Given the principle of state sovereignty, internal boundaries that contribute to environmental degradation are also hard to change when it is not in t e interests of national political and economic elites to d u s o . 2 . . !j 1 - :t i

k:%

MGW '07 TlCKNER FEMINISM K KFUTIK LAB

LINKS: ENVIONRMNETDEVELOPMENT
The state's competitive security-seeking ideologies create a mechanistic view of nature that parallels the marginalization of womyn as modes of production Tickner, 92
(J. AM, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspcctivrs on Achieving Global Security, 1992, Pg.)

Siiice this is a worldview that has had important, although

&en implicit, implications for the evolution o f the theory and practice of international relations, 1 shall begin this chaptet w i t h a feminist account of the way nature has been viewed by Western Enlightenment science. This changed p e e n

o ~ e , r ~ , ~ . a c h i ~ ~accnme~..waa

ward women whose lives were

S stem. These c h e s LO% -_.-

can be linked to the competitive se---.. . ~cunty-seehmg behavior . ., __ o f a n expansionary ...~ state sysfem,
~ ~

MGW '07 TlCKNER FEMINISM K

KRITIK LAB

LINKS: ENVIORNMENT/I)EVELOPMENT
Masculine Western hierarchical international relations are used to dominate and exploit nature for progressing its' state power

Tickner, 92
(J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in Infernational Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Securify, 1992, Pg. 100- 101)

-.

Hans Mornenthau's text Politics Among Nations, discussed in more detail in chapter 1, pays scant attenkin to the r iatucal rwircnment, : I ? cmissiun coarno_ng~mg&tim! t ~ @ in-wns. Mcirgenthau discusses natural resGrces only in t e g - ? d 3 % a x cw 52.ess~nt~!..e~ements-of sfafe power.* He emphasizes the importance of natural re, . . . . .... ~-,. . . . source self-sufficiency as crucialfor nahonal power,-ia&cularly in wartime. He describes dramGTi?TiZtorical shifts, such a s the disappearance of the Vear East and North Africa as

--

~ 2 f i ; ~ ijf ; p;wgi, i i i i s ~ c by l A iiutabh! &chiit? iii

ag?iculkuf?il

productivity. Consistent with the Westem geopdifical tradition of the early twentieth century, Morgenthau claims that the United States owes its status as a great power in part to its advantageous geographical position in the international system. As a large land mass protected by bodies of water on both sides, the United States has been in a strategically advantageous position throughout the latter half of the twentieth century, particularly for purposes of making cred, a -

~ . V

a1 resources and ge-ogo o;;inent has been viewed irifematiiiiiieraiO&s T . theory. In a hierarchical izemational system, access to nat-

sb may move beyond these boundaries to reap the bouqes . .. -.oi%ature through projects-oexp3nsion'anTsxf+ugation -_ ..-..

/ :

'

MCW 07 TICKNER FEMINISM K KRITIK LAB

LINKS: DEVELOPMENT REPS

The European representations of colonial people associated them with womyn in order to devaluate them on the gender hierarchy; this representation of femininity legitimizes foreign conquest, colonialism, and development as right and necessary Tickner, 92
(J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving GlobalSecuriry, 1992, Pg. 48 )

Metaphors, such as Hobbess state of natye-are primarily . ~. . c&fli&lal [elations . . , . . . . . , I b@w@&n . concerned With-%pGseh%nt; - ~. .. . : great powers. The images used~-to describemheteenth-ceni m p e r i a 6 projeas and contemporary great power relations with former colonial states are somewhat different. Historically, colonial people were often described in terms l__-__l-..I.__..__ women & order that drew on characterishcsassoc&te&-with to place them lower in a hierarchy that put their white-male colonizers on tyLAs the European.state system expanded outward to conquer much of the world in the nineteenth century, its civilizing , I _ . . mission .. -...... ., was frequently . ..described .. in stereotypic-ndered terms. Colonized peoples .. . .. . . were often de%i;i as bein~effe@iiate;~~s-3hity w_as_mI@gbute of the white man, and coloniai ordei depended on Victorian standards of manliness. Cynthia Enaugge.sts&at the concept of ladylike behavior was one of the mainstays of ii_ Z i. pe n i ~ & v ~ a.. . f i o. Like n ~ ~ sanitation and Christianity, fem. _ _ ~ inine respectaitv was meant to convince colonize8 2 3 coronized alike that foreign conquest was right axdnecessiiiiMas . aenote9 ^____..... r o t e -s .of the .. respectable lady; that justired . . .. the-coloni____ avilizing,mi$2lon -she stood for &tio?CZl%nighted peoples.58 Whereas the feminine stood
,
~

-.I_

_ I

,~

for danger and disorde:. for Machiavelli, the European frmale, in contrast to her colonial counterpart, came to represent a stable, civilized order in nineteenth-century represen.- . . , tations of British imperialism. 4 ..

I . .

MGW '07 TICKNEH FEMINISM K KRITIK LAB

LINKS: DEVELOPMENT
Development of the Third World strictly supports the interests of men in projects of production due to womyn's absence from local and national power structures (can be alternative evidence) Tickner, 92
(J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspcctivcs on Achieving Global Security, 1992, Pg. 94 )

.-

& ~ A1 S have already discussed, Third World development . strategies have tended to @ore the subsistence sector WFiere ...~..~~~ ....... m u c h - o ~ ~ o m e n ~ s - f a bbe&Iperformed, o~ i s ...~ with the . . result that modernizztion has had a differential impact on men~and w'o-men.-a-n-d-has'certaininstances actliaIIy.red"ce~ the ... - . . . ~ . pom women. Due to the virtual absence of women .- . ... fro-Glocal .and .. ~ national ..~. power str;lchires, development proRrams have tended.to sup@& projects in~'area9 of production tfiafare.domiriated~by-men.-To achieve.economic justice. for ma1 ., .~ women in ... the Third Wodd,.'d&elopment must target projects that benefit women, particufar5.tKose .. . . .. in . ~&e~subiisi . ..~~~. ~. . . ,... tence . . sector. ..~ Improvements __ . .~. . .h . agnculture should focus on . . well . as . production; in many parts of Africa, consumption as gathering water and fuel, under 'conditions of increasing scarciq and'environmental .~ - .. degradation, are taking up larger pprtions.of~women's.time and energy.J __. ~1
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

-7

MCW '07

TICKNEK FEMINISM K KRlTlK LAB

LINKS: DEVELOPMENT
Conventional International Relations approaches natural resources as elements of state power, this mechanistic view of nature parallels the state's views towards womyn Tickner, 92
(J. Ann, PROFESSOR OF INTERNATIONALRelations at University of Southern California, Gender in InfernafionulRelufions: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Security, 1992, Pg. 99- 100)

--Although raislng environmental issues only marginally,

scholars in conventional international relations approaches have assumed that natural resources arc-an important elem x t of state power and thus vital for national s e c u 9 . RGcently, however, some new thinking zinternational relations has begun to question these assumptions; the pressure

on what is now seen as a finite ree~urcebase, JS well as the

inability of states to deal with environmental degradation, is threatening the security of all, whether rich or poor. These new t h a also draw attention to international inequalities ____ attempt t ; associated with environmm&de&adation and revisualize g e o p o 1 ~ a w " . .fKumanecom ~ logical perspective. A l t h o u g h much of this new thinking questions the optimistic assumptions of Enlightenment science about nature's rejuvenative ability to provide unlimited resources for human progress, it remains fimily rooted in an Enlightenment view of nature as machine. Only ecologists and ecofeminists have taken an even more radical step, one that challenges modern science's mechanistic view of nature. I shall conclude this chapter by examining the views of ecologists and ecofeminists who believe that solutions to our contemporary dilemmas demand a revolution, not only in our political thinking but also in the way we view nature..-& other words, a revolution as fundamental as the one. that took place in seventeenth-century Europe. ' , I & . .: L'
I -

MGW '07

TICKNER FEMINISM K
KRITIK LAB

LINKS: DEVELOPMENT
States' gendered mechanistic views of nature as resources for increasing state power reflect shifting attitudes towards womyn who became marginalized from the productive system Tickner, 92
(J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Security, 1992, Pg. 98- 99)

--

Since its birth in seve*Gentue Europe, the modem, . ;state has had an_=rsy relationship with its natural. spacB,hm.environment; natural res~urcrGiiiT~eia&jc~l been viewed as resources fm i n c r e a s i n g , , s ~ a ~ . . WGiIth. Feminist writers mch as Carolyn Merchant and Evelyn Fox Keller describe a fundamental changgin the Western , . scientific communitfs attitude toward.,the natural enfiron-__-l____.l_.....-..-.. , ment that also b e ~ . . ~ - . s e v e n t e e n t h -urope. c e ~ Before ibis scientific revolution, nature had been seen as a living __._.._-_ system of which humans..co-GZan i n t e g c c a.-___-~. r t ; in the seventeenth century, humG-bi@gs-became preeminent, and nature began t o b e viewed as a machine to be ex$oced for human benetiF;'ThlSiiiii?hanistic view of nature has been h i i v a t i b l e with the ngesot-a.-smpehhve inter& t i o d system, a world divided into antagonistic poIitical~u@ts,
~

I _ -

e ___a ~ e ~ n ~ . . e n h a n c e i t s . . ~ ~ w e ~ . ~ u ~ n ~ ~ ~ c r e a s big-access t o . n a u a l resources, through geographical .., expansign when n e c e s s s . -1 s' - '14
i x I
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MGW 07 TICKNER FEMINISM K KRlTlK LAB

2 / q -r

LINKS: THIRD WORLD DEVELOPMENT

Third World modernization with Western, masculine ideologies causes violence against womyn as traditional social values are broken down Tickner, 92 (I. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist
Perspectives on Achieving Global Security, 1992, Pg. 51- 58)

anarchy / Fe-~in~stthe.o.nes.._draw our. attention to order_distinctian-th~.b.o.u~a-~ . . . . . . . be.tyeen-,apublic domestic _ ___ . ..... a ; c ,e protected, at ieast theoretically, by the rule of law a n d thegrivate ....... space -........................ of the fam& where, in many cases, no such Ie&rotection . exists. . In most states domestic violence is not considered a concern of the state, and even when it is, law enforcement officials are often unwilling to get involved. women, as victim precipiDomestic assaults on ... -~ often seen ........ . . . . not taken as seriously . as criminal assaults. Maria tated, ...are -. ....... . . . . . . . . hGS argues that t ernhation . process - .......... In. t.he ihird World, besides ...shar ~,~~ class conflict, hasled to an in-.. ... ............................. . . crease . _ .. in.~olence.agalnst~~~.m_werr?en .inthe ho,me..as traditional . . ~. values are broken down. While poor women probably social . . . . . . suffer the most from family-violence, a growing womens movement in India points to an increase in violence against educated middle-class women also, the most extreme form of which is dowry murder when young brides are found dead in suspicious circumstances. Eager to marry off their daughters, families make promises for dowries that exrerd their means and that they are subsequently unable to pay.3 In 1982 there were 332 cases of accidental buming of women in New Delhi; many more cases of dowry deaths go unreported.74 Recent studies of family violence in the United States and Western Europe have brought to light similar problems. When the family is violence-prone, it is frequently beyond the reach of the law; citing a 1978 report of the Caliiornia Commission on the Status of Women, Pauline Gee documents that In 1978 one-quarter of the murders in the United States { I C cuned within the family, one-half of these being husbatidwife killings. Much...of this fam& vio!ence.@kes.place outside _ . . . . I _ _ . . . . . of>&..lpgal.system;. .it - has been estimated t h a t the sanction oniiz percent of men who beat their wives or female livins partners are ever prosec~ted.~
~

_ _ I -

.w~

and private, separates state-regate3 violence, the rule of ........... -~.~ rieht for which there-aTi-EdIv sanctioned punishments, , -. . . . . . __ ...................... acd male violence]e rule of -- m i t for wkch, in .. many . . . . . . . sG-eTes, no such legal sanctions exist. The rule of might and the' are descn$z?Kai . . . . . . . . . . . . hav-niumn -.__ i n t e - z l a t i o n s &$course to Zstinguish the interna~ ~ ~ ~ - ~ o ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ p ~ the ~ ~ freqiiemFfbrgotten realm of family violence that is ofte5 beyond t h e - ~ F o T t h T % w T % & feminists to the interrelationship of violence ant$hpEesslon_across.&kyels of analysis. Femi-ectives on securitywould.assu-me that vlolence, %ether ii be in the international, national, or --.----inter~onnected.~~ Family violence must ...... 6e family realm, is seen in the context of widerpower relations; it occurs within ~. ..... ... a 6ende;ed soaeb...b..wEch male power dorplnates ....... at all .. . f men are traditionally seen as prote.ctpr8. animpo_rtant aspect'of this role is protecting women against CCftaiR men.% AnQeminist definition of security must tnerefore
-,~

Maria Mies argues that this line, which demarcatesppublic ____l___.l.l._____ -

. I _

Gclude __.. the elimination. . o ~ ~ ~ ~ ' , " ~ s ~ -g ~ c k ~ g n og lence? violence produced by gendeT-_relations of . . . . . . . . .domination ............... and ~~

subordination,-ce . -achievement of this comprehensive vision of security requces a rethinking of the way in whicfic i ~ ~ ~ ~ F ; _.._______ ; t . F ; r ~.. ; ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I... I well ~~~ as ealterrid~~-d~fi;ieCl;-as tiiG models for -. describinglthe,-eh-a~Ofstatesinthe_ in_ter; .national svst5m: .d < 7 .---.
,

_ _ I -

MGW '07 TICKNER FEMINISM K IUUTlK LAB

z u /_ 1'1 _

LINKS: THIRD WORLD DEVELOPMENT

Western industrialization and development of the Third World reinforces division between genders; subordinating womyn Tickner, 92
(J. Am, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Security, 1992, Pg. 78- 79)

While agriculture became more central to development planning in the 19705, early Western .~ liberal development strate@es focused on industrialization, claiming that the eco~~.~ ~. . . ~ ~ . . . . . nomic- Eowth it generated would trickle . . . . . . . .all ..~ sectois'. . ..... .. . down-to of the .... economy. . .._-_ As women were - c nto low-paying activities in industri&_secLorg~Qf the odd, ~the urban &vision of labor along gender Iinez-begme even mEr.-hierarckcal than in subsistence agricululre. Since women are rarely trained as skilled industrialwo~kersl-the.sW1s. gap, in many urban areas has increased with women taking ul . do%ii%iF _ semce or unskilled factory jobs. States that have _ I . .-.
~ ~ ~ ~

I .

