Mendel university of Brno Faculty of forestry and wood technology

Analysis of airborne LiDAR data for estimation of tree height, DBH and tree volume

Bachelor thesis

2013

Roberto Tjesse Beth

Mendel university of Brno Faculty of forestry and wood technology

Department of Geoinformation technologies

Analysis of airborne LiDAR data for estimation of tree height, DBH and tree volume

Bachelor thesis

Supervisor: Tom Mikita

RobertoTjesse Beth

Statutory declaration

I hereby assert that I compiled the bachelor work on the topic of LiDAR data for forest mensuration variable determination by myself and have stated all sources used. I agree to my thesis being published in accordance with 47(b) of the Act No. 111/1998 Coll. on Higher Education Institutions including amendments to some other acts, and deposited in the Mendel University library in Brno, accessible for study purposes in compliance with Mendel University Chancellors decree on archiving final works in electronic form. The qualification thesis author agrees to obtain a written statement from the University that any license agreement with a third party on the use of copyright does not contravene the rightful interests of the University prior to executing any such agreement, and agrees to disburse any compensation for costs incurred in association with the thesis compilation in compliance with the due calculation. In Brno on the 27th of June of 2013 students signature:

Acknowledgments
I would like to thank all the people who helped me with this project, specially to my supervisor Tom Mikita and to my girlfriend.

Abstract:
In this bachelor work we present a study on the efficiency of multi-return LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) data in the estimation of mensuration parameters in the forest of Ktiny. The goals of this study are (1) introduce the state-of-the-art in LiDAR data uses for forest mensuration studies, (2) define a clear how-to methodology for ALS data assessment for mensuration purposes and (3) compare the obtained results of the processed data with estimated information of yield tables, comparing statistical results.

Abstrakt:

Tto bakalrska prca sa zaober tdiom o innosti multi-eko LIDAR (Detekcie svetla a rozsahu) dt v odhade meran parametrov v lese Ktiny. Ciemi tejto tdie s: (1) predloi najvyiu rove rozvoja LIDAR dt uplatujc k tdiu merania lesa, (2) jasne vymedzi "ako na" metodiku pre posudzovanie dt ALS (Leteckch laserovch dajov) pre meracie ely a (3) porovna dosiahnut vsledky spracovanch dt s odhadovanmi informciami rastovch tabuliek, porovnvajc tatistick vsledky.

Keywords: airborne laser scanning, tree height evaluation, digital elevation model, digital surface model, Lidar Analysis, Lidar history

Table of Contents

Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 2 1. Literature review ......................................................................................................... 3 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 2. Remote sensing, introduction .............................................................................3 The electromagnetic spectrum ...........................................................................4 Electromagnetic energy interactions with atmosphere and earths surface. ........5 LiDAR Technology ..........................................................................................10

Analysis of Airborne LiDAR data for mensuration parameters. .............................. 13 2.1 2.1.1 2.1.2 2.2 Area of study ....................................................................................................13 The forest .....................................................................................................13 Field data ....................................................................................................13 Methodology ....................................................................................................15

3 4. 5.

Results and conclusion.............................................................................................. 17 Citations .................................................................................................................... 20 Appendices ........................................................................................................... 22

Introduction

Remote sensing has become a useful way of retrieving biophysical variables. The uses in forestry are wide, resources management, fire prevention assessment, forest mensuration, territorial planning or biocenological studies are just some of the fields were this science can be implemented. In this work we will focus on forest mensuration. Individual tree identification and height determination from ALS (Airborne laser scanning) data is particularly useful in growth and yield estimations, being now a days an indispensable tool for any forest enterprise. The accuracy of this measurements is high and the accuracy of the results will depend on the knowledge in GIS . In this study we analyze the process of variable extraction out from digital elevation models (DEM) and digital surface models (DSM) of a forested area near Brno, Czech Republic. Simple spatial operations such as focal statistic filtrations are used to focus and discriminate low value points, defining a canopy height model. Results and conclusions are presented at the end.

