Subject : Environmental Management Topic name : Coral Reefs Class : FYBMS Division : A Guides Name : Sandhya Thakkar

Group Members : Name Supriya Borse Pooja Deshmukh Jidnyasa Solanki Roshni Shinde Roll no. 13 53 44 52

Certificate
MISS. POOJA DESHMUKH, ROLL NO. 53 MISS. SUPRIYA BORSE, ROLL NO. 13 MISS. JIDNYASA SOLANKI,ROLL NO. 44 MISS. ROSHNI SHINDE, ROLL NO. 52 of BACHELOR OF MANAGEMENT STUDIES, SEMISTER SECOND, have undertaken and completed the project work titled CORAL REEFS during the academic year 2011 2012 under the guidance of PROF. SANDHYA THAKKAR . This is a bonafide project work and the information presented in it is true and original to the best of our knowledge and belief.

Project Guide

Course Co-ordinator

Principal

(Prof. Sandhya Thakkar)

(Prof. Mr.D.M. Murdeshwar)

( Dr. Mrs. Shakuntala A. Singh)

Acknowledgement
This project NATURAL RESOURCES is a result of co-operation, hard work and good wishes of many people. We would like to thank our project guide Prof. Sandhya Thakkar for her involvement in our project work and timely assessment that provided us inspiration and valued guidance throughout our study. We are highly indebted to Dr. Mrs. Shakuntala A. Singh, Principal K.G. Joshi College of Arts & N.G. Bedekar College of Commerce, for giving us an opportunity to do a project. We would like to thank Prof. Mr.D.M. Murdeshwar , course co-ordinator, for his friendly guidance and constant encouragement. We would like to express our gratitude towards our parents, our teachers of K.G. Joshi College of Arts & N.G. Bedekar College of Commerce , the library staff and our college friends whose co-operation, encouragement and efforts have helped us in giving the final shape and structure to the project. Our thanks and appreciations also go to our college mates and to all those people who have willingly helped us out with their abilities.

Introduction
What Are Coral Reefs?

Protection of coral reefs depends on careful vessel management to avoid hitting the reef, reducing nearby outfalls and runoff, and careful tourists who respect the delicate communities that give such beauty to tropical shorelines around the world. The mention of coral reefs generally brings to mind warm climates, colorful fishes and clear waters. However, the reef itself is actually a component of a larger ecosystem. The coral community is really a system that includes a collection of biological communities, representing one of the most diverse ecosystems in the world. For this reason, coral reefs often are referred to as the "rainforests of the oceans." Corals themselves are tiny animals which belong to the group cnidaria (the "c" is silent). Other cnidarians include hydras, jellyfish, and sea anemones. Corals are sessileanimals, meaning they are not mobile but stay fixed in one place. They feed by reaching out with tentacles to catch prey such as small fish and planktonic animals. Corals live in colonies consisting of many individuals, each of which is called polyp. They secrete a hard calcium carbonate skeleton, which serves as a uniform base or substrate for the colony. The skeleton also provides protection, as the polyps can contract into the structure if predators approach. It is these hard skeletal structures that build up coral reefs over time. The calcium carbonate is secreted at the base of the polyps, so the living coral colony occurs at the surface of the skeletal structure, completely covering it. Calcium carbonate is continuously deposited by the living colony, adding to the size of the structure. Growth of these structures varies greatly, depending on the