I _

a ~ T s u c r e s s f u exprt-oriented l industrial policies, such

as South Korea, Taiwan, and Hong Kong, have relied to a considerable extent on unskilled women workers. Certain states have attracted overseas corporations by offering a large pool of docile young female laborers; these young women are frequently fired when they marry, try to unionize, or claim other benefits." Cynthia Enloe claims that a s a s - , young womenLworking _--. * ~ . ~ in . "~xportProcessing z&es? are e n_c& o. u r a s to see themsdves ~. ~.~ as daughters . or . . ~prospective .
~~

77

iMGW 07 TICKNER FEMINISM K KRITIK LAB

i

i,

wives earning pin money rather than as workers their labor will be cheapened and women will have little opportunity to move into more skilled positions.1s Liberals, believing in the benefits of free trade, have generally supported export-led strategies of development. But since states that have opted for export-led strategies have often experienced increased inequalities in income, and since women are disproportionately clustered at the bottom of the economic scale, such strategies may have a particularly negative effect on women. The harsh effects of structural adjustment policies imposed by the International Monetary Fund on Third World debtor nations fall disproportionately on women as providers of basic needs, as social welfare programs in areas of health, nutrition, and housing are cut. When government subsidies or funds are no longer available, women in their role as unpaid homemakers and care providers must often take over the provision of these basic welfare needs.9 Harsh economic conditions in the 1980s saw an increased number of Third World women going overseas as domestic servants and remitting their earnings to families they left behind. These feminist studies of Third World development and its effects on women are suggesting that liberal strategies to promote economic growth and improve world welfare that rely on market forces and free trade may have a differential impact on men and women. Since womens work often takes place outside the market economy, a model based on instrumentally rational market behavior does not capture all the economic activities of women. Therefore we cannot assume that the prescriptions generated by such a model will be as beneficial to womens economic security as they are to mens. ;S

NLCW '07 TlCKiiER FEMINISM K KRlTlK LAB

LINKS: THIRD WORLD DEVELOPMENT

Their focus on Third World masculine militarization cmses a loss of economic security resulting in deadly structural violence Tickner, 92
(J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspecrives on Achieving Global Securify, 1992, Pg. ) t. . ;
~

At the same time, peace researchers began .to question . ~ I . I ........ .security of the state, so important to . . . . . whether the economic ...... ~. .~ ..~ ..-...... seventeenth- and eighteenth-century mercantilists, was . syn.. pa-~~.~etth~...~~l~.d~~wo~~.id,th~~.f~.iiure.of-deveiopmcnt with the economic security of its citizens. Inmany strate. onymous
. .

gies fO~sOTVe'probEms~Of poverty called for an examination

of hierarchieaf political relations between North and South as weKaFtheuneven aistributive-effects of the world capitalisfEonomy:~n.e ri@im-eOf . . . . . _ _ states ........... that failed -. to meet . .~ ~ the .. .~ .......... basic material _ _needs of their .......... citizens............ began to be questioned. rri manystates, . military ..... budgets . . . . . . . .and . . . arms purchases were taking priority over the economic welfare of individuals. The t e K s~~u~~urur--violence .......... - . was ..... used __ to.-denote . . . .the . . economic of individuals whose life expectancy was reduced, insecurity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not by the direct violence of war but by domestic and inter. .national . . . Structures and Peace' __ . . . . . . . .of . . political .... ......economic oppression. .. . rcliers began . . . . . to define secui&.iin- tam^ of..:'positive ace " a ~ a c ethat_ . /ncluded~e.cunomic security ~as. well~ as physical safety. <.., '1 -3 .........
.
,~
~ ~ ~

.....

.......

MGW 07 TICKNER FEMINISM K KRITIK LAB

LINKS: THIRD WORLD REPS

Representations of the Third World and Sub-Saharan Africa are inherently genderized to justify masculine Americas participation in their domestic policy Tickner, 92
(J. Am, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations; Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Security, 1992, Pg. 48- 49)

d An example ot tne way in which these gender .............. identities -_ were,mankujce.cto. &s-%W:ste_n3 ..poW..%th. LRF-C~~ - t ~

the ~,.-~.-.r yest of ths ~ d ... cac . . . d .~so.De,.~ep_n,-I.n-atti~d~S~~ toward

dahn nmrrica prevalent in the United States in the nineteenth-century. According to Michael Hunt, nineteenth-century American images of Latin society depicted a (usually black) male who was lazy, dishonest, and corrupt. A contrary image that was more positive-a Latin as redeemable--: took the form of a fair-skinned senorita living in a marginal...... ized society, yet escapingits degrading effects. Hunt suggests that Americans . entered ....... the twentieth cenGry :-.. w i % three Images of Latin America @ter~d - thriiugh legends brought hack by American merchants and diplomats. These legends,~e~~~~ed>&-~u&schooI _ _ _ texts, _ I . _ cartoons, ........ - and . . . . pditical rhetoric, were even incorporated-@ ,the ,views,CK the Latin as a halfpoLcymakefs. Thgth_ree,-iclages -- plctured . or infant& Tn each Americans Free3 brute2. feminized .-.L . . I _ . _ _ _ . . _ _ I -case . . . .- ...... _---.-_I_ superior. the first imaNe-mtte_d,.apredatoyaggresstood siveness, the second allowed the United ....... - States to assume . . . ....... the role Of-aLdEnt-suitor, and the thud jusb%FCAmencas ....... ........ neeti fo.provide . . . . . . . tutel~~e-aria~;sciplinP. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .AlTthese Images are Profoundly ..... gendered: . . the United . ~- States aFa-.?ivifiiing warnor, a suitor, or a father, and L&E.Xmerica.as-a lesser male, a female, or a ~Iiiid.~. ?hch images, although &mewhat muted, reQain today in the thinking of Western and areparticularly prevalent .......... sfates when they . -. ...... are dealing_witE:the ... Third:Wort& In the post-World War I1 era, there was considerable debate in Western capitals ahout the dangers of premature independence for primitive peoples. In the postindependence ...... era, . . former colonial statesandthe-ureapers-have frequently fieen ~ a b l e ~ . also portrayed as e m o t i o n a l , ~ d . . , ~ p r e ~,-c&ra$eristics . . C. D. Jackson,_an adviser to Presia&&teX ?Fh^G&nen.
. . . . . .

_ ^ I

~.

MGW 07 TICKNER FEMINISM K KRITIK LAB

he_ o b ~ e ~ ~ t h ~ - ~ t h ~ W e s t e m ~ w o ~ ~ dre h~~.~Om~what

experience . . . . ~ . . with . I the operations of war, peace, and parlia- ..~... . . rnSnt?,q posdues..thaE . t F ; _ . _ . s ~ ~ ~ ~ . m e ~ ~ . . p t ~ m o t i o ~ a l ! y super-charEd --Africans .~ and Asiatics and Arabs \hat,ou@umber.us.,7a~

dent Eisenhower and a patron of Western development theSv ,~k~~e~-rele-~h~acter when i s.t i c s orists in the I ~ ~ O e
~

According to Hunt, Eisenhower himself regarded the English-speaking people of the world as superior to all the rest; thus they provided a model for right behavior in the international system. This idea is not incompatible with contemporary realism, which, while it has been an approach dominated by white Anglo-Saxon men, has prescribed the behavior of states throughout the intematAonal system. As we,have of nuclear weap&s-on the witnessed the enormous buildup art .~~.~ITh.Unit-ed--s-tates .and t ~ e~Ormer . SaGet Union beP. . yond any level that could be considered rational, our poli. cymakers caution that only a few of these same weapons in to w o r ~ s - e ~ - ~ - ~ 1 , - ~t~e?lild-Worid-poseagrealer . ... . . ..~ th;ea
~

.-.-.

, ,,~..i ,.... .

-I.

MGW '07 TICKNER FEMINISM K KRITIK LAB

LINKS: THIRD WORLD ENVIORNMENT

The Third World suffers from the harshest effects of environmental degradation, caused by the demands of the Eurocentric System
Tickner, 92
(J. AM, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving GIobalSecurity, 1992, Pg. 108- 109)

Merchant's conclusion is an ironic one when framed in a global perspective. She argues that since contemporary New England depends on outside sources f6r most of its energy, food, and clothing some of its own environment has recovered, as evidenced by the regeneration of its natural forests. However, we should remember that today& is~peopk in the Third World who are suffering .the gravest ~~. con& its colonid legacy as quences of resource depletion: with --sueplier of raw map%als to-&e.,'civilized' world, the -World today suffers some of the harshest ~. effects of environ~. mental. demaThe demands upon the world's resources -by the Eurocenhic st& . - ys
_I_^_
~~

M G W '07 TICKNER FEMINISM K ICRlTlK LAB

LINKS : SECCTRITY/ENVIORNMENT
Their masculine, mechanistic world view behind promises of national security cannot help the security of the environment, and the ultimate threat to it Tickner, 92 (J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist
Perspectives on Achieving Global Security, 1992, Pg. 110-111)

43obbes's LPviathan was a model for a society developed in

the seventeenth century when the perception of the universe shifted from organic to mechanistiv'According to Merchant, one of the most significant achievhents of mechanism'as a w o r ~ ~ ~ ~ a ~ u ~ ~ ~ s Qr ey and power.* In addjtiop..to their potential notio.n.~o ---2 f&~m:&jng natl;lre, machines brought certainty . , . and con.@.oIXn-$~eka$or.al relations, the search for control has also led theorists and practitioners to mechanisticmodels such as i power balancing with its seeming promise of imposing order on a disorderly international system. But power balancing and its resultant practice of self-help through military means if Gcessary do not offer solutions for'the security of the .... . for . . national __ natural environment. Paradoxically,e -quest security, which involves he appropriation of natural resou>Ges through the domination of global space, ifi a histori.-- .,.. , cal process that has actually.&ted. to a decline in the s e c a q - o f the natural environment. Given the potential of rntdent weapons for mass. destruction, military force, the states for security lasfi-of the-tbitimate$hreatta ,the.na-&ral "I?s paradox has stimulated scholars to begin reconceptualizing security in ecological terms and to challenge the traditional formulations of geographical space. Such thinking attempts to move beyond a worldview whose bount;r?'fes . . aT~lqim?d-by~&Won national al security -. concerns .. . -. . . . to one that reconcptualizes geographical space in terms of the%ag%tf of the natural environment and its ~. i '. human&iaEtants. .-~
.,
I
~~

_ I,

'

:>-

MGW '07

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LINKS: SECURITY
The discipline of national security is exclusively male dominated; this results in the removal of power from womyn as they assume the role of "the protected"

Tickner, 92
(J. Am, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global SecuriQ, 1992, Pg. 27- 28)

.(In the face of what is generally Eerceived ___-* _.-_.-,-.. - .... as a dangerous international env1ro"nse5j.tr n..e h F , X .~ G .._-..__ e T n ~.-,.. - n < ~ , r i t Y & ~ h ! n , ~ ~of s their policy priorities. ~~--~..--m g to m t e ;e=schdar Accor Kenneth %& fairs in the "broo lence;' and ther . . . .' In the name of national a_t . .. . cu s have justtiled 1 a . d __ __ . b-uai~..-~i . --'ts; which take priority over dames. < ' .military conscription of the'ir
~

se-

I awe the title of this chapter to Kenneth Waltz's hook Man, tlw State, and War.

young adult male population, foreign invasions, and the

curtailment of civil liberties. The security of the state is per.~ -~ .-...- ,. ceived as a core value that is generally supported unques. * tionTngl)i DY most nbzens, ..- parhmariy , ... . mn we tlie-role.of the state G t h e t w e n h h GntuG has expan=
~

of international security,th

riority suggests, giving one's life for one's country has been considered the highest form of patriotism, but it is an act from which women have been virtually excluded. Whilemen -&*-~,',~-*,,."-w~..r" with defendin&the.&@e. anGdva,nchave been associated ing%"mi%hond @terrst$-.aRd
C r

have typical? been en&agc&&tKsccie.&g': wd,"comfart.* '

ing" rofe3ktK in the domestic sphere, as mothers and basic needs providers, a n 8 in the caring professions, as teachers.
. e . . , k . -

iittle ronkrol over the c o n -

--

. .

..

ction.2

.~
~

. ,; .

MCW 07 IICKNER FEMINISM K KRITIK LAB

Links: Security
The position of man as the providers of security reinforce patriarchal power relations that lead to the subjugation of womyn. Tickner, 92
( I Ann. Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in Inlernaiional Relations: Feminist ~,~~~~~~~ Perspectives on Achieving Global Security, 1992, Pg. 127-128 )
~

1<

In previous chapters I have argued that traditional notions of national securitv are

I ditions-fiom which these Dractices draw

int~r-n-a~~~-5.~e~e .*-eir. i r r , erjrii-ation yef

h a s n o t been part of the way in which

MCW '07

IICKNER FEMINISkl K KRIIIK LAB

states have traditionally defined their national security goals. Previous chapters have also called attention to the extent to which these various forms of military, economic, and ecological insecurity are connected with unequal gender relations. The relationshiE . between . . .protectors ................. and . . . . . . protected ......... depends ongender . mequalihes; a mllitanzect ... verslon of secharactenshcs and elevates men cun .__.~-P=?.-n eg_s masculine_ t o z e status offirst-class citizens by vime of their role as . ~ ~ ~ Z G ~ ~ - s ~n e c aZy?i+ u.... i i i of .economic -auiti;;s
~ ~

-_L_r_

tions, including gender relations, intrinsic to each of these ... __ . . . --........ doma& are recognized and substantially altered. In other .~,__ ..-...-...._.......I ..; - . . words, the achievement - .... o@ace, . .. econormc lustice, and eco. . . . . . . . logical sustain%*tv IS WFparable from overcoming social rekions of domination and-suKordination; genuine secsb ..................... req.uTq.>sar;b . . . . .
-x

ofunjust social relations, . tiijGG.'.,. 7 i 3 - -L ' i

...

MGW '07

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LINKS: IR GENDERED
International Relations i s gendered; stereotypical sexist perceptions of womyn prevent their participation in the field Tickner, 92
(J. AM, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspectises on .4cbieving Global Securip, 1992, Pg. 3 )

Each of_these.St.one~.i~~nforces . f!s.~b@ef, widely held 1 n the United ...... States and throughout the world by both men and.'women, tba!..@@az .a.n.d- foieign policf ..... are . . . .arenas ... of policy-makingleast ............... appropriate for women. Strength, .................. power, .autonomundepende-nce, . . . . . . ......................... and rationality, all typicdly assodated with men and masculinity, ... are .... characteristics . we.most vaIug,in.~thoseto whom we entrust the conduct of our for.

e& policy and the defense. .of our national intereat. Thmr ................. .... .~ .....

women in the peace mvements, whom leminist cri1ii:s [ii Donald Regan cited as evidence for women's involvement in international affairs, are frequently branded AS naive, w a k , and even unpatriotic. When we think about the definition of 'a patriot, we generally think of a man, often a soldier who defends his homeland, most especially his women and il!il~ dren, from dangerous outsiders. (We sometimes even think of a missile or a football team.) The Schroeder story suggests that even women who have in foreign policy ._._ ..........experience .. ............. too , p ~ r ~. . n n h a l and t w C W ~ Gf r v perceived ........as.-being ... issut-sare . .__ . __ the tough life-and-death . .dec&ns ........ required for the nation's . Weakness is always considered . . . . . . . . . . . . .a dailger .....when isdefense. ............. sues . . . . . of nationarsecurity ........... are at stake: the president's dual role .............. as commander chief reinforces our belief that qualities. we ,, ................... associate with ''ma&ess'I are .. .of utmost importance in .~ ..... the selection .~ of,ourp;esidents.
. .

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$ 3 / lii --

LINKS: IR GENDERED
Their advocacy supports and engages in a masculine, gendered view of International Politics; this excludes womyns views and obscures reality Tickner, 92
(J. AM, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in Internafional Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Security, 1992, Pg. 29- 30)

L In looking for explanations for the causes of~.ar,realis[s as well a s sclioiars in other approaches to international rela-

MGW '07 TICKNER FEMINISM K KKITIK LAB

LINKS: IR GENDERED
Hegemonic masculinity epitomized in International Relations sustains and legitimizes patriarchal authority and social order by celebrating "male power"
Tickner, 92
(J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Security, 1992, Pg. 6- 7)

f-Masculini&%d
.._.,.II____-___.

politics have al%nLand.dos,e . association. . .