1.
1.1

Literature review
Remote sensing, introduction

Defined as the process or technique of obtaining information about an object, area, or phenomenon through the analysis of data acquired by a device without being in contact with the object, area or phenomena being studied (Chandra 2002). It consists of the interpretation of measurements of electromagnetic energy reflected from or emitted by a target from a vantage-point that is distant from the target (Mather,1999). To properly understand remote sensing it is necessary some knowledge in Electromagnetic energy, its characteristics and interactions. There are two ways of modeling EM energy, by waves or by energy bearing particles. In the wave model, EM energy is represented through sinusoidal waves which are propagating in space. These waves are characterized by an electrical field (E) and a magnetic field (M) both perpendicular to each other. The vibration of both fields is perpendicular to the direction of the wave and propagate at the speed of light (c) which is 299.799.000 ms-1, and can be rounded off to 3x108 ms-1. The wavelength of an electromagnetic wave is defined as the distance between successive wave crests. Wavelength is measured in meters (m) or some fraction of meters, such as nanometers (m, 10-9m) or micrometers (m, 10-6 m). The frequency (v) is the number of cycles of a wave passing a fixed point over a specific period of time. Normally measured in hertz (Hz), which is the equivalent of one cycle per second since the speed of light is constant, wavelength and frequency are inversely related.
v= c

Eq 1.1

Even most characteristics of electromagnetic energy can be described using this wave model, it is important to point out the uses of the particle model. This approach is considered when quantifying the amount of energy received by a multispectral 3

sensor. The amount of energy held by a photon of a specific wavelength is given by

Q = hv
Eq.1.2 Where Q is the energy of a photon A, and h is Planck's constant (6.6262x10-34JS). From here we can deduce that the longer the wavelength, the lower the energy

content. Fig. 1.1 Representation of Electromagnetic energy

1.2

The electromagnetic spectrum

Electromagnetic emission is radiated by any matter with absolute temperature above zero (0K) due to molecular agitation. This electromagnetic energy is usually in waves of various wavelengths. The total range of wavelengths extended from gamma rays to radio waves is commonly referred to as electromagnetic spectrum. The amount of energy radiated depends on its temperature and emissivity. Most matter absorbs and reemits a a part of EM energy, usually between 80-98% of the received energy is re-emitted and the remaining part is absorbed. We call optical part of the electromagnetic spectrum to that part where optical laws, such as reflectance and refraction, can be applied. This optical range extends from X-rays until far infrared. The visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum is commonly called light and occupies a little part of the EM spectrum. 4

Fig 1.2 The visible part of the spectrum is limited to 400 nm .

1.3

Electromagnetic energy interactions with atmosphere and earths surface.

Atmospheric interactions

1.3.1

When electromagnetic energy is traveling through the atmosphere there are three fundamental interactions; absorption, transmission and scattering. We will use the incidence of the sun radiation to describe the electromagnetic energy interferences through atmosphere and the interaction occurring with earth surface. The most important absorbers of solar radiation in the atmosphere are ozone (O3), Water vapour (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2). Figure 1.3 shows the atmospheric transmission between the 0 to 70 m wavelength region. It is appreciable that a small part of the spectrum is transmitted through the atmosphere. This is called the atmospheric window. Only the wavelength regions out from the of the main absorption bands of atmospheric gases can be used for remote sensing. The presence of atmospheric moisture impends the transmission of only short wavelengths. There is a big absorption in longer wavelengths, from 33m to 1mm.

Fig.1.3 The atmospheric window are wavelengths at which electromagnetic radiation will penetrate the Earth's atmosphere, the chemicals notated are responsible of the respective retention.

