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Organizational correlates of workplace bullying in small- and medium-sized enterprises

Elfi Baillien, Inge Neyens and Hans De Witte International Small Business Journal 2011 29: 610 originally published online 13 November 2011 DOI: 10.1177/0266242610375774 The online version of this article can be found at: http://isb.sagepub.com/content/29/6/610

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Article

i s b j
Small Firms

Organizational correlates of workplace bullying in small- and medium-sized enterprises

Elfi Baillien

International Small Business Journal 29(6) 610625 The Author(s) 2011 Reprints and permission: sagepub. co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/0266242610375774 isb.sagepub.com

HUBrussel, Belgium and University of Leuven, Belgium

Inge Neyens and Hans De Witte

University of Leuven, Belgium

Abstract Over recent decades, a broad range of studies have investigated organizational antecedents of workplace bullying, predominantly in large organizations. Exploring this topic within small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) is however important: SMEs differ from large organizations in cultural, structural and strategic ways. Accordingly, the current study aims to investigate organizational correlates of bullying in SMEs based on the Three Way Model as a theoretical framework. Data were gathered from 358 employees in 39 Flemish (Belgian) SMEs with maximum 100 employees. The organizational characteristics explained 29 per cent of the variance of bullying. Regression analyses revealed statistically significant associations between bullying, on the one hand, and organizational change, a people-oriented culture, an (known) anti-bullying policy, working in a family business, on the other hand. In sum, our results suggest that SMEs experiencing organizational change need to be extra vigilant against workplace bullying. Based on our results, bullying also seems more prevalent in SMEs without a people-oriented culture and in family businesses. Finally, the results suggest that the presence of an anti-bullying policy buffers bullying in SMEs. Keywords mobbing, organizational characteristics, SMEs, Three Way Model, workplace bullying

Introduction
Workplace bullying has been labelled mobbing (Matthiesen etal., 1989), emotional abuse (Keashly, 1998) and harassment (Brodsky, 1976); terms that all refer to a situation in which one or more employees are subjected to negative acts at work (Einarsen, 1999; Leymann, 1996).

Corresponding author: Elfi Baillien, Organizational and Personnel Psychology (WOPP), University of Leuven, Tiensestraat 102, 3000 Leuven, Belgium. Email: Elfi.Baillien@psy.kuleuven.be

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The current study aligns with the Scandinavian perspective (Einarsen, 2000; Einarsen and Raknes, 1997) in which bullying typically includes a long-term process (that is, minimum six months) in which minor negative acts accumulate to a pattern of systematic maltreatment (Salin, 2008) and also where the negative acts may concern personal issues (for example, insulting and humiliating acts) as well as work-related issues (for example, withholding documentation) and social isolation (see Cowie etal., 2002). The acts stigmatize the target into an inferior position (Einarsen and Skogstad, 2006; Zapf and Gross, 2001): He or she often experiences difficulties in defending him- or herself against the negative acts (Einarsen, 1999; Einarsen etal., 1994; Leymann, 1996). Antecedents of workplace bullying may relate to personality, job or team characteristics of the parties involved as well as broader organizational features (Einarsen etal., 2009). Based on an intensive case study, Leymann (1996) attributed bullying to a stressful and discordant work environment, a viewpoint that later has been defined as the work environment hypothesis (Einarsen, 2000). Inspired by this hypothesis, a growing body of studies examined potential organizational correlates of bullying (Agervold, 2007; Hauge etal., 2007; Neyens etal., 2007a). Based on 87 bullying incidents, scholars recently developed the Three Way Model, a framework describing the main processes through which organizational characteristics may lead to workplace bullying (Baillien etal., 2009). Specifically, organizational antecedents may cause bullying by encouraging (1) (inefficient coping with) strain and frustration, (2) (escalative reactions to) personal conflicts and (3) destructive (social) habits. Yet, studies in the realm of organizational antecedents to date primarily took place in large organizations, whereas little attention has been paid to small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). Exploring whether or not the organizational correlates of bullying in large organizations may be generalized to SMEs may however be valuable, as SMEs are distinguished from larger organizations in various ways. First, SMEs differ from large organizations in terms of culture and climate, which is typically reflected in a more informal, to some extent even familial, culture (European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2002). Consequently, managers of SMEs are rather careful about implementing formal rules and procedures, which, in turn, may increase ambiguity for their employees and fuel stress, conflicts or bullying. Second, as compared to large organizations, SMEs are characterized by a rather flat structure, which facilitates the managers accessibility, encourages direct communication and stimulates immediate problem solving when facing, for example, conflicts or bullying (Delmotte etal., 2002). Third, SMEs have access to rather limited economic resources as compared to large organizations (European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2002), which fosters short-term strategies instead of long-term policies (Donckels etal., 1988). Consequently, particularly managers of small enterprises might be less focused upon preventing social and relational problems at work, but will however react swiftly when difficulties emerge. In sum, scholars have indicated that SMEs are distinguished from large organizations on various aspects. Accordingly, SMEs could yield distinct and rather specific organizational correlates of bullying as compared to large organizations. The aim of this study is therefore, to investigate organizational correlates of bullying in SMEs following the Three Way Model (Baillien etal., 2009) as a theoretical framework. Specifically, the Three Way Model will serve as our guideline to investigate the organizational correlates under study, as the model reflects the underlying process that links organizational characteristics to bullying. In view of each of the processes of the this model, the correlates of bullying in SMEs are then selected based on empirical studies, most of which focused on large organizations. We could only detect one (qualitative) study in SMEs, which was of particular interest when defining our hypotheses with respect to the specific and distinct organizational correlates of bullying in SMEs (Neyens etal., 2007b).