~

Ch~f@V@iNcs a%oalfX%'mmanlin@ss," such 88 toug$i-

ness, courage, power, independence, and even physical strength, have, throu-Kstog, .~ been those most valued in the conduct of colitics, _L. p a r t i c u u international . .--. ... po&ti_cs. Frequently, " manliness I . . _ . has also b e e n . p - s s o ~ t e d . ~ t h . ~ o ~ n c e and the use of force, a t p e o f behavior that, when con-_. . . . . ---...... -valorized and ducted in the international .... ............... arena, has been applauded in the name of defending one's country. This celebration _ _ , _ I , . --- - of male power, particularly the glorification of the male wa%ior7pro-&uces... more of 9 g . . . - ....... omy .- ..... than exi5ts-N realitit for, as R. W. Connell points out, this stereo-ld image of.masculin~does.not~Ermost men. Connell suggests that what he............ calls "hegemonic ..... masdin. . . of&Gally .................. dominant masculinity ....... that he &stiiiFG,';'~a-$Fe. .... guishes from other subordinated masculinities, is, a sodally constructed __ .................. cultural -. ideal that, while it does not correspond to the actual personality of the majority of men, sustains - ..... a patriarchal . . poitical patriarchal authority and,.legitimizes ~I . d ~ . . . _ -. & . . . j ~.... ~ & d-..-E ~ ~.emofic ~ ~ .6 ~ mas& l c f e is && h .......... .. . . . . . . g .. and .devalued . mascu.. _ to various ..subordinated its opposition G t i e S L such as homosexuality, &_more impoitant; tlikough its relation to. .various . . . . . . . . . devalued . . femininities. ..... ,Socia& cons-+cteggender. differences .-~ ............... are based .... on . . sociafiy .. sanctioned,. unequal relationships ...... between men ................ and women that rein-, force compliance with men's stated sqeriority. .. Nowhere .. in the public realm are thes.e.,stereotypical gender images more .. than . in the realm of international politics, where .... apparent the characteristics.ass&ted with hegemonic mascu&ity, are-. ......... as interprojected . onto the behavior of states whosesuccess . . . . I . . _ ..........................
.
~~

.. t Y

. .~

national .........._I___ actors is measured in terms ot theirgower caPabii" -ties'an&capacity for self-help,md .... .....
.

r c

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

.'...

--- ..... . .

MGW '07 'I'ICKNER FEMINISM K KRITIK LAB

LINKS: IR GENDERED
International Relations excludes womyn; dismissing them as naive or unrealistic Tickner. 92
(I. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspc.cfives on Achieving Gtobal Security, 1992, Pg. 54 )

Feminist Perspectives on National Security

Women Define Security

It . . . is . difficult to find . defiNtions.by..women.of.natiionalsearity. While it is not necessarily the case that women have not hFd ideas on this subject, they are not readily . . . . . . . . . . . accessible . . . . . . . . . . . . . in the literature of intemational-reTaKons.'When women ............ ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .speak . or....... write about nationa1 . . se@n.ty, thexare-.often dismissed as being . . . naive or unrealistic. .... An -. examqle .I__ of this is &ewOmCn in. the United States and Europe who s p... O . . . . . . . E . o u t i n t@Gjrry years of the century for a..mOr) secureworldorder. Addressing the International Congress of Women at the Hague during World War I, Jane Addams spoke of the need for a new internationalism to replace the self-destructive nationalism that contributed so centrally to the outbreak and mass destruction of that war. Resolutic'ns adopted at thetlose of the . . ................. congress questioned the assuniption &at women, and civilians more~generaTyj~Zoulii . . . . fecfea during modern war. The-'cbnference ._ conclude assuring. security through ............................ . . . . . .means. was..no longer possible owing to the^ indismgtary. nature ...... of modem warfare,~and~it called for &ss&&ate ............................ rnament as a more appropriate course for ensuring future . .... ....... . . . ...
. .

,.

MGW '07 TICKNER FEMINISM K W T l K LAB

LINKS: IR GENDERED
The International Relations discipline equates "human" with "masculine," basing its policy making on knowledge of masculiniQ' and thereby marginalizing womyn Tickner, 92
(J.

A~,", professor ofintemational Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in lnternational Relations: Feminist

Perspectives on Achieving Gfobof Security, 1992,Pg. 5- 6)

Gender in International Relations

%ile the purpose of this book is to introduce gender as a categor): of analysis into the discipline o f international relations, the marginalization ofwomep i n the..arena of foreign -.- ..,. ~f gender stereotying ......... . . . that policy-makmg Through t h e x n d o I~F;avFGS&i5a ?+uggests that international politics has al' ways ........ been a gendered . . . . . . . . activity ktfhe~.modern.statesystem. ....... foreign ~.-~ and - rnilitaryeo~~~~mak has-~been i n g - .largely Since conducted by men, Sh_e_discip!inethat analYze:.fh_e"e activities~is~bound . . . . . . . . . to . . . . . be primarily . - .......... about . . . rnenpnd.masdinity:, W e seldom-realize we think in ~.~ . . . these . . . terms,, however; in . most' . . KeHS ............. of!sGwTedge. . . . we~h~~~eb~c.ome,pccustomed.to equating . . . is human with, -what i ~ ~ , m a s c u ! i Nowhere ~. is this what
.

MGW '07 TICKNER FEMINISM K KRITIK LAB

LINKS: IR GENDERED
International Relations is a gendered arena; womyn's sex prevents their ability to affect policy Tickner, 92
(J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in Internatioml Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Security, 1992, Pg. 3- 4)

'>

[The few women who do make it into the foreign . . . . policy ............... perceps estab&,hent often suier from this ne@tiVe Kirkpahick isc one such example. Attracted by her . . ... ___ tive and forcefulpublic style and strong anticommunist rhetoric, Ronald Reagan appointed Kirkpahick as ambassador to the United Nations in 1981. Yet in spite of the visibilih. she achieved due to her strong stance against anti-AmenCan voices at the United Nations, Kirkpatrick complained of not being -._____ .-..... ...........
. .

taken seriously by her peers both in the United Nations and ~...._~....__I_in ... the . . . . U.S. . iore%$i-paiy ... establishment. Although & , American ambassadors ti! the U&d Natidns have also complained that they lack influence over U.S. foreign policy....... specifically attributed this lack of respect making, Kirkpahick .................................. to her .sex: . describingherself ..................... to one reporter as a "&&uje~b ,~ ~~. a~man ........... s world," Kirkpatrick claimed . . . . . ..., that ..... her . views were sehn . . . . . . . . . listened . . . . . . . . to and that she failed to have any effebt ............ . ~. . ~~. .... .~-. the ......... course of American foreign policy.5 whatsoeveron , . L-l
~ ~~~

>

MCW '07

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LINKS: AUTONONIY/OBJECTIVITY
Their strive for masculine ideals of objectivity and autonomy reinforces subordination and control over womyn Tickner, 92
(J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Security, 1992, Pg. 64 )

(.

Given the interdependent. . . nature . .... of contemporary .. seariltythreats, new thin&ngsKsemity has ~dready, assumed that autonomy-and self-help . as models for state behavior .. .. . . . . in the international system, rnugtne.rethought and redefined. -. .- would agree with this, but given their asMany feminists sumption that interdependexe is as much a human characteristic as autonomy, they would . question whether autonomy is even desirable.95 Autonotg? associated_.yjth.m.az. & t y just as Enunuuq is assodated with interdependence: ._ . . . . . . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ I _ -in her discussion ofthe 65Fi 07 modern science in the seventeenth century, Evelyn Keller links the rise of.... what she _ . . . . ~terms a masculine science with a striving for objectivity, % . . . __ . . Perhaps not foincidentally;-tIie autonomy, and conhol.y6
^ I _ _ _ . -

_-_
.

<----

. .

I _ -

seventeenth century also witnessed the rise of the modern

state system. Sinrr this period, autonomv and.seear&@n. of soverei&y, have importantly associated with the meaning . ...... interest. Betty determined our conception.... of the national ___I_.._ . . . . . . - ....... Giydon .. . . _ I _ _ a r E c z that~s..asspc_iat_~.n-of.a.utonom~. wit_ht h e national interest tends to blind'us to the realities of interde. _ . . . . . .. . . . ............. ............. . ..... present world sit~ationL97 Feminist perspecpe%zcK-fhe ............ is also hves would thus assume that striving for attachment .. p..r t c i i human n a p a w h i c h , while it has been . . . . supp~essed ----. by both rriu&rn .scientific ...... - ..thinking __ ...and the practices of the .......... Western state svstem. can be reclaimed and revalued in .the .....

I____

futurii.'' a

. .

T .

--

MGW ' 0 7 TICKNER FEMINISM K KRITIK LAB

LINKS: WAR
Their advocacy engages in gendered terms to justify acts of war; their appeal for support of violence to masculinity Tickner, 92
(J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Security, 1992, Pg. 41 )

&Just as the image of w a g ~ w ~ ~ a ~ i ~ s ~Qtther n . ~ x ~ ~ n ~ . figu-red c e in Machla.vel&s..wn.~f&w~is central&?* ' t h e r e Team about intemationaEdat.ion_s.Our histoica_l mimories of intemationaI politics .... are---deeded toXs through '. wars as we mark off time periods in terms of intervals & : ---. . .,.. tween conflicts. We learn that dramatic changeJ.take.place In ,; tG ________ 5 i i n i i - y-. - s t t mafter major wars ._whenthLr&tiye power_5lfStstes-chang_es. Wars are fought for m a w reasons; . .yet, i?s!quent!yL.thqrationalefor fighting wars.kqresented
__j_
~

...........

istics become pofarized; . . . . . . . . . . . . it is -,.. a gendering_activity at a time whZi-FiiT~ . . . . ~~ of~militarism ik . ~~~masc;il'nt~~~eimeates ---,A the_whole fabric of.sodety.55 . . ,> . *

MGW ' 0 7

TICKNER FEMINISM K KRITIK LAB

LINKS: NUCLEAR WAR

The strategic discourse behind nuclear war is a manifestation of the image of masculinity; only through the gendered goals of achieving national security does this discourse gain legitimacy Tickner, 92
(J. Ann,Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in lnternatioriul Relurions: Feminist Perspecfiveson Achieving Globul Security, 1992, Pg.44- 45)

' <In the nuclear age military-strategy must be planned in . . ---...-. peacetime+since if IS fiypotlTesiieZ thaT-tTiere.'would be no
~

time to plan a strategy that involves the use of nuclear weapons once war has broken out. Nuclear strategy is~ constructed -..,. . . by civilian national security specialists, far removed from .. .. .~~... ~~. .. ~ . .. . . .. . public debate, in a language that, while it is too esoteric for . . . .. . . _ ~ . I . ...~~ objec.~ most peopleTFiTnderstand, c l a h s to be rational ~. . and . . . C , tive. Carol Cohn argues that-strategc discourse, . . .- . . . . . - with its :%"* emphasis on strength, .stability;.and rationality, bears an* ' c d uncaxYhy resemblance . , ~ ~ to ...~ the ~.~ ideal . image o f masculinity. Criticsbf - U.S.nuclear ^_I..x strategy,...are branded as irrational . and emotional. -_ In the -Unitedztates, these __ _. "defense intellectuals" . . . . ce'almost all white men; Cohn tells us that while their -I._ language~. is one of abstraction, it is loaded with sexual im. ~. . ..
,
, ,

t ,

~~~~

. . .~

employed . . . . . in profesa g e ~ y She . ~ ~claims that the discourse ~.. . .. _ _ about U.S. . - security poky "Would siond and political debates appgai tb & & -. colonized our minds and to have subjugateh .... . . . . . ~. . .,.... .. - - . . Cohn other ways of understanding relations among. states."" ... --.,-~~ ; a ~ that s &IS ~ ~-~.,* UISCOUISE nas b&ne the .only legitimate .. . . . .-. . . . ~ ~ s g a ito i sq~ i E." & G G f ~ ) i i to iclli& naiional secu' ~. .... dry; ifis'a discourse far removed-from politics and people. -. T s deliberations go on disconnected from the functions and i they are supposed to serve. Its powerful claim to legitimacy rests, in part, on the way national secui.5 specialists..view .~ The'iiiternational system. 3 . . . . . .
~~~~ ~ ~~ ~

, ,

~,

. . . . .

'-'

..

MGW '07

TICKNER FEMINISM R KRlTIK LAB

LINKS: CITIZENSHIP
The concept of citizenship affirmed in their advocacy is inherently a masculine, militarized entity; reaffirming patriarchal hierarchies and the inferiority of womyn

<Just as the concept of hegemonic masculinity, described in chapter 1, requires for its construction an oppositional rela-, tiomhip to a devalued femininity, Machiavelli's Construction 'of the citizen-warrior repuired a similarly devalued "other" ......... . .. against .... which . true manhood an3 autonomy cF!d.be.?& _In.MachiaveUi's writing~Jh~s.,fe-@.~ce . othSl~i?-.'~f!?*na.~ 0%- ' inany;Roman goddess associated with capriciousness and unpredictability. Hannah Pitkin . claims . that in Machiavelli's ......... is presented as the feminingower in men --_-.. . -. ............ st whicE v s t continually struggle to ..,~ maintain their autonomy." In.the public world. Machiavclli . . . ........ .depicts fortuna as chance, skuations that couid ntjt have been foreseen or that men fa$ to control. The capriciousness of fortuna cannot be prevented, but it can be prepared against and overcome through the ccultivation of manly virtues. According to Brown, fortuna and virtu are in permanent combat: both are supremely gendered constructions that involve a notion of manliness that is tied to the conquest of women." In Machiavelli's own words. "Fortune is a woman, and it is necessary if you wish to mastrr her, to conquer her by force."Ld
.
I _ __i_

"

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21;

g"

HavinZr ........ uconstructed...... thesee-explicitly p........... d e r e d repr tioils of i-irtu dnd fortuna, Ma<hiavrllj also makes that heconsiders women to be-~a threat to the masculinitv of . ...... - . . . . . - .. the citizen-wamor. A m O U @ i they sc;ifceIy-ap$ear in Machl'avelK's- poIihiaI-.'writings, when women are discussed, Machiavelli portrays them as both dangerous and inferior," The most dangerous threat to both a man and a state is to bel~"e~,.w~om.e~n~6-,.cau"s.e~~w.om.en---a.re..weak -,-. fear~uul, indecisive, .................... . . . ......
~

zj 6 q $
.g.$
;?\

i,,
li

and dependent-stereotype; ...... -. that, as described in chapter I, s&.surface when . .assessing . , .. . . . ~ . women's ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . suitability for the mili- . taqind-the .... ..... conduct ........... of foregn policy today: (While contemporary internationa1-reIatiori5 does not employ this explicitly misogynist discourse, the ............. con tempora-rq. understanding ..... - ........ of citizenship still remains . . . . . . . . . bound ... up with the Greeks' and Machiavelli's depictions of the citizen-waminr. The . . most . . . . . .noble . . . . sacrifice a citiZen.can make i s t0 give his life for his country. When the National Organization for Women . . .~ dFcided to support the drafting of women into the United States military, it argued its case on the grounds that, if women were barred from participation in the armed forces on an equal footing with men, they would remain secondclass citizens denied the unique political responsibility of risking one's life for the state.26 But in spite of women's increasinv nl~-hn-- :- -.

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NIGW 07

TICKNER FEMINISM K KRITIK LAB

LINKS: CITIZENSHIP/ REPS OF WOMYN

Using notions of hegemonic masculinity and warrior-citizens supports representations of womyn as helpless, devaluating them, causing violence and preventing social change Tickner, 92
(I. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspectives an Achieving GlobalSecurity, 1992, Pg. 58- 59)

Citizenship Redefiriied

h Building on the notion of hegemonic masculinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... notion .1. the

_ . _ _ I . _ . . . _ _ _ . . _ _ . _ _ _ I _ _ _

on a devalued ............... femininity of the citizen-warrior depends . .- fop ifs . construction, . . . . . . . . . . ~ . ~ i ~ t e ~ m a ~ o n a ~-t.&s.ieIa!u@ .~e~a.~ons~ ) feAnini9 is bound up..--..I_ with _ . myths about . . women . . . . . as victims prptector/frotected m g in need of protection;_tbx -. __ __ .- h conhib. . . . . version of citizenship utes to the legitimation of a militarized that results in une*al . -- gsnder relations that................ can Eecipitate violence against for Certain feminists have called .................... --.......... - ....
. .