Once explained absorption and transmission, we have to consider scattering. Atmospheric scattering is defined as the influence that particles and gaseous molecules have in the path of electromagnetic energy, deviating the initial direction. There are 3 different kinds of scattering, Rayleigh scattering, Mie scattering and Non-selective scattering. Factors affecting scattering are wavelength, amount of particles and distance travelled through the atmosphere. Rayleigh scattering: This scattering predominates when the electromagnetic

energy interacts with particles that are smaller than its own wavelength. This could be particles of nitrogen and oxigen, for example. Shorter wavelengths are more affected by this scattering than longer wavelengths. A good example of this kind of this effect is the perception human eyes has of the sky. In the absence of particles, the sky would appear black. In daytime, sun rays travel the shortest distance through the atmosphere to the surface, causing humans eye to perceive it blue because it is the shortest wavelength our eye can observe. But at sunrise or sunset the distance of the sun rays through the atmosphere is longer, causing all the shorter wavelengths to be 6

scattered, and only the longer wavelengths reach the surface, and as a result, the sky appears orange or red. In the context of satellite remote sensing the Rayleigh scattering is very important. It causes a distortion of spectral characteristics of the reflected light when compared to measurements taken on the ground. In general, this scattering affects the contrast of photos, limiting the possibilities for image classification. Mie scattering: This kind of scattering occurs when the wavelength of the

incoming radiation is similar in size to that of the atmosphere particles. Generally restricted to the lower atmosphere, where large particles, such as aerosols, dust and water vapour predominate. It influences the entire spectral region from near to ultraviolet (400-200nm) including the near infrared (1um-1000 nm). Non-selective scattering: Independent of the size of the wavelength, this

scattering happens when the size of the particles is much larger than the radiation wavelength. The most representative effect of non-selective scattering includes the effect of clouds (consisting of water drops). Since all wavelengths are scattered equally a cloud appears white.

1.3.2

Earths surface interactions

The incidence of Electromagnetic energy on any given feature of earth surface has three possible interactions. Reflection, absorption and transmission. The interrelationship between the three energy interactions can be expressed as follows.
Ei ( )= Er ( )+ Ea ( )+ Et ( )

Eq. 2.1 Where Ei= The incident energy Er= The reflected energy Ea= The absorbed energy Et= The transmitted energy

The proportions between these energies vary depending on the material type and condition of the feature. Further more, they can also vary depending on the wavelength. These spectral variations within the visible portion of the spectrum result in the visual effect called colour. For instance, an object will be green if it reflects more of the green portion of the visible spectrum, and red if it reflects more of the red portion of the visible spectrum. Remote sensing systems operate in the wavelength regions were reflectance is dominant. Depending on the feature sensed, different wavelengths will be used. Reflectance properties play an important role, the modified form of Eq. 2.1 written as Eq. 2.2 shows that the reflected energy is equal as the incident energy reduced by the sum of the absorbed energy and the transmitted energy.
Er ( )= Ei ( ) [ Ea ( )+ Et ( )]
Eq. 2.2

The geometric character of the object sensed determines the kind of reflection. There are four kinds of reflections possible, categorized depending on the roughness of the surface, listed as follows: specular, near-specular, near-diffuse and diffuse reflections or also called Lambertian reflection. As a matter of fact, surfaces usually give a mix of reflectances. Specular reflectance, which is peculiar of mirrors, do not give any information of colour, and remote sensing focuses on the diffuse reflection of objects. The spectral reflectance is quantified by measuring the reflected energy expressed as a percentage with the incident energy. (fig 2.3)
= energy of wavelength()reflected from the object x 100 Energy of wavelength ()incident upon the object

Eq. 2.3

1.3.3 Vegetation interaction The spectral reflectance of vegetation is distinctive and quite variable depending on the wavelength. Fig 2.4 shows low reflectance in the blue and red region of the 8

visible spectrum. This low reflectance corresponds to two chlorophyll absorption bands. These absorption bands are centered around 0.45 m, hence a peak occurs due to absence of chlorophyll absorption band. There are also other pigments present in plants. Carotheses and xantophylls (yellow pigment) are frequent, and have absorption bands in blue region. Some trees produce anthocyanins (red) in large quantities, making them appear red. Green vegetation is characterized by high reflectance, hight transmittance and low absorption beyond 0.7 m as the spectrum passes from visible to infrared. Reflectance and transmittance are around 45-50% for each and absorption in the order of 5%.