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Three Way Model

Using key informant in-depth reflection upon incidents of workplace bullying, researchers have developed a process-oriented model for the genesis of bullying (Baillien etal., 2009). This model contained three processes; in the first, bullying may be initiated by inefficient coping with frustration (strain). Specifically, when the employee copes in an active-inefficient way and converts frustration in negative acts towards a co-worker, they become a perpetrator of bullying. When the employee copes in a passive-inefficient way, they withdraw from the perceived cause of the frustration (for example, the work context) and may violate existing norms. This may cause co-workers to adopt a negative attitude towards this employee, which, in turn, may lead to victimization. In the second process, unsolved conflicts may escalate into bullying through escalative conflict management. In this case, the powerful employee becomes the perpetrator; the powerless employee becomes victim. In the model, the frustration and conflicts process are closely related: frustration can contribute to the development of conflicts at work, whereas most conflicts evoke frustration and strain. Third, bullying may originate directly from team or organizational characteristics that encourage employees to apply destructive habits and to engage in bullying acts (for example, a culture of gossip). Organizational characteristics may affect these tracks in two ways: (1) they trigger frustration, conflict and destructive team and organizational characteristics; and (2) they influence how employees deal with frustration and conflict.

Organizational correlates
Following the Three Way Model, organizational characteristics may thus relate to bullying via three processes: (1) frustration and strain, (2) conflicts and (3) destructive habits. Empirical studies detected organizational correlates of bullying that very well fit these processes, which will be outlined in the next section. The frustration and conflict processes are however closely related and share a broad range of organizational antecedents (Baillien etal., 2009). Therefore, organizational characteristics that may affect bullying through these processes will be discussed under one heading.

Frustration, strain and conflicts

Studies revealed two organizational characteristics that may affect bullying in SMEs through frustration, strain and conflicts: organizational change and top-down communication. First, empirical studies in large organizations detected a positive association between organizational change programs such as restructuring, cost-cutting and mergers, and workplace bullying (Baillien and De Witte, 2009; Skogstad etal., 2007): findings that may be attributed to increased levels of frustration, stress and conflicts. In this context, numerous scholars suggested that organizational change increases bullying through a relapse in managerial positions (Baron and Neuman, 1996; Hoel and Cooper, 2000; McCarthy, 1996; Salin, 2003; Sheehan, 1996), which, in turn, may force managers to enhance productivity and to adopt aggressive management styles and bullying towards their subordinates to get the job done (for a discussion; see Hoel etal., 2002). Furthermore, organizational change produces a list of stressors, such as job insecurity, that disorientate employees and make them easy targets for bullying (Baillien and De Witte, 2009; Hoel and Salin, 2003). Similarly, organizational change may encourage bullying through its link with personal conflicts (Greenglass and Burke, 2001; Jick, 1985). These findings in large organizations were confirmed in a qualitative

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study in SMEs, where organizational change was suggested to increase bullying (Neyens etal., 2007b).
Hypothesis 1: Organizational change is positively related to workplace bullying.