MGW '01 TICfCNEK FEMINISM K

Y7 / '7", --

KRITIK LAB

LINKS: REPS OF WOMYN

Representations of womyn as peaceful, reproductive "mothers" leads to and perpetuates their domination and subordination by men Tickner, 92
(J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspecrives on Achieving Global Security, 1992, Pg. 59 )

M .-

y e - s u c n myn ~-,rn~~~,i~~~i~;; .:men with peace, sociation that has been Inv l&f. . ..... . . . . . ........ able evidence of womenlrsuppmthr-mei's ,~ar5 in man:. societies.79In spite of a gender gap, a plurality of women generay support war and national . securityeolicies; Bernice . . . Carroll suggests that the association of women and peace is -___-. . . ~ one that has been imposed ___ on women . . . . . . . . . . . byX<>r -. .... disarmed -. cGXoSJ+E . . . . . t~ __ ....~ i ~ ; - - # f assonation iis . g e w out oi ... the _ . I Victonan ideology of women's moral superiority and the ... , . _ .. glorification of motherhood.l^?'his -ideal was expessed ..... ... by f e 3 .CEarlOEe-FGrrkins Gilman whose book Hcrlnnd was f;st serialized in 'The i-lorerunrter in 1 9 1 5 . Gilman glorified -. women as caring and nurturing thers whoseqfi!z.te..sp_here
.
I ?
~

_l_

. .

paeFafing--in the corrupt world of political and economic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . their .moral ..... superiority; the result could powerxi-virGe-of .............. dominance. Many-contemonly be the perpetuation of male ... in . . . . . . . the continuation^^ . . . . . . . . . . of^ these pCfK?'FemiriIsfs __--..._._I_.___-__.. see .daniers . essentializing myths that can only result in the perpetuation -~_ _ ............ '..~. . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ofwomen's . suborainahon and reinforce dualisms~that serve ....... . . . .~ ......................... to make................ men more powerful: The association-&femininity . . . . . . . . . . wX--'peace lends supporrto an idealized masculinity that ........ ........ . .. constructing women as passivii Y%S in need epends on ............. . . contributes-lo the claim that women are o&xotection. It also ................... naive c-matters......... relating. t.0 international.......... politics. An enriched, .. less militarized notion of .................. citizenship cannot be.~built . . . . . . . . . . .c. on . such a weak foundation.2. . . . .....
~

. . . . fg!" V : & t t11Tn-pf-ih t cEiKiTjTem&& shared Gilman's ideas. But-. if the implica-' . tion of this view was that women were disqualified from .... .............. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

skius C o U l G K e f i f fhP--wniTa ...

~

--

__

,-

_ I

__

MGW '07 TICKNER FEMINISM K KRIIIK LAB

LINKS: AGRICULTURE (FAMINE)

Development of the Third World through agriculture and modernization is gendered; this causes the marginalization of womyn in those societies Tickner, 92
(I. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in Intrrnational Relations: Feminist

Perspectives on Achieving Global Security, 1992, Pg. 71 )

~.~ of agriculture ~. .in the Thud World has The mechanization alS0 reduced women's control over -.~-.-agrimL&ral production, as men have taken over the~mechan&ed~,pa-mpf the producn..~.~....~ of agriculture, which oken ~ . . a1 production!,^ tends to leave women behind in ~.~ the. haditional . ~ ~. ~. . sector..*4 But in..spite.~of. mecIiankation, which remains largely in the hands of men, women cantinue. to produce more than half the world's food: in sub-Saharan Africa, women are responsible for more than 80 percent of agricultural production. While women . ...~ make ~ . . . .. u~.the_m-aion~of.,subsistenc-e~~ersl their . . activities ... have b e c o m e ~ ~ ~ s s ~ ~ ..valued. ~s~oc~ a~ y . .cropping as cash . . .. increases. .~ . . . . . W~menIs~~agEi_Sultural. .knowledge .has. ~ . generayy ~ ~ ~ . been considered "unscientific" w d therefore ~.~. .. ~ ~ neglected . . . - . . . - in develop.~ .. -. ment programs:' Development _c__ exgees... talk . . to . . .men, .- .- even when projects being-'beslgned h y be . more . .relevant ~ for ~ . women's~pro~uc~ye kE*s.'6~-.~~. ; .
~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~

~~

~~

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-"

. . .~

MGW '07 TICKNER FEMlNISM K KRITIK LiiB

LINKS: SCIENCE
Science is inherently gendered associating nature and the body with womyn; this causes their devaluation and subordination by elite white men Tickner, 92
(J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Security, 1992, Pg.104-105)

&seventeenth-centq science associated nature and the body with women, so the &d, or'ratioG&hgxht, came to 6e associated with men.-In the West, culture has generally L___I.__I men. whose . .k v n d w w i t h elite __ Gritings, music, and art are enshrined as the canons of Western civilization. According to Merchant, this nature/culture d i i was used as a justification for devaluing -~ -_ .- - women and keeping them in subordinate positions in e a r l F o d e m ' E j i i j i i X B i i i F n F a 6FMerchant,xeUer, and othedeminist scholars, the Enlightenment was not a progressive time for women; as is often the case in eras that have traditio3aUy been described as progressive, the position of women in public life suffered a setback in the seventeenth century. Women's association with a disorderly nature was personified-by- anJncrease __ in --.-, the .pxseoltian.of 4uikhe3, who Were linked to the superstition and chaos that modern ." . . . . - ..... . ... science -..... . was

--

..........

attempting ................... to control and tame .......... through its investiafiQns. Both Merchant and Leiss note the legal metaphors in Bacon's language, metaphors that Merchant explicitly links to seventeenth-century witch trials.I6 Simultaneously, the needs of early = .: industrial . . . . . . .capitalism . . . . . . . . . . stimulated ...~ a growingdivision 2 labor between ....... home . . . . . . and workplace.... that 'began the process of severely curtailing the economic, political, and social op~ ~

6gi-i a

...............

MCW '07 TICKNER FEMINISM K KRITIK LAB

LINKS: WESTERN THOIJGHT/SCIENCE

Western scientific notions of objectivity and rationality reinforce gender hierarchies by supporting conceptions of masculine thought \A a , . $2 T x ,_
L . .

Tickner, 92
(J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in hternational Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Security, 1992, Pg. 81- 82)

<

<While these new economic arrangements were synonymous with the birth of the Enlightenment, femaleness became asso&ted .~. . . . . . with what Enlightenment knowledge had leftbehind. ~. . . The persecution-oftvitches, - ~. .~ . who were defending skills of a precapitalist feGale crafts and medical .~ ~- .. ~- ... .~.era-against ._..__ -- ~... .-. a growing ~ . . male professionalism, . .. . reached .- ~~.new heights .~ in the ~ . ~ . , sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Jean Bodin (1530-96), a French mercantilist and-founder of the quantitative theory of money as well as the modem concept of national sovereignty, was one of the most vocal proponents of the perse. - . mercantilist philosocution of witches. According to Bodin's ....with .~ absolute sovphy, the modern state must be invested . ..~. ereip6for the development of ~ new ~ ..- . weale. . necessary , .. . for -.._ ~~. . . . ..~. fighting wars; to this end the state needed more workers and thus musthliminate witches who were held responsible for aliortion and other forms of birth Sovereignty andrational$-weregart . . . of. an Enli&teggent ... . ._ universal objecI
~ ~ ~

~x

'