Fig.1.4 Shows differences among reflectance between coniferous versus deciduous.

It has also been noticed that a multilayered vegetation area has higher reflectance, the difference between multi-layered and single layered reflectance being around 85%. This is consequence of the additive reflectance energy transmitted to the second layer through the first layer, having significant impact on the data taken. In the middle infrared portion spectral reflectance shows the effect of water, which has an absorption band centered at around 1.4 m,1.9 m and 2.7 m, with some small weak bands at 0.90 m and 1.1 m. The reflect peaks in the middle infrared occu at 1.6 m and 2,2 m. It has also been noticed that leaf-moisture has a high effect on 9

reflection, decreasing the moisture content the reflectance increases.

1.4

LiDAR Technology

1.4.1 Introduction LiDAR or also called LaDAR (light detection and ranging) is an active remote sensing technique that has proven to be a key tool in modeling and mapping the environment. Referred to the action of sensing from a certain distance in an active way (Baltsavias 1999), the importance this application has now a days in many ecosystem studies is unmeasurable. The possibility, for instance, to determine spatial patterns found in vegetation on terrestrial images, opens a wide perspective to ecological studies. This literature review aims to define and describe basic terms used in this paper, and add a brief historical overview if possible.

1.4.2 LiDAR state-of-the-art The ability of LiDAR sensors to derive accurate digital terrain models (DTM), and even model vegetation structures on forested areas has called attention of foresters. Following the developing pace of technology, the first attempts to measure distance by light beams were pioneered by Hulburt in the 1930s using searchlights to measure stratospheric aerosols and molecular density. In 1937 light pulses were used to determine the height of clouds and after the invention of the laser in 1958 by Schawlow and Townes(fundamental work) in 1958 and Maiman (construction) in 1960. followed by the first laser studies of the atmosphere undertaken by Fiocco and Smullin in 1963 , not to forget mentioning the studies of the upper region of the troposphere made by Ligda ,also in 1963. Atmospheric LiDAR -

First uses of LiDAR technology were the detection and evaluation of densities in different stratum of the atmosphere. Advances in wavelength selection made possible 10

an exceptional variety of applications, ranging from probing of the trace-constituent distribution as well as temperature in the upper atmosphere with Resonance fluorescence LiDAR, to lower atmosphere constituents using differential absorption LiDAR, boundary layers,wind and temperature with the Coherent Doppler LiDAR and direction detection LiDAR, to airborne chlorophyl mapping of the oceans, making use of fluorescence LiDAR Target LiDAR range determination

In target LiDARs, we will find LiDARs for ranging, also called laser range finder or laser altimeter and LiDARs for specie identification laser induced fluorescence LiDAR.

LiDAR sensors determine the distance to their target by calculating the elapsed time between the emission of a laser pulse, and the retrieval by their reflection. This distance reflects the roundtrip of this emitted laser, thus dividing this time by two, and multiplying it by the speed of light to the distance between the sensor and the target, results in the distance with a high accuracy. Main differences between LiDAR sensors are related to the laser's wavelength, power, pulse duration and repetition rate, beam size and divergence angle, the specifics of the scanning mechanism (if any), and the information recorded for each reflected pulse. Lasers for terrestrial applications generally have wavelengths in the range of 9001064 nanometers, where vegetation reflectance is high. In the visible wavelengths, vegetation absorbance is high and only a small amount of energy would be returned to the sensor. One drawback of working in this range of wavelengths is absorption by clouds, which impedes the use of these devices during overcast conditions. (Lefsky et Al, 2002)

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1.4.3

Uses of Lidar in forestry, ALS scanning

In airborne laser scanning, a LiDAR sensor is placed beneath an aircraft, and registers data during the flight. For each laser pulse the current position is registered by means of differential GPS and IMU (Inertial Navigation Unit). Laser scanning provides big amounts of data which requires high processing capability. The gained data is usually processed by two methods, filtration and classification, in where the first one refers to separating points corresponding to an object and the second one to the separation of individual surfaces. These processes can be automatic or semiautomatic. In forestry ALS is specially used in the following tasks:

1. 2. 3.

tree identification measurement of tree parametres creation of a digital model of canopy surface and structure

When obtaining datasets in forested areas laser pulses may reflect from different layers of vegetative covers (Maltamo et al. 2004)). A first echo or first return will represent the first layer, the second return and following will represent the middle layer and subsequence layers, and the last return will represent the earth ground. Analyzing the first and last return it is possible to determine some parameters of individual trees such as canopy structure, tree height or crop density (Mikita, Klimnek and Cibulka et. Al ,2009) A more recent approach when studying forest stands makes uses only of fullwaveform ALS, this means not only from discrete return and their intensities (Heinzel and Koch 2011). By using the last return, DEM of high quality an be interpolated with a spatial resolution of 1m and a height accuracy of ca. 0.1 to 0.20m (Reutebuch et al 2003). A precise DEM can be intended for multiple purposes, as new terrain classifications for forest acces roads optimizations, (Akay and sessions 2005) and increasing of Spatial Decision Support Systems (SDSS) in forestry (Kuhmaier, M. Et Stampfer,k 2010).

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2.

Analysis of Airborne LiDAR data for mensuration parameters.

2.1

Area of study

2.1.1 The forest

The research was done in the forest area of Ktiny, in the Training Forest Enterprise (TFE) located North of the city of Brno, Moravia. This forest is part of the Mendel University of Brno and is used for training purposes as well as for example purposes, showing a silvicultural management in mostly deciduous beech forest stands. The area studied corresponds to 1170 ha of the total amount of 10000 ha that the TFE Ktiny holds. The compartments/stands analyzed are the 270/C, 376/D and 357A. Each of those compartments have a high level of monospecification and are suitable for statisical analysis due to the fact that disposed LiDAR images are not classified by spectrum, not allowing the study of correlation between absorption range/determination of genera. Tree genera found in this area are fagus sylvatica, picea abies, and quercus petraea,

2.1.2 Field data

Field mensuration data was received by the department of forest management. The file comprehends the following data: Compartment, Stand, Stand part, Storey, Age, Species, Percentage, DBH, Height, Volume/ha, Total Volume, Number of stems and Basimetric area. The number of stems are an estimation and are not surveyed in the forest, but assessed from yield tables. Its accuracy is quite low and it is not suitable for construction of spatial correlations.

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2.1.3 Aerial data

For the analysis ALS-data from GEODIS Brno s.r.o. was obtained. This scan was done during the vegetation period, in order to define better the layers. The scanner used was a Leica ALS50-II from a flight altitude of 1395 m with an average density of 4,3 points per square meter. The resultant point cloud was created by the combination of several cross flights from different flight altitudes with a resultant average density of 125,6 points per square meter.

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2.2

Methodology

Data analysis Data provided by the university were three files: the digital elevation model (DEM), digital surface model (DSM) and a file with the classification and respective names of compartments and tree percentage of the Ktiny area. The program used for all the analysis was ArcGis from ESRI and the tools mainly from the Arctoolbox.. The first step was applying a geo-referencing projection system to the data acquired. The SJTK Krovak East North projection is the most used in Czech Republic and is the one used in our layers. Once this is done there are six processes that had to be done.

1. Automatization of individual tree delineation 2. Extraction of heights values to the identified trees, selection of the study areas. 3. Clipping of trees to selected areas and calculation of mensuration parameters. 4. Regression calculation of DBH/height relation for individual genera. 5. Calculation of volumes using formulas from slovak models. 6. Comparison of calculated volume and estimated volume.