species of coral and environmental conditions-- ranging from 0.3 to 10 centimeters per year. Different species of coral build structures of various sizes and shapes ("brain corals," "fan corals," etc.), creating amazing diversity and complexity in the coral reef ecosystem. Various coral species tend to be segregated into characteristic zones on a reef, separated out by competition with other species and by environmental conditions. Virtually all reef-dwelling corals have a symbiotic (mutually beneficial) relationship with algae called zooxanthellae. The plant-like algae live inside the coral polyps and perform photosynthesis, producing food which is shared with the coral. In exchange the coral provides the algae with protection and access to light, which is necessary for photosynthesis. The zooxanthellae also lend their color to their coral symbionts. Coral bleaching occurs when corals lose their zooxanthellae, exposing the white calcium carbonate skeletons of the coral colony. There are a number of stresses or environmental changes that may cause bleaching including disease, excess shade, increased levels of ultraviolet radiation, sedimentation, pollution, salinity changes, and increased temperatures. Because the zooxanthellae depend on light for photosynthesis, reef building corals are found in shallow, clear water where light can penetrate down to the coral polyps. Reef building coral communities also require tropical or sub-tropical temperatures, and exist globally in a band 30 degrees north to 30 degrees south of the equator. Reefs are generally classified in three types. Fringing reefs, the most common type, project seaward directly from the shores of islands or continents. Barrier reefs are platforms separated from the adjacent land by a bay or lagoon. The longest barrier reefs occur off the coasts of Australia and Belize. Atolls rest on the tops of submerged volcanoes. They are usually circular or oval with a central lagoon. Parts of the atoll may emerge as islands. Over 300 atolls are found in the south Pacific. Coral reefs provide habitats for a large variety of organisms. These organisms rely on corals as a source of food and shelter. Besides the corals themselves and their symbiotic algae, other creatures that call coral reefs home include various sponges; molluscs such as sea slugs, nudibranchs, oysters, and clams; crustaceans like crabs and shrimp; many kinds of sea worms; echinoderms like star fish and sea urchins; other cnidarians such as jellyfish and sea anemones; various types of fungi; sea turtles; and many species of fish.

Types
The three principal reef types are:

Fringing reef this type is directly attached to a shore, or borders it with an intervening shallow channel or lagoon. Barrier reef a reef separated from a mainland or island shore by a deep channel or lagoon Atoll reef this more or less circular or continuous barrier reef extends all the way around a lagoon without a central island.

A small atoll in the Maldives

Inhabited cay in the Maldives

Other reef types or variants are:

Patch reef this type is an isolated, comparatively small reef outcrop, usually within a lagoon or embayment, often circular and surrounded by sand or seagrass. Patch reefs are common. Apron reef a short reef resembling a fringing reef, but more sloped; extending out and downward from a point or peninsular shore

Bank reef a linear or semicircular shaped-outline, larger than a patch reef Ribbon reef a long, narrow, possibly winding reef, usually associated with an atoll lagoon Table reef an isolated reef, approaching an atoll type, but without a lagoon Habili this is a reef in the Red Sea that does not reach the surface near enough to cause visible surf, although it may be a hazard to ships (from the Arabic for "unborn"). Microatoll certain species of corals form communities called microatolls. The vertical growth of microatolls is limited by average tidal height. By analyzing growth morphologies, microatolls offer a low-resolution record of patterns of sea level change. Fossilized microatolls can also be dated using radioactive carbon dating. Such methods have been used to reconstruct Holocene sea levels.[16] Cays are small, low-elevation, sandy islands formed on the surface of coral reefs. Material eroded from the reef piles up on parts of the reef or lagoon, forming an area above sea level. Plants can stabilize cays enough to become habitable by humans. Cays occur in tropical environments throughout the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans (including the Caribbean and on the Great Barrier Reef and Belize Barrier Reef), where they provide habitable and agricultural land for hundreds of thousands of people.

Coral Polyp

Anatomy of a coral polyp Live coral are small animals embedded in calcium carbonate shells. It is a mistake to think of coral as plants or rocks. Coral heads consist of accumulations of individual animals called polyps, arranged in diverse shapes. Polyps are usually tiny, but they can range in size from a pinhead to 12 inches (30 cm) across. Reef-building or hermatypic corals live only in the photic zone (above 50 m), the depth to which sufficient sunlight penetrates the water, allowing photosynthesis to occur. Coral polyps do not themselves photosynthesize, but have a symbiotic relationship with zooxanthellae; these organisms live within the tissues of polyps and provide organic nutrients that nourish the polyp. Because of this relationship, coral reefs grow much faster in clear water, which admits more sunlight. Without their symbionts, coral growth would be too slow for the corals to form significant reef structures. Corals get up to 90% of their nutrients from their symbionts.Reefs grow as polyps and other organisms deposit calcium carbonate, the basis of coral, as a skeletal structure beneath and