~.~

As discussed earlier, notions such as objectivity and rationality, central to the definition of the modem naKFarariZma1 . . assodated~-with sCienc% in the West, have typicilljfieen .__ masculine thinking. According to Evelyn Fox Keller, Westem cultural values have simultaneous1 ele J S ~ ~ Had ~J srieiiiiiie _ I _ . and . _ __ iim ~...i f . .i ~ her studv of the orieins ~, " of modem science in century, Keller claims that
,
~~~~ ~

. . I _ stage of separation of subject from obiect is.__I.an imEfiant childhood "masculine" nender development. As infants begin to relate t o ~ t h e world around them, they leam to recognize the world outside as independent of themselves. Since an important aspect of this development of autonomy is separation from the mother, it is a separation that is likely to be made more completely by boys than by girls. : I Q-.J
_ I _ _ _ _
~ ~

--

MCW 07 TICKNER FEMINISM K KRITIK LAB

LINKS: EUROCENTRISNI/SCIENCE
The Use of Western science reinforces the Euro-centric world view that legitimizes Western imperialism, colonialism, and the subordination of womyn Tickner, 92
Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in lnternational Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Securig, 1992, Pg. 106)
( . I Ann, .

In an international system consisting of autonomous sovereign political units, the notion of the world as a single resource base has led inevitably to political competition and conflict. European expansion and imperialism extended the seventeenth centurys instrumental view of nature beyond the boundaries of Europe as scientific progress became in itself a justification for imperialist projects. The Enlightenment belief that the transformation of the environment was a measure of human progress was used as a justification for colonialism, because native populations were not deemed capable of effecting this transformation for themselves. Thus the lower position assigned to women and nature in early modem Europe was extended to members of other cultures and races.

MGW07 TICKNER FEMINISM K KRlTIK LAB

IMPACT/LINKS: IR GENDERED
The discourse behind hierarchical gender relations in International Politics becomes translated into stereotypical notions against all those who represent the other; ignoring this risks perpetuating the subordination and domination of it Tickner, 92
(J. A M , Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in (nter-natio,,al ~ Perspectises on Achieving Global Security, 1992, pg. 8-9)

l ,reminist ~ ~

< Extendinf;Scotts -~

challenge __ ~to the field of international relations we can immediately ~ - .. . set~~of, ~ hierar; -. .- - . h -detect a similar oppositions. But in spite of thKseem.6chical . . I _ _ _ _ _ _ . _ . , . . . binary vious association of i n j i x n a t h d Dolitics with tGe %ai%ne characteristics described above, the field of internafiond re: Kh%xygGneof __ .the last of the social sciences to be.touched byj-sxd feminist perspectives.Il The reason f o r B C b e l i e v e , is,-,noLthatthe field is gender .neutrat meaning that the introduction of gender is irrelevant to its but that it is so subject matter as many scholars believe, ___. thoroughly masculinized that the- workings pf these hierarc h i c a m r relations ar dde-. P . .e r. amed ~.in __Its ... own set o%inary . -~ distinctions, ~. . .. . - .. -the discipline of interTiationa1 relations.a%-urnes s m y hierarchical reiationshipiwhen it pasits .. . to be
~

-,

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.,,. .-

gitnd@r were included as a ixntral cakygw ti[ a\& s;.;, 1 .i,,i\\ give a brief historical overview of the field as it has traditi .:I?ally been constructed.)

MGW '07 TICKNER FEMINISM K KRITIK LAB

IMPACT/LINKS: MILITARIZATION
Violence is inevitable in the world of their advocacy due the masculinity they invariably associate with militarism; only through the deconstruction of gender hierarchies can we prevent it Tickner, 92
(I. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving GIobalSecurity, 1992, Pg. 30 )

Having examined the connection between realism and masculinity, I shall examine some feminist perspectives on national security. Using feminist theories, which draw on the experiences of women, I shall ask how it would affect the way in which we think about national security if we were to develop an alternative set of assumptions about the individual, the state, and the international system not based 'exclusively on the behavior of men. Realist as states as unitary actors . .- . b e G e n anarchy and violence. If we were to include t how would it affect the way in which we understand the meaning of violence? While women have been less directly involved in international violence as soldiers, their lives have be& affected By domesfic violence in households, another

a g c f f i g x T f ; ; 'a,iar&i;io+Tet- a;.~~&,;ir &fij3--iiiipqr. . . ..___I and subembedded in the gender hierarchies of dominance o ~ L i I n i F i F K i G & e d in chapter 1. Fence they w o u 2 argiiFTiZ until these and other hierarchies.aax&g Lwith until w o m e n b u g control class and race are dismantled and .. . . .. oV&fEe:r-~ . own-. security " . . . .a ~h -ul l. comiiehensive-sgtem- of security cannot be devised. ..
L__

tant';"'mParfemM&'cWm that alt types ..,. of .,,., violence- -are ____.I_ __i.I -

? . .

MGW '07 TICKNER FEMINISM K KRITIK LAB

IMPACTS: DISCOURSE
Our discourse on the notions of masculinity shape violent shape action
Tickner, 92
(I. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in Internotional Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Securiq, 1992, Pg. 41 )

1'

To be a first-class citizen therefore, one must be a .... ...... ........ .... . warrior. . . . . It is . an important . . . . .qualification ........... for~ the politics of national
.

aecurlty for it ts to ....... ..- . . . . . . . . . . . .

', .

,,

vitat'iiferests. Cha a1iaLiili~~eaKng~w~h co=e?ixt .. ...... securit), n a t i m p o m G : W e n reahsts w4te abEuFEitiona~ theyofien'do so in abstract and depersonalized te=s,.yet t t i e are .consFnicting-a discourSe-shaped.-outof these gender(.d+E?nRfes. ......... This . .notion . . . . . . . of manhood, crucial for uphold-~ .......... .... interesk .. ........... of the state, is an image that is~frequentlv ing the .. .- . . . . . the behavior of extenaed to the way .in. which we personifjr . . . ............. ttie sfate itself.' 2 ...
T~
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M C W '07

TICKNER FEMINlSM K KKITIK LAB

IMPACT PATRIARCHY
Militarized, masculine hierarchies results in patriarchal violence against womyn

Reexamining the AnarchyIOrder Distinction t"" {LThe pervasiveness of internal conflict within states in the
~ ~ ~ a ' n ; mi& l ~ e ~ ~ ~ ~ t ~ a ? , latter part of the ~ e n t i e t ~ c ................ tarized states pose to their own popufations have called into . I _ _ _ . _ _ . . _ ... queshon the reaTist assumption ....................... about the anarchylorder aistincEion; .~ Crifics~ofrea~sm~'hil~,,al~.questioned the. wit,, . actor ............................. a&mjf%n that &hdSPcl . . . . . . th@ dOm@stic . . . . affi$rS . of states u.npEb!emati-c when talking.ab.out their. internationalbehavior. Claiming that militarism, sexism, and racism are interconnected, .m.os~..~em~~sts-woiila~ a ~ e ethat . .the ~ behavfor . ~ . of
~

indiSduals-and . the domestic policies of states cannot -be separated from ... states'6l;aGoC . . . ._I-.x_. ~-the-internationlaiystem.~o Feminists call .attention to . the particular ......................... vuInerabilities%f wom~en @thin state$,.vulnerabis .............. that grow out of hierarchical gender relations that are also interrelated with inter........ ....... naKonal politics. Callinfinto-questionthe notion of the"protected," the National Organization for Women in their "Resolution on Women in Combat" of'september 16. 1990, estimated that 80-90 percent of casualties due to conflict 5ince :e : World War 11 have been avilians, the majority of whom have been women and children. In militarized sweties women ,. . . . vulnerable . ...... to rape, and evidence suggests fi .are . particularly . _ that domeshc violence is higKer K S I 3 a i y FamiIies or' in families that-include ~Xieii witti prior military semi&. Even though most public violence is committed by men against other men, it is more often women who feel threatened in public places." Jill Radford suggests that when women foe1 it is unsafe to go out alone, their equal access to job opportunities is limited.72Studies also against -- .. show that violence .".. ~ ~ .. increases ---during hard economic times; when states women prioritize military spending of-.-fiid-~themselv&. in debt, ......... . .... ...............
,
I
~

..........

___.I_I____..-

........

, -

. ~.. by violence against shrinking resources . . . . l " . . . ............ are often accompanied . . women., . . . 2

MGW '07 TICKNER FEMINISM K KKLTlK LAB

IMPACT/LINKS/ALT SOLVENCY: ENVIORNMENT

Masculine management techniques of the environment perpetuate dominating views of nature that reinforce gender hierarchies; only the demystification of the knowledge of "experts" can solve Tickner, 92
(J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in Inlernationol Relations: Ferninis1

Perspectives on Achieving Global Security, 1992, Pg. 12 1)

generXThey claim that management li-___..x__..._._ techni2ues-zc& ....~.. hut of the reductionist methodology of modern science that can.. __ not cope with complex issues whose interdependenaes d i e b e T y . . -u~~r-s.t-o-oa;Su.cK-m.e~o.~~io.~ie~e~d-ent __ . . . -in- $e.. u~.e oEomputer models, perpetuate ..-~-. ~.----~---.-..-.i...-.~-.. the dominating, instrumen. . . . tal view of nature that attempts to render -- it more serviceable hierarchiesfeminists would foyhuman needs and that leaves '.~_ . .. .~ gender hierarchies-intact. ~.. .. Xmechanistic view of include nature leads to the assumption that it can be tinkered with and improved for human purposes, an assumption that is increasingly being questioned as negative consequences of projects such as high-yield agriculture are becoming more evident. Ecologists believe that only when knowledge ~. . is demyLtifi.ed.and . democratized, _ . . . . . . I a n d not regarded a s solely . . . . ... .... . . ~ thP poss-essio_n.of..~..exEests,"c_an .qn_e.c.o!ogically -. . sound mode of existence . . be implemented-> i'"+ ~,
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Ecologists___ are critical of environmcntal m;lnapmrnt in I _ _ . . . -.

~~

~,

I,

MGW '07 TICKNER F&:MINISM K KRlTIK LAB

IMPACTS/ALT SOLVENCW DISCOURSE

Gendered International Relations prevents solvency of technologies of destruction, economic inequality, and environmental destruction; only the inclusion o f womyn's experiences into the disciptine through our discourse can solve

Tickner. 92

Feminist Theories and International Relations ,:.-~-,,:

.Since, as I have suggested, the world of international~oliiiics ___.--I_ .. isa-,masculine domain, how could feminist persprctives rcntribute anything new to its academic discourses? h k t-.._ iiliir scholars have already noted that, a n e n our current technoie g e e of economic in--,. tion-_____I._.II &iZGT.-Giiti; we ' - __ the way worldpolitics S-CoridiE~~d~man~ , , . ~ . . _ _ _ _ . ~ . . . . . . . . ~ . _ _ I of _ them are attempting ~ _ _ to prescribe 'su?h cEanges. For the most part, however, these CtiKCSha~V .. n=the extent to which-the values an3-G ~ _ _ _ _ _ . dnve --.. our conkcm&aryiiiternaGo+tem . _ are intrinsically .. . r$&d to conce&f mascuhnihr; privileging _I^_._ ~ these vaIues coiiSfiaiins-ih%--oEtions available to states .. ." ana%Fjjx+: .makers. All knowledge is partial and is .,~ a function ~..... cf-.Ehe . . ~.. .- .. . . . e?s lived exper&:nce..in the world. Since knowleae about'the behavior of state_sin..the international svstem J e ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

. ~ . _ _ , . I _

____~

it ignores <-large body

MGW '07

Afrocentrism
Kritik Lab
f . . : . :
? .

H ....... '~ __ owever, . _ . Lmiiiist . tii@GTi@s must go . txpcnd injecting . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

-,___

women's

t G c G g e the core concepts of th;; disciplines themselves. ~~?scriG 10 T intematioel .relations j5Giq~and~ pracas power, and . security, hsLe.,be$n tice,...__ such___.._.__ ...... sovereignty; ~.~ . . . . . . . . Gamed in terms35at we.assoclate with mascuhty. @awing ori~temtni?~fMe~ examne To a n 3 cnbque tKe meaning of t h e ~ ~ ~ t h ~ O ~ e, p . ~ 's ~Y CGi&ii=narj$in ~ m e r i t a ~ tics c"0';TS help us toreformulate these concepts-@-wap that, . .. -. us f~ see new n~s!b~~tie~.fo~.solvingpur, curnii@iGIEiG , . . -;:.rent . InEurifies. Suggeshg that the personal is politi&+ feminist scholars have brought to our attention distinctions between public and private in the domestic polity: examining these artificial boundary distinctions in the domesticpolity could shed new light on international boundaries, such as those between anarchy and order, which are so fundamental to the conceptual framework of realist discourse. Most contemporary feminist perspectives take the gender inequalities that I have described above as a basic assump
_i
~ ~

expeneces into..d.=5nt

$~,d%es-a+S~~t

tion. Feminists in various disciplines claim that femini

whkrfithe . . . practices of international politics are related i o .................... ............. these gender inequalities. The construction of hierarchical ........ --...---__"I___.._._.. binae-opposiitions . has-been central to theorizing .national reiations.*tDishnchonsbetween domestic and for. . eign, insize ZXautsidc, order and ariarchy, ; . : center d . I I ~

~ . a a i ~ o n a ~......... ~ - y . ~ ~. n " , c o ~ n ~ ~ ~ ~ . t e d . a - ~ dhe^ ...... ~ oestent --~~-~-m [i - n e . _ ..........--.__I__..........__.._.I-

periphery have sewed

35

important a.:surnptinns in theor).

construction and as oiganizing principles for the way we view the world. Just as-realists center their explanations on the hierarchical relations between states and Marxists (m unequal class relations, feminists can bring to light Keniier : .~ ...rl_..--... .... ' < 1 hierarchies ....... embedded in the theories andprachc_e_s,.~j,~~,rrld : ! politics .... allow us to see the extent to which . . . all . . . tl&> ~ - . ~. and
. .

L-

systems i,f Lidi -jl__

~

-.

"There i s the need to

feminist theories do, that hierarchies are socially twn. = " ? * a d, also allows us to envlsage conditions neces=iiir .- .. anscend&e..;)ss. ...__.._--I ~
__I I

MGW '07 TICKNER FEMINISM K KWTlK LAB

ALT SOLVENCY: DISCOURSE

We must accept and value womyn's feminity for their inclusion and participation in international politics

Tickner, 92
( . I Ann, . Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Clohal Security, 1992, Pg. 141)

- not . need -- to 6ij.r In most of the contemporary world .. men d. o

ub their & X m t i t y in ord.-ctil;e-

f ~ r v I ~ FC!!C\: n

MCW '07 TICKNER FEMINISM ti tiRITIK LAB

ALT SOLVENCY: DISCOURSE

Our in round discourse revealing the inequality faced by womyn is key towards the deconstruction of gender hierarchies and the inclusion of womyn into international politics
Tickner, 92
(J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Sectirity, 1992, Pg. 142)

ally effective, it has generingly, women around the work3 a F e m e a d e r s h i p roles in small-scale develo ment pro7ecZ .._- sucn as cooperahve ~ E Z Z i E i a n prolects deT V e d to save the natural environment. Women are also playing b a & a m - - . - ~ ' . ' ovements assdyiltegyyith

+
1 ,
~~ ~

ocrahc projects are vital for wo.men to achieve a sense of empowerment and are important building blocks for a more -secure future, they will remain marginal as long as they are . . ~.~... ~. .~.. . .. seen as women's projects and occur fir from centers . -..... of power. -~.. equally repreHence it is vlTaily important that women be ... *!Q!!ow.u . movementsanhin local politics but at all levels ofplhoI-.mgki~. If foreign policy-making within' states hXCbeen a difficult area for women to enter, leadership positions in international organizations have been equally inaccessible. While women must have access to what havr trW a l l v been seen as w w e r w here men predominate, it is .~ equally important for.women and men to work topether at the local levelkvictories in local struggles are imnortant Tor & ; achievement of ihe kind of multidimensional, multilevel - ..~.. . ,_.,~ . . se&& I have proposed. The femimst perspective2 i.Fesented in this book interconnected with,
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

.-f ~ p _ _ a . . ~ . . g. :. i ~j &
~

'

these decentr&Z?I@m
1 . =

MCW '07 TICKNER FEMINISM K KRITIK LAB

ALT SOLVENCY: DISCOURSE

Our discourse on gender relations allows for the deconstruction of gender hierarchies and positive discussion on International Relations to occur Tickner, 92
(J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving GIobalSectrrity, 1992, Pg. xi - xii )

C@thrr than discussing strategies ioi lwiiiging i i i t t c e M , I I ~ I H ~

into the international relations discipline as it is conventionally defined, I shall seek answers to my questions by bringing to light what I believe to be the masculinist underpinnings of the field. I shall also examine what the discipline might look like if the central realities of wointw's day-to-da>lives were included in its subject matter. Making women's .~~ experiences visible-. allows us to see hnw 'gendpr wlations . F6e'contriiuted to the way in which the field of international relations is conventionally constructed aKd to..reexarnh e the~tiaditional boundaries of the field. Drawing attention to gender hierarchies tEat~privilegemen's knowledge and men's experiences permits us to see that-it is these experi...~... basis.hf most of our.knowledge ences that haveTormed-the .. . internafional . . politics. It is doubtful whether we t about achieve a more peaceful and just-worIa, a goal of many m o hw u f f T F i T Z ~ ~ Y ' W h wo r i k about international . hierarchies . remain in place. politics, w h e t h e s e gender Although this book is an attempt to make the discipline of international relations more relevant to women's lives, 1 a m not writing it only for women; I hope that its audience will include both women and men who are seeking a more inrlusive approach to the way we think about international poliand writ ten^ tics. Women have ~. on the margins of . interniitioWreTa%o - ause it Is to the m & n ~ thiat their -~ .~ polexperiencesxave been relegated. Not until international itics iS an arena . ihak vah.pw!he~Iived ~. 2xpeiic!+5s.~f~~& ihn
~ ~~

~~

we-liiirenvisage . ~ ~ . . . . a more comprehensive and egalitarian ~...~

~

appxach that, it is to be h o p e a ; c ~ l 9 p d - t t e _ a . . m o ~ ~ ~ ~ c e f$worJX Because_ge_nder . hierarchies have contributed to

~ ~ ~

..

MGW '07 TICKh'ER FEMINISM K KRlTlK LAB

4 . 3 , L _ _
b

ALT SOLVENCY: REORIENT RELATIONSHIP

We must reorient our gender relationship to the international system in order to reject the hierarchical dualism that threatens an ecologically secure future Tickner, 92
(J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Security, 1992, Pg. )

.. to environmental While it has paid little .- . ...direct,.atte.ntion of international relation3 issues, 'the conventional discipline ~ - _ -. . _ .. . . .--. : has relied t d a great extexEQn.rnocter&\W\Y
. I

e v w i
J c f witti-other~ fCrmTof-domination and subordination, incluaiig gender relations. The hierarchical dualisms ~.discussed-in ~ t l i i s ~ w e as culturehature, civilizediwild, Nor gar< p m p r i v a t e , and international/lo. Cali- --.._I._-aracteristic ofe the way in which we describe . M , o r ~ o I i t i c s - a ~ ~ t h e - i n t e r a c of tio states n with their natural A feminist perspective would p .e that not envlronment. __--..-,_, c _ I . - a. r . . , . . unT8 the boundaries of-ineijuZi3i and dominationx-esi &&ms represent are transcended=pr riij.&?Ziieved. Only -KrCuggh'theemerge ~. viues thafslmultaneou_sl~sq_ects nature d i ; ~ s ~ ~ ~ - ~ ~ ~ -E&fi ~ ~ ~ ~ . . : . -m ~ s
, _ _ .
~

l____l-l

-??--

__
~

-.~?----, .._.. ~.~ -..-. m e nrstonoal prachcsq Q~,W,&QI~

. . . < _ . L

% _ .

. ~ ~ a f ~ ~~ " e

~.

. . I _ _ _ . . .

Qk!@C%.fiK&&&& "

MGW '07 TICKNER FEMINISM K KRITIK L A 8

ALT SOLVENCY: REORIENT RELATIONSHIP

We must reorient our relationship with gender and nature in order to prevent the destruction of the environment. Tickner, 92
(I. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspectives O N Achieving Global Security, 1992, Pg. 119 )

sy_stem, composed of states that have .~. sought . to ensuie - and .-~.their own security at the expense of the natural enhance envimment and _its.ind~~ldu~.~abita_nts, p@eS a&~dameitalre ' ifit i s t o ~ o Y ~ ~ c M l e . o u ? ~ e n . ~ ~ . ; :~ m ~ n t a l d ~ ~ . , . . ~ ~ h e s e - s . make4milar ~ o l a I s inferences abour the need to restructure the relationship. between ._ - hu{bans and nature ~. that has evolved simultaneously. with the. fJo3aIization ~ . . ~ .~ of the ~~. state . system,Ecolo&ts and .ecqfeminists 3 r,-.,. this .~ more radical challenge?.o$y . .-- ~ ~ ~ - &.ghanjjngour~re!soffer tionship with . .~ nature . can,rea_! securii, for both our atural environment ~. . .. and its human .~~inhabitants,be.achieved.>--( . . . . ..-.. .~ ... ~.
~ ~ ~ ~

.~~~.

&?

MGW '07 TlCKNEK FE'MINISM K

KRITIK LAB

ALT SOLVENC": REORIENT RELATIONSHIP

Only through reorientation of our relationship with womyn can we prevent the domination of nature and the domination of womyn. Tickner, 92
(J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Security, 1992, Pg.119-120 )

From Environmental Security to Ecological Security

h i d e environmental managers, operating under short-term r y to coax recalcitrmt states.into a more coopconstraints, t erative stance vis-a-vis environmental crises, ecologists, committed to a more radical reformulation of the way we view our natural environment, take a longer-term perspective. Ecologists believe that only with a fundamental revolution in the way in which we understand nature can problems of such magnitude be solved. The mechanistic view of nature, bequeathed to us by the scientific revolution of the seventeenth century, does not bode well for an ecologically secure future. But while calling for fundamental changes in both modem science and contemporary political, social, and economic structures as great as those set in motion in the seventeenth century, few ecologists have raised the issue of gender relations. Merchant and many other feminists, however, see this issue as fundamental to those social structures as well as to the projects of modem science. For this reason, ecofeminists would claim that the science of.ecology cannot live ; u to its claim as a holistic __-.-I science . . .without . . includkg . . n c o n gendeiiii"fE-analysis ap makmg expltnt the i nertion . . . between .ihi d o ? Z Z a % F = ~ e ~ Z ~ ' & G i n a ... . . ..

achieved. 3 . c -

MGW '07 TICKNEK FEMINISM K KKITIK LAB

ALT SOLVENCY: DEVELOPMENT

Womyn in the Third World must be agents of their security by representing all levels of economic planning in their societies Tickner, 92 (J. Ann. Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in Internotional Relutions; Ferninis1
Perspectives on Achieving GlobolSccurity, 1992, Pg. 95 )

As Anne Mane Goetz claims, women have been cometely ~. absent . .~~ .~~ from -. the. process .of setting national development priorities,, I argued previously that wome-n,must . " . . he . se%as agents in the provision of their own-physical secu. . ~ ~. n a r r e a t m g conditions under ~~. . . . which . . ~ women .~ ... hecome agents ...~ ~. -. owneconomic . . . . security is also imperin the provision of their ahve.TiiZt as women are seen as victims in need of protection __in the--protector/protected relationship, when women become visible in the world economy, they tend t~ dtj 5 U A? welfare problems ~ 'or . . as . individuals ~ marginalized from m'iin~Eeamilevelopment prbjects; Separating women from men, . undifferentiated .. . .. ~ . ~ . category, ignores the imporbncr ofien as'an of relations between men and.women ad t h e ~dehimentai .~~ . . . . ...~ .. . .. . .. . -. relationships on women's-ecrjeffEtsof hierarchical gender . ..,~ . .~ . .~ . . It also ignores the ways in which women's nCmiFsecurity. varying identities and development interests as farmers, factory workers, merchants, and householders bear on gender relations in different contexts." To overcome the probl~ems of essentialization __ as well as the perception-of victimization, women must be represented~atall levels of economic plan~ . . . . .. knowledge . ~ must be seen as valuable rather ni%g,'and-'their . . ,i.> ' than unscientific.,.
~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~

..

MGW '07 TICKNER FEMINISM K KIUTIK LAB

ALT SOLVENCY: DEVELOPMENT

Feminist approaches to development must support womyn's basic needs of material objects and political participation; export- oriented development strategies reinforce gender inequalities and subordination Tickner, 92
(J. AM, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in lrtten~ational Relarions: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Security, 1992, Pg. 94- 95)

CSince women are so centrally involved in the satisfaction of basic needs in households and in the subsistence econ. . to political economy omy, feminist approaches . . . international .............. must be supportive of a basic needs approach where basic ...... 'iFe~TeEEXLZISYdy~. K t e % s.of -both material needs needs need for political participation. I have argued that and the............ . . .have .. tended to*conexport-'oriented development strategies tri6u~teFO~iTomZ?Stic iiiequaiTjf an&; in times of recession . ~ .~ . and .. ...... . . ........ . . . inneasing international indebtedness, ........... have had a parti$........... . . . . . . . . larIy.det&mental impact ................... on women; a strategy that seeks t o satisfy-tiasic-neea.s~.~~t~n~.the ~...th . domestic economy may thus . .-. e best ,@e.of sgatea.to ...improve the welfare of women. Local satisfaction of basic needs requires more attention to subsistence or domestic food production rather than to growing crops for export markets. A more self-reliant economy would a160 be less vulnerable to the decisions of foreign investors, whose employment policies can be particularly exploitative of women." Basic needs strategies are compatible with values of nurturance and caring; such strategies m dependenfy-reducing and can empower women to take charge of their own lives and create conditions that muease their; -4 ownsecurity -\ :?L* -::I%
_T

MGW '07 'I'ICKNER FEMINISM K KRITlK LAB

ALT SOLVENCY: DEVELOPMENT

Only feminist perspectives on state behavior and market relations can help us understand how the global economy affects gender and discrimination; this is key to adapting our life styles to preserve the Earth and its resources Tickner, 92
(J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Security, 1992, Pg. 95-96 )

8Z At a time when existing political and economic institutions ._ ..~ . .~~ ." incapable of solving many global Frobseemr"in?reasingfy
~ ~

. .

lems, perspectiGs, by going beypn&an investigs____..feminist . . . . . ~ ..~ . hon- of ...~.. market.,relationslstatestate behavior, and capitalism, could the global economy affects those e market, the state, or in households as a more secure woad where inequalities hased on gender and other forms of discrimination are eliminated. Looking at the world .. economy from the perspective ~~. of.those on-its fringescanhelp us think about constructing a mode1 concerned with the production.~oflife rather than the production-of&Z,.s~and . . . ..~ wealth. Maria h4ies argues that the different conception of labor upon which such a model depends~couldhefptls-~..oui Iife-style at a time when we are becoming increasingly cons&ous of the finitenew of the .c . , - ~~. ,L earth and its resources.5o3 ..
~ ~

MGW 07

TICKNER FEMINISM K KRITIK LAB

ALT SOLVENCY: DECONSTRUCTION

We must deconstruct gender hierarchies to prevent states masculine and dominating behavior in international politics Tickner, 92
(J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Security, 1992, Pg. 131-142)

LGiven the Ensri$!.ymasc.dine, n_ature-Of..~.t.~n~6Qnal politics how could such a c h a n E in values be effected: Uncds._,__l_.l-.-.. ...... --f sconng the masculinist orientazn in the discipline of international relations does nothing Fo-change the masculinist
^

ce until women occupy half, or nearly half, the positions at all levels of foreign and military policy-making. No change in the hierf gender will occur until mediators and care givers archy o are as valued as presidents as citizen-warriors currently are.
Of

ich

ute to womens oppression. To the very li$ nwTFiaf;8ZGsibI<KKe world of international politics, women have generally been

MGW '07

TICKNER FEMINISM K KRlTlK LAB

ALT SOLVENCY: DECONSTRUCTION

Dismantling gender relations oppressing womyn is necessary to move beyond the relationship between violence and physical violence; this is critical to de-prioritizing military and understanding peace Tickner, 92
(J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving . .- .... Global Securiq, 1992, Pg. 22- 23)

The following three chapters will focus on three topics: national security, political economy, and the natural environment. Besides-.being central to the contemporary agendq of international relations scholarship, these topics constitute the framework within which an important redefinition of the meaning of security is currently taking place. The achievement of security has always been central to'the normative concerns of international relations scholars. But dissatisfiet' ................ . traditional - ~ ~ models.of - ~ national securiri wTiJEl YTocus ...... with the excI&vely o n militmsk;rit)r,gertain scholars of intema-

v i h u ; i l s a n a t T f e ~ ~ aenvironmentare ~~al considereXsX ' peace researchers are . -_

"
.

. . . . . -. . .

........

....................

6e$ming ...... to.de_fine..securi~. &.terms . . . . ~ _ _ of the eriination o f -'phy~ica~,. .sm~.~raL and_ecolopical.~iol~ovin the g . . of... violence . . . . beyond . its relation..to physical-Go-consideration . . . . lence allows us to move beEnhsimplistic -...... dichotomies b<~ee-n-w-. -- -.....
,

ar ,&@ace to a consideration of.-__.___, the conditions . . . . . defined more broadly than sBKp1y necekary tor a lust peace, ----tKe3sence of war. r e f & &. . . . . . _ x _ security in terms of the 'elimination of physical, ........ . -. ....... structural, and ecological viorence ... is quite compatibIe ....... with . . . . . . . . . - yithh ..... ve long been concerned . secwity in multidimensional t e r n -. ,...
I

__I

.....

--A:&~L.---.L

,-

. . . . .

in our culture, are associated with femininity. Yet, none of this new thinking has considered security ....................... from a_ge . . . . _..__ ,;&;Eve. Any femimst perspecEve wourd argue tr:y com rehensive siauity can c i i m o m i i a t i p s j " a & & ,

MGW '07 TICKh'ER FEMINISM K KRlTIK LAB

,7 / -, --

i (

ALT SOLVENCY: DECONSTRUCTION

The gendered institutions of the state legitimate violence and war; only through feminist perspectives and analysis can we alter these institutions Tickner, 92
(J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspecfiveson Achieving GIobalSecurip, 1992, Pg. 23 )

I shall begin my investigation of gendered perspectivc:s on global secwity in chapte; z with an examination of the concept of national security, the way in which security has traditionally been defined in international relations. I shall exr-'

amire realism, the approach that has been primarily concern& with issues of national security. I sha&~a.na!~%!&e extent to which redist assumptio~is about the international . . .______.-.-_.___-.., ~. system and the stat2s t K 3 corngost rely on the exp"!'r'c? of men andxri-+%e values that we have come to assEi?te . . with masculinity. If we were to incl Jde women's experiences -i n our assumphons about the seclirity-seeking behavior of states, how would it change the way in which we think division-!fkbor, about national security? !!~::ph men;s-csygtiEn. .IVikito!:cce-k~ been&@!-%!-. war -and . t h e . ~ s ~ ~ m e R t s - o ~ ~F e~ .s ~~ &t~et .~ . p e : ? @ ~ e s must~. introduce the ~... issue of don,,istic violence - and qnal~yz: ..., ~ _ _ _ ndaries between public and.pnv?te2. ... domestic-. and internationa1,qolitical and economic, are permeable ~. . . and __ interrelated~ ~

_ _ I

__

Giien.-t&sexual

MGW '07 'I'ICKNER FEMINISM K W H K LAB

ALT SOLVENCY: DECONSTRUCTION

Bringing in the masculine systems of dominance allows us to examine the possibility of alternate perspectives and concepts of gender relations. Tickner, 92
(J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Secirrify, 1992, Pg.132 -133 )

Bringing to light this associatibn between an idealized

.

. . o T conm?qXeXCativeperspectives . . . . -~ . . . . . divorced ..... from . histor.... iEiT associations with masculinity. However, ... if tKe . .worlds ...... of ...
. .
, . _ I

m a n h - ~ ~ - ~ n - ~ .- i n ~ ~ r - ~~~-2&~~-~~~~ ~ ~ ~ th-e. * ........ ~ -* ps - lib-f ~ iiV ~. ~c~o~~international . . statecrzt and strategic and foreign policy-mak.. ~ . r. . . . . ing ..._Iare worlds whose key protagonists are mostly men, one . .. .. coulTdaini that the discipline that describes them is a representation of reality a t least with respect to its gender biases. ........... autonomy The privileging of .concepts such ...... as power and aGaZCex$asis ..... __ on warand~conflict -. do . conform __ to patterns of many . . . . states . . . . in the syTtem. Howof6ehavior . . . . - international ...... -. . . . -. . . . - . .~ on national security, internaever, the fermnist perspectives ...... wnai political economy, and ecology that 1 have presented, . , ........ that which are based on different assumptions, demonstrate , , . . . of . conceptualizthere are equally plausible alternative ways .... ing~se.c~ur~ti---an~...pr.e.scnljiiig~oror~ifs--reallzation, . ..... .... They also. . . . raw our attenhon to examining the world from perspectives no.t.~o~e.~e~bec~~iirn~ma --or ~r ..t-h-o-se ~ . ~ . b~Wh0. ~ t -are -outside t~;i-.~. ...i.
. . .
~

__,__.

...

. , . . . ..n .q-

Ill_i

y p.~!JY~?c Pb-

,'

While the traditional national seccrity approach is based on the assumption that security demands autonomy and separation, in the highly interdependent world facing the multidimensional threats that i have described, autonomy may no longer be possible or desirable. Feminist .. , . approaaes $er npw fcii,,!s icf! tct westion 1 thi:! - -rxclusiona ...... q WBV ...... of thinking, Drawing on experiences more tvpical of women, feminist theories start with the assumption -. that ..... i. is .~ as .......... . much a pac striving for attachment and communitv hu?nan. 'natuie' -as '6 The-desire. .fbr ..independence. CCI~J~XI. . . . .

or

MGW ' 0 7 TlCKiiER FEMINISM K KRITIK LAB

tional . ~ ------;..---intemationalA&n%ihink.m& has-prioritized gh pohhcs," or issues relatingto..%te.ma.tionaI_c.onf&ct, hrom.other.j@?tie: -5. theLyFrdraws. oure!Mi!hax.ay ___ closer to behayiors_.Qa&national._syem,activities that are tionally associated with the feminine. Although it has been d ~ i ; a l ~ ~ ~ - ~ e - ' w a ~ - . ~ ~ - ~think ' - w about Mihinter.-i of national relations, buildingcommunity is also an aspect . ~.~ . the political and economic behavior of staxs in the intemat i o n a r s y x F m ; - . ~ s ~ ~Be...n~.ea' ~ ~ . g .~o.r.. - ;n-~-erd-~-Peri.~~erice .as
"
~

.-

one part of human behavior allows us to see community building not as an aberration but as another dimension of international behavior. Regional integration schemes, such as the European Community, suggest that we may be moving toward modes of international organization that demand different models of analysis, models not based on an exclur ,,< z - , ;.i sipary definition of national sovereignty. '

MCW '07 TICKh'ER FEMINISM K KNTIK LAB

ALTERNATIVE SOLVENCY: DECONSTRUCTION/COALITIONS

Thinking of power while incorporating feminist theories helps construct coalitions which empower womyn and deconstruct gendered hierarchies Tickner, 92
(J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in Infernnlional Relnfions: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Security, 1992, Pg. 65- 66)

.~~
~

esides a reconsideration of autonomyifeminist theories;: also offer useful - ~ rus .'~ andifferent l g ~ ~ o .definition u~~.~~e of ~ power . a ~ c hthat ~te hv e could e .m ~ee be . of ~t--~-f. positive-sum security that the women at The Hague and in Halifax and Nairobi described'as desirable. Hannah Arendt, ' frequently cited by feminists writing about power,(defines ,< power as the human ability to act in concL.~-o~actionthat.~3 'faken with o%%'rvTiiixare similar concerns.'W Thizdefini-power is ~ i m ~ ~ ~ a t - . ~ - p s David ~ c h MCo i ~ ~ s t Clelland's portrayal of female power which he describes . as shared r a t z r than assertive.*'" Jane Jaguette argues that, . . -to the instruments h e women have had access -_ -___ - of' coerGon --.-(the way power is u<ually used in international - have more oftenusedpprsuasion as a way relations), women of gaining power through coalitioi~-buildmg.luz These writers are conceprualmng powe?Ti-'~FfZna&ment rather than domination. While net denying that the way power is frequently used in international relations comes closer to a coercive mode, thinking about^I_...._._-...,.._ power in these terms is helpful -. -. for . d e v i s i x the cooperahve solutions necessary . for . .solving . .~ . the security threats identified in the Halifax women's defini--_..r_ tions ofsecunty. These~.different .views..of~ human behavior as models for ?&states point us in the direction the international behavior .~..

.j

, _ . . I

I_ I -

"~~

a subject whose views are as legitimate as our nwv, a wiT:-of thinking that has been .~

of^ an~appreciation, of the, "other'las

sadly k!i&z-ia!!ates_go a b o u t . . p r p . ~ d ~ n ~ o o ~ " t ~ w n that are based on the . security. Using feminist perspectives . -experiences.constructed some modeE^-of humaniTLvior that avoid hierarchicaj.~iic&qm~. -----.-. and that value arnb&uu.anddiffe:gnce; these alter1 ization native models could stand us in pod-stead as we seek+
I _

&~e~o~o~wxmenL~I~Ive-__

construct a less genderedvisianof . -gl&d WXK@L.

Feminist perspectives on --national security take us beyond ..... .. r e a E ? i T s E f Z representahons. They allow us to' . . _ .. . ___ the realist view oFTiatrona1 secunty is constructed ..... se that, whik it is only a partia viewof ..... reality, is taken as universal. Women's ..... definitions of security rnultii~~Ta . . . . . . n . ~~~dre ........ n ~Womeritiave-'defi-ed iona1. are l__._-l__-._-_____ ...,-..I . . . . ... secunty as the absence of violence . -. whether . . . it. b e . m g t a r y , ecoToiiiii,'3FZ?ual:NTiluiitil the hierarchical social rela-tions, tnTIuding E n d e r relaE6ns;that have been.hidZen b y ~ ............ ........... discourse are brought to realism's Eequently depersonalized tight can we beg&tto.cons.@.@.a. language of national securiij~XEi$-& ..... out of tht.. m ~ experiences ~ ~ of l ~ women ~ and men. As I have argued, feminist .................. theorysees,..all these . es of vlolence as interrelated I shall turn next to the tYP . . . ' . economic dimension of this multidimensional perspective on I 5 - $; 6 security. i
~

_ . I . _ _ _ _ ^

. . . l _ ^

j.j

MGW '07 TICKNER FEMINISM K KRITIK LAB

ALT SOLVENCY: IIUENVIORNMENTALISM

The inclusion of womyn in International Relations and environmental discourse is necessary to solve for state violence by reorienting our views about masculine war by states in the international system
Tickner, 92
(J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California,Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Security, 1992, Pg. 62- 63)

.- . Realists use state-of-nature .s&r&.. as.m&a$.hsrs to. de--- ~ma.narchic.a!.int.er.national scribe the i n s e c u w b f stZtes in an alternative story, which could s y s t....e z i F r s R & w e s t _._._I equally be applied to the behavior of individuals in the state of nature. Although frequently unreported in standard historical accounts, it is a true story, not a myth, about a state of nature in early nineteenth-century America. Among those present in the first winter encampment of the 1804-1806 Lewis and Clark expedition into the Northwest terri&es was Sacajawea, a member of the Shoshone hibe. Sacajawea had joined the expedition as the wife of a French interpreter; her presence was proving invaluable to the security of the expedition's members, whose task it was to explore. uncharted territory and establish contact with the native inhab-

itants to inform them of claims to these temtories by the

I.miter! States. A21thcugh:nant;.dpted by its Icxiei 3, i i ~ , c presence of a woman senled to assure the native inhdbitdnts that the expedition was peaceful since the Native Americans assumed that war parties would not include women: the expedition was therefore safer because it was not armed." -. introduction of women This story demonstrates that the can change the way humans ... are assumed to behave in the state . . . . . . . . . . of nature. ......... Just as SacaEwea's ........ presence changed-the Native American's expectations about thebehavior of intru-deG'5EY EieE ternto~~i;'ae~intibdction . . .- ...... of women. .... into oiir sGFoFriaure my%% could chanEe the way we think ahout -..... . .~--.-...... ,_..I_.......___..___._..I f i e behavior of states in the international , ................ system.-The ... u s e l < ! ! theory is th~ob~es~an-ana ~Yntema r . . . . . . . . . o . . . . . . . .g ~ honal ~ ~.... relations ... based%niTZpaftiaTv;ew-'of h m a... n nature that is stereoty$ ~..__ a_ more . I _ . _ . . inclusive-perspective .. .. cdyrmasculine; ............ wou&i see h u man nature as both conflictual .............. and cooperative, -. containing ....... el~~n~S'ofsocial~eproduction .-..-.........I and . _ interdependence as $ell . . ........... as domination and separahon. Generalizing from this more .......... .............. . . comprehensive view of human nature, a feminist .. ............... perspective ___ . _ I . . . . .commun$ wci&ssi?me'tEatfie potential for internahonal R\~~C'XtstF dftd.tRat-an.'a$mmisfit,........&iflk t ua1 view o ih t' ir; tc I. ria~onidsyS~iiY is-OnIy a partial representation of reaiiti. indiiiduaIiism,. .......... the instrumental rationality of tlic LIEFat . . . . I , . .. marketplace, and ... the defector's self-help approach in Rousseau'S stag hunt argLaII; in -anaIagous..ways, based . . . . . on . .a partial . . . .masculine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . model . . . . . . . . . of human.behaviOr.'* .. . . . . . .
~

.i~_

'

MGW '07 YICKNEH FEMINISM K KRIYIK LAB

Alt Solvency: Environment

We must accept the place of womyn in order to solve for the environment.

Tickner, 92
(J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southem California, Gender in Internntionnl Relutions: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Securily, 1992, Pg. 124-125 )

<.Sincew-omen have been associated with a deYallftdnatgre

..a particuthrough these hierarchical dualisms, women have . _ . _ I & , ,
_x.

w n g the domination of nature. As I..have st-at~d, women are often (he ivont'victims ofenvironmental n . - -- But j u x s T h a v e argued women as vi&ms in the protectorlprotected discourse of national security, so women must not be seen solely a5 VICtims of environmental degrada also as agents who

lar s

. . F .

I -

in with women hugging trees as a protest against cutting them down in the Chamoli district of Uttar Pradesh in 1973, met with some success when Indian prime minister Indira Gandhi issued a fifteen-year ban on the commercial felling of the forests of Uttar Pradesh. Women are also taking part in projects of reforestation; Kenya's Green Belt Movement, started in 1977 by the National Council of Women, involves women in the establishment of "Green Belt communities" and small tree nurseries.b9 The-@d-oj knowledge environmentaEWi%iFZ d~cersn~p:._rov?%?~ tKFli%~~now%dg cannot e be "scientific:' the = hYsk-EZg%ecognized by development and enviG X m e n a ta s foreign pokymljXZTAs
. , :

-.

~-

iMGW '07 TICKNEK FEMINISM K KRlTlU LAB

ALT SOLVENCY: INCLUSION

We must reorient our gender views on International Politics by including the voices of womyn through the analyzation of their experiences; if not, their exclusion and marginalization will continue

Tickner, 92
(J.

. women with very different political perspectives

. . -

Professor of InternationalRelations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Ferninis! Perspectives on Achieving Global Security, 1992, Pg. 4- 5)

The experiences of Abzug, Schroeder, and Kirkpatrick-

(hvo liberal

Democrats and one conservative Republican)--are examples of the difficulties thatwomen face when they try to enter the elite world of foreign policy decision-making. In this book, however, I do not intend to focus on to increase ---- strate& . . I the .~number of women --- in high f o r e i S p o l i.9. pqsitions. . believe that these gender-related diffifulties are symptomatic -_. of a-much deeper-lEu&&at I do wish to address: the extent to which international -. politics is such masculin. .. . --. .. a thoroughly ife-zsphere of activity that women's voices are considered ...~ .~,,. . . . . .- . -~ attempt is to step ~.~ back from the inaufhentic. Therefore my .. . .... - -- women who have ~.~ tried to operate In exEeriencgs.of~*e few the world of international politics, sometimes even success~and to examine how this world is constructed. B _ . _ l l _ _ _ . _ . y analyzing some of the writings of those w30 have tried to ' descriFexplain, . , and prescribe for the behavior of states in __^_-.... m - w ~-c ~ n ~ e ~ - t o - u -..nders~~dsome' the i n t e r n ~ o ~ ~ s t ~ of the deeper reasons for women's pervasive exclusion from --,-.. forei~~o~c~~a~~~ @-the,way - f o r r~ that h ~s ..~ .. we .~ .. ~ are ~... taught. to-think about international politics that the attitudes . . I~have' describer! arEh.%?ed. With its focus on the "high politics of ..~.. war - and Realpoli. . .. . . . . t _-, i k , the traditional . Western - - ~ . . academic discipline of . interna~ .... . ~ tional relations privileges.issues that. . grow .... out . of.men's exare socializedinto believing that war and power Friences; we .--- . . ~. " . . . ~. activity . . . with .. which men .~ have~a spefial polttics -.are>p&res.of -. affinityand that their voices in describing and prescribing _ . _ l. l_ _ _ .. _ l.l

___

-,

~ ~~---z -__
. , . _ . _ . . . . _ _ _ I . _ _ .
~

__?.?

~~