1. The automatization of individual tree selection was done by the use of focal statistics filtration. Focal statistics were applied to the layer of CHM05 with rectangular and circular neighborhood selection, in a 3 cell range. Results were named FocStat_C and FocStat_R shape files. All the following procedures will be done with both of those files to compare differences in both delineations. Once this was done, all the values were inverted by the math function times -1 . This is done as preparation for the hydrological function flow direction and flow length. This functions simulate the flow of a liquid in the selected shape files. The flowlenght function has to be set up to downstream. All this process 15

provides us with the following files FD_CHMC, FD_CHMR and FL_CHMC and FD_CHMR. Then we reclassified the output files as, 0 equals to value 1, and 0 upper limit to NoData. The result is a cloud of points in one dimension. The function raster to polygon will be used as transition to convert this files in points with the feature to point function. At the end we have a geo-located point file with all the trees. The final files will be names treesC and treesR depending on their original filtration mode. 2. The extraction of multivalues to the identified points will be realized with a bilinear interpolation and with use of the extract multiple values to points from the filtrated CHMC/CHMR file. The following step is to select the study polygons with the function select by attributes, selecting throught the sql function. The result will be the *_stand files. As an example a discrimination of areas where spruce is more than 80% and older than 110. Select by attributes/ SM>80 AND VEK>110 3. Through the clip function we add both selected trees, CHMR, and CHMC to the *_stand layer. The output is named GeneraTrees_C/GeneraTrees_R. Now we proceed to the following field calculator operations, calculation of DBH out of previous regression formulas and final calculation of volume with the formulas of Petrasa a Pajtka.

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Results and conclusion

Results of this analysis are represented as follows, 4 tables, including 3 regression tables for the tree genera used, one table with a summary of results and 4 figures with some snapshots of the methodology used. One of the most synthetizing parameters used in forestry to quantify a forest is the density, represented in this case by the number of stems by ha. During this study we compared two different forms of tree delineation, being the results very divergent. Rectangular focal statistic methods are the most common used if you dont want to make use of external software. Results in table 4 show that this method has greater success than circular methods of filtration.. This might be due to the raster-origin kind of file, which is written in rows and columns. Even so the number of stems is the parameter with higher error. Causes that might have been affecting this are various, age of the trees, incorrect estimations in the comparison yield tables or bad discrimination of tree-value spots.

The calculation of heights, represented in table 4 by their mean, are highly accurate. LiDAR data is a system made for distance calculations and we can not attribute as correct the yield tables in comparison of the ALS data. Lidar scannings are exact in their height measurements. This has a high impact on the total results of the study, because DBH has been calculated from equations extracted from the yield tables, and so does volume, In consequence incorrect.. As shown in table 4, heights are very well determined with both filtration modes, concluding, that even being more successful the identification of trees using rectangular neighborhood focal statistics, the accuracy of heights is greater using the circular method.

The DBH estimations were calculated by appliance of the regression equation obtained with Statistica. We classified the yield data by species and afterwards plotted the result, adding a trend line (Table 1,2,3). Logarithmic regressions presented problems in the generation of estimated DBH, 17

maybe because of being visual basic the language used in field calculator, which presents error in high exponential formulas. We opted for linear regression equations rather than trying to transcript the formulas into Python. Differences of determination coefficient were very low between linear and logarithmic and did not affect the final DBH mean. As shown in table 4 we get better values of DBH after a circular focal statistic filtration in beech and in oak. This might be due to a increment in the precision of height measurements, and in detriment of a lower stem identification. This result could lead to the use of combinational methods for better estimation of forest existences in deciduous species. For this purposes forest mensuration measurements should be taken in field to corroborate yield tables and add some exactitude to the whole calculations. Spruce shows lower values of accuracy in all the measured parameters, probably due to the higher amount of reflectance presented by deciduous trees.

DBH values are in direct relation with the regression tables, calculated out from the yield table estimations provided, and they have relation with height. Statistical analysis was done throught the ArcGis field table option. The mean average of DBH is showing an accuracy of 3 cm, and only in the case of spruce it reaches 5.9 cm difference. This error is attributed nor to the equation used, but to the unreliable yield table estimates.