around themselves, pushing the coral head's top upwards and outwards.Waves, grazing fish (such as parrotfish), sea urchins, sponges, and other forces and organisms act as bioeroders, breaking down coral skeletons into fragments that settle into spaces in the reef structure or form sandy bottoms in associated reef lagoons. Many other organisms living in the reef community contribute skeletal calcium carbonate in the same manner. Coralline algae are important contributors to reef structure in those parts of the reef subjected to the greatest forces by waves (such as the reef front facing the open ocean). These algae strengthen the reef structure by depositing limestone in sheets over the reef surface. The colonies of the one thousand coral species assume a characteristic shape such as wrinkled brains, cabbages, table tops,antlers, wire strands and pillars

Table coral

Close up of polyps are arrayed on a coral, waving their tentacles. There can be thousands of polyps on a single coral branch. Corals reproduce both sexually and asexually. An individual polyp uses both reproductive modes within its lifetime. Corals reproduce sexually by either internal or external fertilization. The reproductive cells are found on the mesentery membranes that radiate inward from the layer of tissue that lines the stomach cavity. Some mature adult corals are hermaphroditic; others are exclusively male or female. A few species change sex as they grow. Internally fertilized eggs develop in the polyp for a period ranging from days to weeks. Subsequent development produces a tiny larva, known as a planula.

Externally fertilized eggs develop during synchronized spawning. Polyps release eggs and sperm into the water en masse, simultaneously. Eggs disperse over a large area. The timing of spawning depends on time of year, water temperature, and tidal and lunar cycles. Spawning is most successful when there is little variation between high and low tide. The less water movement, the better the chance for fertilization. Ideal timing occurs in the spring. Release of eggs or planula usually occurs at night, and is sometimes in phase with the lunar cycle (three to six days after a full moon). The period from release to settlement lasts only a few days, but some planulae can survive afloat for several weeks. They are vulnerable to predation and environmental conditions. The lucky few planulae which successfully attach to substrate next confront competition for food and space]

Brain coral

Staghorn coral

Spiral wire coral

Pillar coral

Formation
Most coral reefs were formed after the last glacial period when melting ice caused the sea level to rise and flood the continental shelves. This means that most coral reefs are less than 10,000 years old. As communities established themselves on the shelves, the reefs grew upwards, pacing rising sea levels. Reefs that rose too slowly could become drowned reefs, covered by so much water that there was insufficient light.Coral reefs are found in the deep sea away from continental shelves, around oceanic islands and as atolls. The vast majority of these islands are volcanic in origin. The few exceptions have tectonic origins where plate movements have lifted the deep ocean floor on the surface. In 1842 in his first monograph, The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs .Charles Darwin set out his theory of the formation of atoll reefs, an idea he conceived during the voyage of the Beagle. He theorized uplift and subsidence of the Earth's crust under the oceans formed the atolls. Darwins theory sets out a sequence of three stages in atoll formation. It starts with a fringing reef forming around an extinct volcanic island as the island and ocean floor subsides. As the subsidence continues, the fringing reef becomes a barrier reef, and ultimately an atoll reef.

Biodiversity

Tube sponges attracting cardinal fishes, glassfishes andwrasses

Organisms can cover every square inch of a coral reef. Coral reefs form some of the world's most productive ecosystems, providing complex and varied marine habitats that support a wide range of other organisms. Fringing reefs just below low tide level also have a mutually beneficial relationship withmangrove forests at high tide level and sea grass meadows in between: the reefs protect the mangroves and seagrass from strong currents and waves that would damage them or erode the sediments in which they are rooted, while the mangroves and sea grass protect the coral from large influxes of silt, fresh water and pollutants. This additional level of variety in the environment is beneficial to many types of coral reef animals, which, for example, may feed in the sea grass and use the reefs for protection or breeding Reefs are home to a large variety of organisms, including fish, seabirds, sponges, cnidarians (which includes some types of corals and jellyfish), worms, crustaceans (including shrimp, cleaner shrimp, spiny lobsters and crabs), mollusks (includingcephalopods), echinoderms (including st arfish, sea urchins and sea cucumbers), sea squirts, sea turtles and sea snakes. Aside from humans, mammals are rare on coral reefs, with visiting cetaceans such as dolphins being the main exception. A few of these varied species feed directly on corals, while others graze on algae on the reef. Reef biomass is positively related to species diversity Fish Over 4,000 species of fish inhabit coral reefs. The reasons for this diversity remain controversial. Hypotheses include the "lottery", in which the first (lucky winner) recruit to a territory is typically able to defend it against latecomers, "competition", in which adults compete for territory, and less-competitive species must be able to survive in poorer habitat, and "predation", in which population size is a function of postsettlement piscivore mortality.Healthy reefs can produce up to 35 tons of fish per square kilometer each year, but damaged reefs produce much less. Reef species include:

Fish that influence the coral feed either on small animals living near the coral, seaweed/algae, or on the coral itself. Fish that feed on small animals include Labridae (cleaner fish) who notably feed on organisms that inhabit larger fish, bullet fishand seaurchin-eating Balistidae (triggerfish), while seaweed-

eating fish include the Pomacentridae(damselfishes). Serranidae (grouper s) cultivate the seaweed by removing creatures feeding on it (such as sea urchins), and they remove inedible seaweeds. Fish that eat coral itself include Scaridae (parrotfish) and Chaetodontidae(butterflyfish).[

Fish that cruise the boundaries of the reef or nearby seagrass meadows include predators, such as Trachinotus(pompanos),groupers, horse mackerels, certain types of shark, barracudas and Lutjanidae (snappers). Herbiv orous and plankton-eating fish also populate reefs. Seagrass-eating fish include horse mackerel, snapper, Pagellus (porgies) and Conodon (grunts). Plankton-eating fish include Caesio (fusilier), ray, chromis, and the nocturnal Holocentridae (squirrelfish), Apogonidae (cardinalfish) and Myctophidae (lanternfish).[

Fish that swim in coral reefs can be as colorful as the reef. Examples are the parrotfish, Pomacanthidae (angelfish), damselfish,Clinidae (blennies) and butterflyfish. At night, some change to a less vivid color] Invertebrates Sea urchins, Dotidae and sea slugs eat seaweed. Some species of sea urchins, such as Diadema antillarum, can play a pivotal part in preventing algae from overrunning reefs. Nudibranchia and sea anemones eat sponges. A number of invertebrates, collectively called cryptofauna, inhabit the coral skeletal substrate itself, either boring into the skeletons (through the process of bioerosion) or living in pre-existing voids and crevices. Those animals boring into the rock include sponges, bivalve mollusks, and sipunculans. Those settling on the reef include many other species, particularly crustaceans and polychaete worms. Algae Reefs are chronically at risk of algal encroachment. Overfishing and excess nutrient supply from onshore can enable algae to outcompete and kill the coral. In surveys done around largely uninhabited US Pacific islands, algae

inhabit a large percentage of surveyed coral locations. The algae population consists of turf algae, coralline algae, and macroalgae. Seabirds Coral reef systems provide important habitats for seabird species, some endangered. For example, Midway Atoll in Hawaii supports nearly three million seabirds, including two-thirds (1.5 million) of the global population of Laysan albatross, and one-third of the global population of black-footed albatross. Each seabird species has specific sites on the atoll where they nest. Altogether, 17 species of seabirds live on Midway. The short-tailed albatross is the rarest, with fewer than 2,200 surviving after excessive feather hunting in the late19th century.Sea snakes feed exclusively on fish and their eggs. Tropical birds, such as herons, gannets, pelicans and boobies, feed on reef fish. Some landbased reptiles intermittently associate with reefs, such as monitor lizards, the marine crocodile and semiaquatic snakes, such as Laticauda colubrina. Sea

turtles eat sponges Schooling reef fish

Caribbean reef squid

Banded coral shrimp

The whitetip reef sharkalmost exclusively inhabits coral reefs.