~~~~

~~~

for this world are authentic. The - therefore-likely to be more _ . I _ -~ . qroduction, in roles ____ traditionally ascribed to women-in _.li . . . ~ ~ ~. . householas, and even in - 'he economy--are .~j _ _ . . I genmdly .cgp..--sTdK6d-TrGT6vPnt .. ~ . . , . . . to the traditional --construction ~... . nf . ...... the - fidll. Ignoring women's experiences .. contributes not onlv to thei;'
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~

ex3usion but also tG3rocess . . . .__. . of self-selection tfiat . . . . -.. . iesdts~in . .. _ . .. ... .. . an ove&eTmingly male population .. both in .the ..~~ foreign . .policy world and in the academic .~ field of .~ international .-relations. Th? IS selection process b e a m w i t h the way we~arc. taught. to . . think about world politics,:_if women'sexpe~rienceswere to
,I . . _

,-

,,,_,x__-___

be.incfud~d;3.r3diCfI .. . . ... . . .redefinition . . .I . I. ~ he . fidd . ... ivould . ha

, , ,

take place.

MGW 07 TICKNER FEMINISM K KRlTIK LAB

ALT SOLVENCX EQUALITY

We must eliminate womyns unequal status in political structures for full equality to be achieved

Tickner, 92
(1. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Security, 1992, Pg. 15- 16)

Socialist feminists have tried to weave these various approaches together into some kind of a comprehensive explanation of womens oppression. Socialist feminists claim . that .. womens Losition in socieQs determined both by structures ...--..---. . ofpfpduc!i~n.in the~e-Cgn~-m~-a+iby structures of reproduction in the-.household, _-structures that are .. reinGice;J%y-~The . . .. -. . into gender roles. Women.;: early socialization of children -. . ~ . -- ... .. .. .. . . .. unequal all must be eliminated f o r . . . . . . status ~. ~.. in . . these structures ....... ~.
~ ~