The estimation of volume has been done using the equations of Petra a Pajtka. Being individual volumes quite correct, the sum of those values differs from the yield tables (table 3. ) this is due to the amount of stems identified. We extropaleted results to the amount of stems of the yield table and results increased accuracy. Even so, its still below the expectations.

To finalize I would like to list the main conclusions. Different methodologies to determine the individual stem identification have to be tested to define a guide line for this process depending on each specie. An exact inventory table is necessary for further comparisons, un precise estimations lead to imprecise comparisons. 18

 The measurement of a specified area could be followed bya new regression equation which could add precision to the whole estimation.

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4.

Citations

Chandra, S., Ziemke, J.R., Bjartia, P.K., and Martin, R.V. (2002). Tropical tropospheric ozone: Implications for dynamics and biomass burning, Journals of Geophysical Research, 108, 4921, doi: 10.1029/2002JD002912 Mather, Paul M. Computer Processing of Remotely-sensed Images: An Introduction. Chichester: Wiley, 1987. Print. ISNN: S0098300400000923 Baltsavias, E. P. 1999: Airborne laser scanning: existing systems and firms and other resources. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 54: 164 198. (Mikita, Klimnek and Cibulka et. Al ,2009) Heurich, M., Schneider, T., Kennel, E. 2003: Laser scanning for identification of forest structures in the Bavarian forest national park. In: Hyypp, J., Naesset, E., Olsson, H., Pahln, T. G., Reese, H. (Eds.) Proceedings of the ScandLaser Scientific Workshop on Airborne Laser Scanning of Forests. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences in Umea, Sweden, 98107. ISSN 1401-1204. Maltamo, M., Eerikainen, K., Pitkanen, J., Hyypp, J., Vehmas, M. 2004: Estimation of timber volume and stem density based on scanning laser altimetry and expected tree size distribution functions. Remote Sensing of Environment, 90: 319330. Lefsky, Warren B. Cohen, Geoffrey G. Parker, David J. Harding. (2002). LiDAR Remote Sensing for Ecosystem Studies. Bioscience. 52,n1 (1), 19-33. Heinzel, J., Koch, B. 2011: Exploring full-waveform LiDAR parameters for tree species classification. International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation, 13(1): 152-160. ISSN 0303-2434.

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Holopainen, M. 2011: Effect of airborne laser scanning accuracy on forest stock and yield estimates [doctoral dissertation]. Helsinky: Department of Surveying, Aalto University, 160 p.

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5.

Appendices

Table 1, Regression of fagus sylvatica

Table 2,Regression of quercus petraea 22

Table 3,Regression of picea abies

Compartment 357/A-4-4, fagus sylvatica, Number of stems Data_Tables Data_Lidar_R Data_Lidar _C 1617 227 89 Total volume E. 189.144 234.809

Percentage 77

DBH 17 14.962 15.729

Height 14 12.943 13.773

Total volume 256 26.553 12.924

Compartment 370/C-9-9, picea abies Number of stems Data_Tables Data_Lidar_R Data_Lidar_C 389 185 96 Total volume E 1053.406 1323.828

Percentage 89

DBH 33 39.539 37.151

Height 28 29.519 31.332

Total volume 417 500.977 326.703

Compartment 376/D-13-13, quercus petraea Number of stems Data_Tables Data_Lidar_R Data_Lidar _C 1458 1160 421 Percentage 100 DBH 34 29.843 30.653 Height 23 21.602 22.107 Total volume 1546 907.058 353.524 Total volume E 1140.077 353.524

Table 4, Results

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Figure 1, Digital Surface model and identified trees. Green spots stand for rectangular filtration and violet spots for circular filtration.

Figure 2, Identified stems of spruce after rectangular focal statistics., the background is the inverted canopy height model.

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Figure 3, Identified stems of spruce after rectangular focal statistics.. the background is the inverted canopy height model, circular approach.

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Figure 4, 3D representation of the CHM and the same points listed before, spruce with both filtrations.

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