Green turtle

Giant clam

Soft coral, cup coral, sponges and ascidians

Banded sea krait

The shell of Latiaxis wormaldi, a coral snail

Economic value
Coral reefs deliver ecosystem services to tourism, fisheries and coastline protection. The global economic value of coral reefs has been estimated at as much as $US375 billion per year.Coral reefs protect shorelines by absorbing wave energy, and many small islands would not exist without their reef to protect them. According to the environmental group World Wide Fund for Nature, the economic cost over a 25 year period of destroying one km of coral reef is somewhere between $137,000 and $1,200,000. About six million tons of fish are taken each year from coral reefs. Well-managed coral reefs have an annual yield of 15 tons seafood on average per square kilometer. Southeast Asia's coral reef fisheries alone yield about $ 2.4 billion annually from seafood.To improve the management of coastal coral reefs, another environmental group, the World Resources Institute (WRI) developed and published tools for calculating the value of coral reef-related tourism, shoreline protection and fisheries, partnering with five Caribbean countries. As of April 2011, published working papers covered St. Lucia, Tobago, Belize, and the Dominican Republic, with a paper for Jamaica in preparation. The WRI was also "making sure that the study results support improved coastal policies and management planning". The Belize study estimated the value of reef and mangrove services at 395559 million dollars annually.

Threats

Island with fringing reef off Yap,Micronesia. Main article: Environmental issues with coral reefs Coral reefs are dying around the world. In particular, coral mining, agricultural and urban runoff, pollution (organic and inorganic), overfishing,blast fishing,

disease, and the digging of canals and access into islands and bays are localized threats to coral ecosystems. Broader threats are sea temperature rise, sea level rise and pH changes from ocean acidification, all associated with greenhouse gas emissionsIn. El Nino-year 2010, preliminary reports show global coral bleaching reached its worst level since another El Nino year, 1998, when 16% of the world's reefs died as a result of increased water temperature. In Indonesia's Aceh province, surveys showed some 80% of bleached corals died. Scientists dont yet understand the long-term impacts of coral bleaching, but they do know that bleaching leaves corals vulnerable to disease, stunts their growth, and affects their reproduction, while severe bleaching kills them. In July, Malaysia closed several dive sites where virtually all the corals were damaged by bleaching. To find answers for these problems, researchers study the various factors that impact reefs. The list includes the ocean's role as a carbon dioxide sink, atmospheric changes, ultraviolet light, ocean acidification, viruses, impacts of dust storms carrying agents to far flung reefs, pollutants, algal blooms and others. Reefs are threatened well beyond coastal areasGeneral estimates show approximately 10% of the world's coral reefs are dead. About 60% of the world's reefs are at risk due to destructive, human-related activities. The threat to the health of reefs is particularly strong in Southeast Asia, where 80% of reefs are endangered.

Protection

A diversity of corals Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) have become increasingly prominent for reef management. MPAs promote responsible fishery managementand habitat protection. Much like national parks and wildlife refuges, and to varying degrees, MPAs restrict potentially damaging activities. MPAs encompass both social and biological objectives, including reef restoration, aesthetics,

biodiversity, and economic benefits. Conflicts surrounding MPAs involve lack of participation, clashing views, effectiveness, and fundingIn some situations, as in the Phoenix Islands Protected Area, MPAs can also provide revenue, potentially equal to the income they would have generated without controls, as Kiribatidid for its Phoenix Islands. Biosphere reserve, marine park, national monument and world heritage status can protect reefs. For example, Belize's Barrier reef, Chagos archipelago, Sian Ka'an, the Galapagos islands, Great Barrier Reef, Henderson Island, Palau and Papahnaumokukea Marine National Monument are world heritage sites.[ In Australia, the Great Barrier Reef is protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, and is the subject of much legislation, including a biodiversity action plan.[ Inhabitants of Ahus Island, Manus Province, Papua New Guinea, have followed a generations-old practice of restricting fishing in six areas of their reef lagoon. Their cultural traditions allow line fishing, but not net or spear fishing. The result is both the biomass and individual fish sizes are significantly larger than in places where fishing is unrestricted.