~~~

~~

~~

. . .. ~.

.. . .

full equality to be achieved. Socialist feminism to . . .... thus tries . .~ in their multiple roles in understand the position of women . . . . ~. .order to find a single standpoint from-which fd@xplain t%& . . . . . . .~ -. .,, . . . ~ . ~ condition_. Using standpoint in the sense that it has been used by Marxists, these theorists claim that those who are oppressed have a better understanding of the sources of their oppression than their oppressors. A standpoint is an engaged vision of the world opposed and superior to dominant ways of thinking.2h
-
~

~I

MCW '07 TICKNER FEMINISM K KRITIK I AB - ._ - -. . .

__

ALT SOLVENCY: DYMANIC OBJECTIVITY

Dynamic Objectivity allows for our connectivity with the world that deconstructs western Capitalist theories, allowing us to think from an inclusive global perspective which allows for womyn's voices Tickner, 92
(J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relaiions: Feminist Perspecrives on Achieving Global Security, 1992, Pg. 64-65)

~.
. .

Evely; Krller argues -~ ior a form oi. . . knowledge.t.bt she calls objectivity . . that ....... grants to the world .. . - "dynamic . . amund ,. . . ... Us.jLs._L_ndeprndent integrib.but does ..... so .... in a way . . . . ...... that remains . . . . . . . . . cognizant .... of, indeed relies on, 0gr.connectivikwith ~iigB ~. . -. t6at -. world. Keller's ..... view of dynamic objectivity co_ntains - ...... aralfeE-with what . . Sandra darding . calls an African worldP ............ ...... V~CU.." . .. Harding tells us that !he Western liberal notion of ............... . InstmmCnta3 . . ._ rational. econcmic man similar to the notion _ . _ I _ of rational political man upon which realism has based its not make sense in the Afritheoretical investigations, does ... ...... ........ can worldview where the individual is seen as part of the ........ ... .......... ... social order and .. as acting within that - order ra&r . than upgn iCHa?Zing believes that this view of human behavior has a view of much in common with a feminist perspective; such . . . . help us to begin to think from a more human behavior could ^ _ _ _ . . . _ . " I _ _ _ _ __ .. ..... . . .......... .- global,.p~rspe~hve..~~at .--.---__.._.__.._._...._.-....-_I_ apprenates cultural diversity but ........ at . --- recognizes a growing ........... interdependence. that -. .. the same time makes anachronistic the exclusionary thinking fostered by ........ . . . . . . .

_ I _ _ _ _ _

. .

__

*MGW '07

TICKNER FEMINISM K KRITIK LAB

ALTERNATIVE SOLVENCY: SECURITY

Feminist reformulations of security from the perspective of the individual can reevaluate conceptions of security that are less militaristic and masculine, allowing for the reorientation of gender hierarchies and the deconstruction of patriarchal domination Tickner. 92
(J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southem California, Gender in Internotional Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Security, 1992, Pg. 5 3 )

...

W g n . w.e r~nside~..secun~.fr.O~m .the~perspective .of the indidd.uaI, we find that new . thinkn@ beginni_ngt.o..e~O-,..
. . _ l
~

vide us with-XeKihons __ . . . . . . . of securitythg.~are-.less-~stateIcen......... tered and less militaristic. .- -~ .... But little attention has been paid either to gender issues or to women's particular needs with respect to security or to their contributions toward its achievement. Feminist __ reformulations ....... of the meaning of se-. . . . . . . ~. . . z . i____ ty are . . . neede.Xto_ .... draw.atten.ti.on__tothe..exte.ntto whjch gender . hierarchies ... the-mseIve_sre~a source. of..domi@a.tion . . . . . . . . . . to . . . . . . a truly rehensive definition of a d - t h u s an obstacle -- ,. .~ . -.-~ . . . .i. ..... I sFia now turn to th of how women might efine national security and to an analysis of security from a feminist perspective. )

se-xri~y.

M G W 07

IICKNEK FEMINISM K KRITIK LAB

Alt Solvency: Impacts

Alt avoids impacts through restructuring International Relations based on critical Feminist theories Tickner, 92
(J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving GlobalSecurity, 1992, Pg. 135 )

c Becausgwomenhsxgbeen peripheral to the institutions

t m n d transnational capital, feminist p&ecti& of.. on international relations must a k e.-a_ critical stance with - t .

natural environment. B
. ..... ~ . ..~

n e e d s x g e s a state that is more self-reliant with.respct to% internahonal sy o . w ~ n . . ~ e 3 0 . us ~ . ce~~~

--

extended definition of semity that goes beyoiid a national-. .. . focus .. . ___ and b e & istT&litarist . & tc!&!gsgn:pjc and
~

ecological . security n e e X o f

l s . ~ istates..alike. j >

MCW '07

TICKh'ER FEMINISM K KIUTIK LAB

FRAMEWORK: EUROCENTRISM BAD

You must reject their Western, masculine based language and include womyn's voices to shape our relationship with gender hierarchies; this is necessary to deconstruct the security views of hegemonic masculinity
Tickner, 92
(I. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Security, 1992, Pg. 36 )

Morgenthau, Waltz, and other realists claim that it is possible ...---. to d e v e b e a g j c a ! , +jj.c$vAthepry . o t ~ m & d politics based on u n i v e r s a l l a w s t h a t . o ~ e r a ~ % ~ o s s t ~ d space. In her feminist critique of the n a t u r a l w c e s , Evelyn Fox Keiler points out that most scientific communities share
1

ost contemporary feminists, of science that, she asserts,

. Since most contemporary feminist scholars

nowledge is socially constructed,' they are skep-

international system-the three levels of analysis that realists use in their analysis of war and national security-and examine how they have been constructed in realist discourse. I shall argue that thca$pge.used to dessnbe thesesoncepts

at.75 .corisffiictedout of values associated

MGW '07

I'ICKNER FEMINISM K KRIrlK LAB

*'/ _-

Framework: Gender as a Category of Analysis

We should use gender as a category of analysis through which we can examine the extent to which gender domination occurs in military, economic, and ecological terms.
Tickner, 92
(J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in lnternationa/ Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving GIobul Securify, 1992, Pg. 129-130 )

(Including previously .... hidden -. gender inequalities in the .................... . . .y ~ s .. - o f i n s e c u r i ~ .allows us to see how so many of a. ~ . .... . . . . - ......... - . the insecurities affecting us all, women and men alike, are . . . . . . _genderea in their IustoncaTongins, their conventional d e z niiiZn&theircunt?Elporarji 5Gnifestations. Using --gen... as a category of analysis reveals the masculinist assumpder tions of both traditional and revisionist '&eoi%eX . OWiimria. . . tiGiaT __ ..-poliEs. . .an~-economics.Tt~Tssballows us to see the .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . extent to wliiCIi uneq.3 gender relationships are a form . . . . o f dorninahon tFat c o a u t e s to--mani-<fKe dimensions of ... .. the contemporary insecunies anaqzed by various new t .... h m : e F c 'Femr3&< t~e~~separab o f i l gendrred i~ Insccurities from those describable in military, - .economic, and ecological terms; such problems cannot %be. Fully resolved . . . also overcomingthe domination. and_exp!oItation. of without women tKat takes place in each of .............. these domain_s.-';s , .~'SuFh-aconception of security is based on the-&sumption that social justice, including gender justice, is necessav for an enduring peace. While acknowledging that unequal social relations are not the only sources of insecurity, feminists believe that contemporary insecurities are doubly engendered. Beyond the view that all social institutions, including those of world politics, are made by human beings and are therefore changeable, they recognize that comprehe,nsive~.se. . . . . . . the removal curizrequires ......... of gender-linked insecurities. Reveding these gender inequalities ......... allows us to see how their ..................... . . . . . -. open . up .......... new possibilities for the alleviaelimiriation~wou1d tion of thevarious domains of r global insecurity ... .- that I have ... . . ............ . . described. Overcoming_gende~,nesalities ...... ...-....... is necessary,not only for the security of women but also for the realiation of
I

_1

_ _ - I

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. .