Second, studies found an association between top-down communication and bullying. After all, low levels of top-down communication may increase ambiguity, which, in turn, may foster stress or conflict, hinder effective strategies to deal with stress or conflict, and lead to bullying (Baillien etal., 2009). Specifically, victims of bullying reported a poorer flow of information, fewer mutual discussions about tasks and goals and less clarity of goals in ones work as compared to observers of bullying (Vartia, 1996). Observers, for their part, reported a worse communication climate than non-victims. Similarly, Belgian victims of bullying reported to know less about the organization as compared to non-victims (Notelaers and De Witte, 2003). These findings were supported by a qualitative SMEs study, in which interviewees claimed that clear top-down communication prevented bullying as this allowed employees to solve work-related problems in an early stage (that is, before they can escalate into bullying) (Neyens etal., 2007b).
Hypothesis 2: Top-down communication is negatively related to workplace bullying.

Destructive habits
Research in large organizations revealed three organizational characteristics that may encourage workplace bullying through promoting destructive habits: Organizational culture, the presence of an anti-bullying policy and gender ratio. A qualitative study in SMEs added two extra aspects which are of specific resonance in SMEs (Neyens etal., 2007b): Whether or not the organization is a family business, and whether or not the organization elected union representatives. First, with respect to organizational culture, research indicated more bullying in organizations with a low concern for the employee needs as often reflected in a low people-oriented culture or a strong performance-oriented culture (Baillien etal., 2008; Lane, 1990; Neyens etal., 2007a). In this context, for example, Irish victims referred to a lack of a friendly and supporting atmosphere as a cause of bullying in large organizations (Seigne, 1998). Moreover, Baillien and colleagues (2008) argued that cultural values reflecting dignity and respect towards employees and co-workers typically discourage destructive habits and bullying, whereas values reflecting competition by all means typically encourage destructive habits and bullying. These findings within large organizations were reflected in the small firm context where interviewees indicated that core organizational values such as closed-mindedness, rigidity and an exclusive focus on performance increased bullying. Values such as open-mindedness, dignity and solidarity, in contrast, prevented bullying (Neyens etal., 2007b).
Hypothesis 3: A people-oriented culture is negatively related to workplace bullying. Hypothesis 4: A task-oriented culture is positively related to workplace bullying.

Second, organizations may indirectly promote the perception that bullying is allowed or sometimes even rewarded by not implementing an anti-bullying policy or by not punishing perpetrators (Ashforth, 1994; Cox, 1987; Rosenberg and Silver, 1984). Consequently, various researchers have found a higher prevalence where there is an absence of an anti-bullying policy (Brodsky, 1976;

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Einarsen, 1999; Neyens et al., 2007b; Rayner etal., 2002; Salin, 2003; van Amstel and Volkers, 1993). Therefore, we assume:
Hypothesis 5: Having a well-known anti-bullying policy is negatively related to workplace bullying.

Third, studies to date yielded different findings with respect to the impact of gender ratio, or the predominance of male versus female employees in the organization. Contrary to most empirical studies reporting a higher bullying prevalence in male-dominated organizations (Einarsen and Skogstad, 1996; Hubert and Van Veldhoven, 2001; Mikkelsen and Einarsen, 2001), OMoore et al (2003) found more bullying in female-dominated organizations. These conflicting findings may partially be attributed to measurement differences; whereas the latter study defined bullying as occasional negative behaviour at work, other work has followed the Scandinavian conceptua lization referring to bullying as frequent negative behaviour. In our study, we follow the Scandinavian perspective.
Hypothesis 6: Gender ratio in terms of more male than female employees is positively related to workplace bullying.

Fourth, a higher levels of bullying have been found in small family owned firms; an aspect that researchers linked to bullying via correlates such as favouritism and an (too) informal climate. Moreover, strong lifework interference in family businesses hampers clarity in terms of social norms, which might facilitate or even protect would-be perpetrators (Neyens etal., 2007b).
Hypothesis 7: Being a family business is related to the incidence of bullying.

Fifth, the absence of trade unions in enhances the risk of bullying behaviour given that unions intervene to demand policies to deal with such and act as a key figures to represent employee rights. They principally promote employee-oriented values, which, in turn, may discourage workplace bullying as elaborated in hypothesis 4. We follow this argumentation and assume:
Hypothesis 8: The presence of a union is related to less bullying.