Coral Reef Destruction

The Causes of Coral Bleaching

Coral bleaching is one of the main ways that coral reefs could die. Coral reef bleaching is the whitening of the creature due to reduction of photosynthetic pigment. Bleaching conditions that last longer than ten weeks usually lead to the death of the coral. It is caused by a change in sea temperature, sedimentation, freshwater dilution, and could be caused by many other things too. It is thought that half of all the coral reefs will die within the next forty years unless extreme measures are taken to save them from the climate changes. Twenty percent of the Earths coral reefs have been completely destroyed already. Another threat to coral reefs that causes bleaching is that there are very destructive fishing practices, like poison fishing that makes the coral more vulnerable to bleaching. It can decrease coral cover or get rid of fish that are important for the coral reef ecosystem. If we dont start protecting the coral from bleaching, a lot more coral will die.

Great Barrier Reef

The Great Barrier Reef along the coast of Australia experienced bleaching events in 1980, 1982, 1992, 1994, 1998, 2002, and 2006.While most areas recovered with relatively low levels of coral death, some locations suffered severe damage, with up to 90% mortality.The most widespread and intense events occurred in the summers of 1998 and 2002, with 42% and 54% respectivly of reefs bleached to some extent, and 18% strongly bleached. The IPCC's moderate warming scenarios (B1 to A1T, 2C by 2100, IPCC, 2007, Table SPM.3, p. 13) forecast that corals on the Great Barrier Reef are

very likely to regularly experience summer temperatures high enough to induce bleaching.

What Problems Exist?

There are two types of stresses associated with reef systems: natural and humaninduced. The effects of these stresses can range from negligible to catastrophic. Reefs display a surprising adaptation to short-term natural catastrophic events, such as hurricanes, and usually recover to normal community structure. These natural events can even be considered beneficial in regards to biological diversity. Severe storm events on land can topple large trees. This opens up the forest to recolonization and results in a greater diversity of plants. This same process occurs with storm impacts to reefs. The damaged area of the reef is often recolonized by a greater diversity of organisms than existed before the storm. In the long term this event benefits the ecological integrity of the reef. However, reefs are not well adapted to survive exposure to long-term stress. Some examples include agricultural and industrial runoff, increased sedimentation from land clearing, human sewage and toxic discharges. Many land-based activities have important implications for reefs. Agricultural activities can introduce herbicides, pesticides, fertilizers and runoff from animal feed lots. Sewage discharges can introduce nitrogen and phosphate compounds along with pathogens and mixtures of toxics. Uncontrolled land clearing can result in erosion, with the resultant increase in sediment loads to surface waters. Roadways, parking lots and buildings consist of impervious surfaces. These surfaces increase runoff rates and carry with those waters mixtures of dissolved substances to surface waters. The surface waters in any watershed eventually discharge into coastal or near-coastal waters. These waters can then impact coral communities associated with these discharge points. Thus, activities occurring in distant locations have impacts to reefs which are far away from these activities.

Are There Solutions?

There have been increasing efforts to establish better management and conservation measures to protect the diversity of these biologically rich areas. Management practices have historically focused on the coral reef proper and not considered associated communities, such as seagrasses, mangroves, mudflats or defined watersheds (which transport complex mixtures in their waters), in a meaningful manner. This attempted to manage the reef in isolation, like an island. Current management efforts recognize the importance of including reefs as part of a larger system, where integrated coastal zone management tools and watershed concepts can be used in the development of comprehensive management and conservation plans. One example is where EPA has joined with NOAA and the state of Florida in the establishment of the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS) . The Marine Sanctuary operates under a broad-based management plan intended to enhance the sustainability of the Florida Keys reefs. Other important efforts in coral reef conservation and management include the U.S. Coral Reef Task Force and the International and the U.S. Coral Reef Initiatives. When reefs are considered as part of a larger watershed, the recognization of the complexity of environmental stressors can be understood. Management plans can be developed to lessen impacts to mangroves, seagrasses and the reef ecosystem, based upon scientific data and a better understanding of the system. EPA is in the process of developing guidance for a watershed approach to coral ecosystem protection.

Reference We have taken the information from

1. www.wikipedia.com 2. www.google.com 3. www.in.com 4. from the following books: a. environmental studies beta publication b. environmental management .