__?

q-

_ I

^ , I

.....

__

..............................

. . . . . . . . . . .

MGW 07 TICKNER FEMINISM KRITIK LAB

a type of securitythat . . I does not rely on characteristics associated with the hegemonic masculinity that has produced a kind of security that can be a threat to mens security also. Men are themselves insecure partly because of the exclusionary, gendered way their own security has been defined. This final chapter will draw together some of the ways in which the integration of these gendered perspectives on international security can contribute to reformulating the discipline of international relations. However, the ultimate goal.. of such a reformulation must not be to ~~JIC the-masculin-. . international relations that presentlv obist-pFrspecfive--on
~

MCW '07 TICKNEK FEMINISM K KRITIK LAB

State Fails
State fails- we must eliminate hierarchal gender distinctions and the statist approaches to national
security. Tickner, 92
(1. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in lnten!ational Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Security, 1992, Pg. 133-134)

r&-Bo-nKdE-.&---s.t.

of nuclear annihilation and environmental degd. . the mterdepenience of states i i i tfiek-'ecOno&

~ ~

~ ~ ~ . ~ - . . . .

r i t j ;-' -a ~ - ~ec . _ ~m -- ~ - ~ .... s ~ n ~. cWe tio can n ano l .Tongeiaffb-idfo thk& - .. i n terms ... of the hierarchical b o U n ~ ~ry~d;S~ - ---~ -.t i O * ~ - f o ~ - -. .~ tered by the exchionary welthey attitude of the modem S t a s syst~m-:-Tech~ogies.of~modem warfare have broken down boundaries between protectors and protected. Interventioni-s~prac-h-ces.o~ pa~ers.-nt&e.conK*cts of Weaker

t$.tist-~p.p . . . ~ .. o a ~ e ~ t o . . n . a~~.o~~~"~
~

ear

states, as well as ethnic strife caused by the lack of coinddence between state boundaries and the various nationalities living within these internationally sanctioned borders, blur distinctions between domestic and international violence. If this feminist analysis has suggested that true security can be ~., ~

~ .

olitical and e c o n o ~ G s i o m n e g , approaches that draw P-._. ,= .~ ~

~.

to production and reproduction in their household roles and in the subsistence economy. They also point to the fact that the exploitation of women's unpaid or underpaid labor has been crucial for the expansion of the capitalist world ecquxny,.-7 -33 - 1 3 '7 ,

MGW 07 TICKNER FEMINISM K ICRITIK LAB

A2: Realism
Realism and neorealism merely hide the masculine dominance present in scientific and ecological inquiry. Tickner, 92
(J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Securip, 1992, Pg. 130- 131)

I -

,Re gendered perspectives on security I have presented point io the conclusion that the discipline of international relations, as it is presently constructed, is defined in terms of everything that is not female. While classical realism has 8nd experiences constructed its analysis ogt ~f the beha_vl:sr of men, neorealisms commitment to a positivist methodol-

;nd-Fc6n6mEi?for, ~ ~ . . . . . ~ . . I . . . _ _ _

objectivity, realism has constructed an approach that builds babed on behaviors associy torms of masculinitv and femininity .exiit that vary across class, racG-culture, and history, international relations theories, and the world they analyze, privilege values associater-&all: Thhs. .. struited hegemonic masculiniL . hegem -. . .. i@ consists?% set of characteristics that, whileare :, .--___ draG-ertain behaviors of Western males. do not nec-.: . . _ . . ., . . .. essarilxit the-%ehavior of all men, Western men included);;-, ,

all suggest that, beneath its claim t o

-A L i , -

-_-

~~

. :
MGW '07

--

"(

TlCKNER FEMlNlSM K W T I K LAB

A2 REALISM: NO ALT
The alternative is able to challenge the current disempowering effects of the masculine, realist thinking; by reorienting our conception of the gendered construction of International Politics we can create alternatives that recognize individualism and avoid war

...
. , . ., ... _*

i~ ir Feminist perspectives should ......... question .... the analytical s e p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -_-- ihree levels of analysis, which realists have arabilEoTXese
........
c , . .

kG&d as supposedly independent levels or aspects of realrealists .... c r i t i c i z _ e r e d u ~ ~ o ~ l s t ~ a ~ ~ a I ity. If systems-oriented.....

.

accounts focused only . on human nature,. feminists might . . . . ~.~ of state and eq<amn-o%j@ft7iat scientific causal analyses sysremeiTeT pkamiieria...isfct our attention .... fTrom~the Jofc of?i?SpoXZiE-iiidijEIiua~s .. and groups in the construction ~. systemic -. . relationships. level and ..... have a ................... vested interest vis-h-vis supporters insainting . . .a. picture of the worldas threateningly . anarchic; . . -........ anarchic .-.,.-.intcrrna. . . . . . . bxindividuals . who .......... believe n<> roduced ,P..
.
~

. L

world plcture, feminist perspectives on national securiw must o~~aIteiiiaii~e~~~~~*-ti"~~;.A categnries ~.~ . "~ .~ ~ - ~ h ~ ~ . t h e s e
. .

Recognizing .__-__ the gendered construction of this three-tiered ..... ........

.............

are mutually constitutive a i d mutually reinforcing ot each ather, we shot& heed Paul Fussell's claim, i to this chapter, that our.conceptirm of the individual.manhood must be redefined in th ..... Ge before war at-t~efieint;.mational systemic IeviI can be rFgarrdedaS%voiaa%re: n-ese-genaered depictions of poiiffcar . . . . . .. ma% the state, and . the .......... system generate i nd. . honal security discourse that

the risking of life, tow &-pivine attaliv 0 ~I ~......... ties, allows .us to envisage~aIt6rnati"econceptions of nationdl ........ sec-uritY, --..~ . --

JfJfijfi@e; tjtkgf pjjiOf th*nkl fGm-valofi'i%g. , . . Kuman . . . ....

.

,~

MGW '07 TIClCNER FEMINISM ti m r i t i LAB

A2: Nuke War

Reject their claims of Nuke war: by reorienting our relationship to gender, we solve hierarchal threats of nuke war by restructuring and eliminating structural violence Tickner, 92
(J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relntions: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Security, 1992, Pg. 138)

the importance of placing greater public vaLe -. . . ..... . . . . __ on reproduction andmaintenance. In a world where nuclear ....... wZcEZd-&stroy . . the earth........................... and most of its.inhabitants,,.w_o I . . . _ _ afford . . . to celebrate- the..poten~l.~d.eath..-oaf can no longer hundreds of thousands of our enemies, the .......................... 2 . . ........ preservati0.n. of l .i ___i_____._._..l fe~-naffts-~e .. s. ~ . . .c .. t.i.must . o .. n . .,. . . be . . . .valued. ............ The . . . . . .elidination of structural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . violence ................ demands ..a res*c$ring . of . . the global economy so that lndlvlduals' bask materlal~needs take prior........................ ............... .~ .~ ity over the desire for,profit.An endangered natural environme5troints to the need-to think in terms of the reproduction rather than the exploitation of nature. This ethic OfLa-ringgfar the_Elanet and its inh&&mhhas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . been devalued bv linking it to fKj%ijv~te-Fe& as~iated. * t h the-actitities .of ,women; .:-. ---. et canng and respons_ilg&-are necess-yaspects of all di. mensionXfJiffpblic ......... and p r i v a t e . T h e y 1 b e valued 'in t h e z-~ b + . , zl i c realm on1 when. men . . . participate .. equally..l_n the private realm in tas s associated with maintenance acd re,,
~

muJh&ensionaJnahrre ofcontempnaw inserurifies ...................

I

--

; ,

MCW 07

TICKNER FEMlNlSM K
KRlTIK LAB

A2: THEY SOLVE ENVIORNMENT

Their claims of environmental solvency depoliticizes the Euro-centric domination of womyn through the images of taming Mother Earth, and only reinforces contemporary boundaries of inequality Tickner, 92
(J. AM. Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in Internutionul Relutions: Feminisf Perspectives on Achievrng GIobalSecrrriry, 1992, Pg. 114)

While these uluversahzzmg images of one world and.: Its .c, L. : : ~ . : fragility have serve3 to alert people to the dangers of envi-

ronmental degradation and resource constraints, they have seriously depditi&ed issues that remain embeddedin.the .... . . ... . . ~s~o.ncaIprac.~c European es~~t~ state ~ system. . The +age of Mother Earthtames and domesticates our perception 2 . . .~ . . . ..,. .. ... a world this historically . . expansive system has been -. . in which . . . . . -. . reyonsible for the erection o f contemporary .. be. . . . . .. . ~ boandaries . . .. ~ . . tween~.~ North ~and.~.South, rich and poor, and men and women. These boundaries Of hequaliQ:affe&the way in
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the affluent are concerned with the potential hazards of a thinning ozone layer, the poor are confronted by more immediate environmental degradation, such as contaminat water and soil erosion, which threaten their daily existence

M G W 07

TICKNER FE,MINISM K KRITIK LAB

A2: BUTLER
Butlers alternatives fail: the removal of gender fails to solve for the masculine underpinnings existing in international relations; womyn will still be forced to become masculine Tickner, 92
(J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in lntemational Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Security, 1992, Pg. 143)

The first phase is what McIntosh describes as a womanless

wrld; this type of annl;:is

dexriks c ~ ! y :he x M t t : e s

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those holding high positions of power, usually in dominant states. It is a mode of analysis that has the effect of reinforcing the existing system. My analysis of traditional approaches to the discipline suggests that this is where most c?f our conventional teaching about international relations has been situated. Phase two, which also has the effect of reinforcing the existing system, notes the absence of women and adds a famous few to the curriculum. While these additions provide role models for women, they do nothing to change the discipline in ways that acknowledge that anything can be learned from womens experiences; rather, they suggest that women can be recognized by the discipline only if they become like men in the public world. In phase three, the absence of women is seen as a problem as we begin to understand the politics implicit in a cumculum constructed without the inclusion of womens experiences; in this phase, women are typically seen as victims. Moving to phase four involves seeing women as valid human beings whose various life experiences have shaped the world in which we live, even though their contributions involve tasks that art often unacknowledged. The final phase of McIntoshs curriculum development brings us to the point where the subject matter of the discipline genuinely includes the experiences of all individuals regardless of race, culture, class, and gender.

MGW '07 TICKNER FEMINISM K

: . I_ -< Y _
s

KRlTIK LAB

A2: BUTLER
We must first accept womyn's unique feminine value in International Relations before we begin to move towards a non-gendered world
Tickner, 92
(J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in lnternntionol Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Securiw, 1992, Pg. 144)

Were it to be realized, such a "re-vision" would have a profound impact on the d i s a m i n t e r n a h o n a l relahOIfS, ,,whkh is noteworthy tor its exciusiona v 0th With-iSpecT-to - w ~ e ._--. n - a _. s .~ e ~ ~ As .tTiFa-has ~. cncludes ...~. us all -i would require a r ndaries of its '..i subject m$ter. ; % I absence ..c ) L x W H & S k ~ M In temational relations co - - - h -

MGW '07 TICKNER FEMINISM K KRITIK LAB

1A --

AFF TURN: ESSENTIALISM

Drawing exclusively on the experiences of white Western women reproduces the same dualking distinctions existent in patriarchal discourse
Tickner, 92
(J. Am, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Ferninis, Perspectives on Achieving Global Security, 1992, Pa. - )

This notion of standpoint has been seriously criticized bypostmodern feminists who argue that a unified . - .................... representation of women across .class, racial, and cultural lines is an . .................. ,impossibiIifst as feminists ..... more . . . . . . . . . ge_neY_ly have criticized ex~s~ng ~ o w l ~ ~ g e is t h grounded a t in the experiences of . _ I _ _ . . . . . . . . . .. ........ white.''Wl;tem . ~mares, postmodernists .. claim that . . . feminists ...... are in danger ... of essentializing the-meaning. of themselves woman ...... when ihey draw . . exclusively on t h e experiences of white Western women: s u i anapproCcX~'E~ns the-additional n.sx .o-~.r-ep.r.oauu~n~g. ~e-sa-m.e-duaKzcn-g a~s&-c-tio-ns-tiat~ fern.
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iG'sFSo6lect . . . . to in patriarchal .............. discourse.2TPfls~oaemists be__ lieve hat a mulbplicity of women's ........ voices must be heard lest .............. .................. .. ~-. itself secome .......... one . more hierarchical system of feminism . . . . . . . . . . ... knowledge.......... construction. . Any. attempt to construct feminist perspectives on inter...... -.... . . nationalrefarions-must-take. . . . this concem of . posGode&sts ..... seriously; as described above, d . ~ m ~ n ~ n ~ a ~ r o ~ c h ~ s t o . . ~ t e r national... relations have been r.~. Western-centered andr.. have fo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...-.cused their theoretical inveshgahons on the achvities of the . . .... - .. An important goal.~for-ma~y"fe~nists'haS_ gre a . . . . powers. . . _ _ I been to attempt to speak for the marginalized and oppressed: much of contemporary feminism has also recognized the need to be sensitive to the multiple voices of *omen and the variety of circumstances out of which they speak. DeveloPing.P_e~~pectivesthatcan_s_hed.ligh.t . . . . on_p""der hierarchies a s they contribute to women's oppresslon worfchide .......... . __ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . must thereforebe ___ sensi.tivet_o_the..da.ngeIs of.consku$hng a .... ~Vestern-c.e,nterebapproach. ...... Many Western feminists are un_.
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derstandably apprehensive about replicating men's knowledge by generalizing from the experiences of white Western further women. Yet . . . . to be unable to speak for women -. . . . . . . . only ... reinforces the .voices __of_ihoze.w~h!? ~h.~ve_cpnstrUCted % ' ....... . _-,proaches .... to international relations out of the experiences ... . I . . ...... ....
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its theory and its practice. Having presented rnultiparadigmatic, multiperspective descriptions of both disciplines, 1 shall be drawing on and. w synthesizing a Variety Of feminist perspectives as I seek to develop a gendered analysis of Some nf +hn maim auuroaches to international relations.

MGW '07 'HCICYER FEMINISM K KRITIK LAB

I -_

IMPACTS/ ALT SOLVENCY: DECONSTRUCTION

Until we reject the oppressive gender hierarchies apparent in International Politics, global security and an inclusive non-gendered future can never be achieved Tickner, 92
(J. Ann, Professor of International Relations at University of Southern California, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Security, 1992, Pg. 2 4 6 1
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mediate step toward the eventual goal of a nongendered