Methodology Sample
Data were gathered in 2005 in Belgian (Flemish) organizations with a maximum 100 employees. The rationale for this decision being that differences between the Belgian and European law raise discussion regarding the definition of a Belgian SME. According to the Belgian definition, SMEs consist of a maximum 50 employees, while the European definition includes those with upto 250 employees. Additionally, the study aimed to be complementary to an earlier study in large organizations with minimum 100 employees (Baillien etal., 2008; Neyens etal., 2007a). Note, however, that from the European perspective our study included particularly small enterprises. To achieve a representative and heterogeneous sample of these organizations, the following criteria were considered: (1) the size of the organization; (2) the sector or branch; and (3) the region in which the organization is located. We aimed to represent the size of the SMEs both in terms of the number of SMEs in Flanders as well as the number of employees. Specifically, we first made

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two cross-tabulations; one reflected the number of SMEs operative in each specific size group (columns) combined with each sector (rows; NACEBel-codes1) and one reflected the number of workers employed in each size group (columns) and in each sector (rows). Then, we combined these cross-tabulations in one table indicating how many organizations should be included in the study belonging to a certain size group sector combination, restricting the total number of included SMEs to 40.2 Next, several address lists of SMEs according to sector, size and region were downloaded from a website (http://www.gom.be). These lists were used to randomly select the required number of made certain firms which were equally distributed over the five Flemish provinces. Based on our final list, we contacted the organizations manager and asked for their cooperation; to foster willingness to cooperate, those with at least 10 respondents received a feedback report outlining the most important risk factors. If managers were not willing to participate, we contacted other SMEs from the same lists (with the same size, sector and region) until we reached our aim of 40 organizations. This approach was parallel to the earlier study in large organizations (Baillien etal., 2008; Neyens etal., 2007a). Eventually, 960 questionnaires were distributed to the organizations employees of which 358 completed questionnaires (from 39 SMEs)s were returned (response rate: 38 per cent). The firms were distributed equally over the five Flemish provinces. More information about the respondents can be derived from Table 1.

Measurements
The concepts under study were measured using internationally validated scales. The organizational characteristics were measured with four scales. All items of these scales were simultaneously included in an exploratory factor analysis (PCA; varimax rotation), which demonstrated single factor structures for all organizational characteristics under study (Harman, 1976). Specifically, the analysis yielded four factors referring to the concepts under study with eigenvalues of 15.58 (task-oriented culture), 3.14 (people-oriented culture), 2.59 (top-down communication) and 1.53 (anti-bullying policy). The four factors showed 53.12 per cent explained variance. The scales top-down communication (four items; a = 0.88) (Van Veldhoven and Meijman, 1994), people-oriented culture (16 items; a = 0.94) (Patterson etal., 2005), task-oriented culture (16 items; a = 0.86) (Patterson etal., 2005), and an anti-bullying policy (seven items; a = 0.89) (self-constructed) were reliable. One item from Baillien and De Witte (2009) measured organizational change, that is, Looking back at the last couple of years, have you experienced organizational changes? (1 = yes, 2 = no). The organizations managers or owners were contacted to collect information about gender ratio, presence versus absence of a union representative and whether or not the organization was a family business (that is, owned and ran by one family). Workplace bullying was measured using the Negative Acts Questionnaire (NAQ; Einarsen and Raknes, 1997; Notelaers etal., 2006). The NAQ consists of 17 items describing various negative acts that may be experienced as bullying when occurring on a regular basis. These items referred to personal (for example, gossiping) as well as work-related issues (for example, withholding information) and they examine how often the respondent was exposed to a specific act (from co-workers as well as managers) during the last six months. In the bullying literature, this has traditionally been called the objective or operational measurement of bullying (Notelaers etal., 2006). This approach has been distinguished from subjective measurements, in which respondents are asked to indicate whether or not they perceive themselves as a victim (Notelaers etal., 2006; Zapf and Einarsen, 2003). Response categories varied from never (= 1), to now and then

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Table 1.Respondents

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Respondents Gender Male Female Age < 25 years 2534 years 3544 years 4554 years >55 years Position: Blue-collar worker White-collar worker Tenure: one year 25 years 615 years 1625 years > 25 years Size of the organization 14 employees (n = 9) 59 employees (n = 4) 1019 employees (n = 9) 2049 employees (n = 12) 5099 employees (n = 5) 52.4 47.6 8.6 27.9 31.0 23.6 8.9 43.6 56.4 16.0 31.5 26.7 14.3 11.5 4.75 3.63 11.45 47.21 32.96

(= 2), monthly (= 3), weekly (= 4) and daily (= 5). In line with the bullying literature, all items were included in one scale (a = 0.90) (for a discussion, see Agervold, 2007; Einarsen etal., 2009; Nielsen etal., 2009).

Analyses
Data were analysed using SPSS 15.0. First, bivariate analyses tested whether the relationship between the organizational correlates and bullying was significant. Then, the significant variables were included in a regression analysis together with three control variables (occupational position, gender and tenure). Occupational position (1 = blue-collar worker, 0 = white-collar worker) and gender (1 = female, 0 = male) were both dummy coded whereas tenure was a variable encompassing five categories (ranging from below 2 years till above 25 years). Based on an ANOVA, which revealed two categories that were significant (and positive) related to bullying, we recoded tenure in two dummies (1 = 2 till 5 years, 0 = the other categories; 1 = above 25 years, 0 = the other categories). Organizational change was dummy coded as 1 (yes) and 0 (no). The regression analyses allowed us to detect organizational characteristics that are directly associated with

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bullying, as they control for relationships with other organizational and demographic characteristics. In other words, such analyses enabled us to distinguish between the organizational characteristics that are directly related to bullying and those that are not or are indirectly related to bullying.

Results Bivariate analyses

Table 2 displays the bivariate relationships between the organizational characteristics and bullying. Except for trade union, all variables were significantly associated with workplace bullying. Particularly people-oriented culture (r = 0.42***), procedural justice (r = 0.41***) and anti-bullying policy (r = 0.43***) showed a rather strong and negative association with bullying, whereas family business (r = 0.16**) and organizational change (r = 0.12*) were positively associated with bullying.

Regression analyses
Table 3 reports the results of the regression analysis. The first step included three control variables (occupational position, gender and tenure). The second step includes both the controls and the organizational characteristics that significantly associated with bullying in the bivariate analyses. Our results showed that bullying is associated rather weakly with the three demographics (R2 = 0.05**). Interestingly, tenure was to some extent positively related to bullying. Respondents with a tenure between 2 and 5 years ( = 0.17**) and higher than 25 years ( = 0.16**) reported more workplace bullying. The variance in bullying was however rather well explained by the organizational characteristics (R2change = 0.29***). With respect to the characteristics that may influence bullying through frustration, strain and conflict, our results revealed a positive association between organizational change and bullying
Table 2. Relationships between the Organizational Characteristics and Workplace Bullying (Pearson r) M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0.39*** 0.42*** 0.71*** 0.30*** 0.54*** 0.61*** 0.43*** 0.49*** 0.55*** 0.47*** 0.15** 0.12* 0.16** ns ns ns ns ns ns ns 0.17** 0.11** ns ns ns ns .15** 0.12* ns

1. Workplace 0.99 1.07 bullying 2. Communication 5.36 2.55 3. People-oriented 5.67 2.14 culture 4. Task-oriented 6.65 1.60 culture 5. Anti-bullying 5.81 3.80 policy 6.  Gender ratio 58.26 26.64 7. Organizational 0.72 0.44 change 8.  Family business 0.39 0.49 9. Trade union 0.49 0.50

.12* 0.41** 0.25** 0.15** ns ns 0.40**

Note: *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p <0.001; ns: not significant.

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Table 3. Regression Analyses Predicting Workplace Bullying (Enter Method) Model 1 Demographics Blue-collar worker Tenure of 25 years Tenure >25 years Female Frustration, strain, conflict Organizational change Top-down communication Destructive habits People-oriented culture Task-oriented culture Anti-bullying Policy Gender ratio (% male employees) Family business R2 F Df Df (res.) R2
Note: *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001; ns: not significant.

Model 2 0.10* 0.12* 0.12* ns 0.18*** ns .23*** ns .23*** ns .19** .34*** 14.54*** 11 316 .29***

0.13* 0.17** 0.16** ns / / / / / / / .05** 4.74** 4 323 /

( = 0.18***). Hypothesis 1 was thus confirmed: Experiencing organizational change is positively related to bullying. No association was however found between top-down communication (hypothesis 2) and workplace bullying. With respect to the characteristics that may influence bullying through encouraging destructive habits, our results showed a negative association between a people-oriented culture ( = 0.23**), an anti-bullying policy ( = 0.23***) and bullying; in line with hypothesis 3 and 5. In other words, more people-oriented cultures and the presence of an anti-bullying policy associated with lower scores on bullying. Furthermore, there was a positive association between working in a family business and bullying ( = 0.19**), revealing more bullying in family businesses and confirming hypothesis 7. There was no relationship between a task-oriented culture and bullying (hypothesis 4) or between gender-ratio and bullying (hypothesis 6). Table 4 provides an overview of the hypotheses and the corresponding results of the regression analysis. Based on our findings we may overall conclude that particularly a highly people-oriented culture (hypothesis 3) and the presence of a well-known anti-bullying policy (hypothesis 5) associated with bullying in SMEs: when the employees are cared about and when the employees know that their employer tries to prevent and to intervene in bullying incidences, the prevalence of bullying decreases. Next, bullying in SMEs is related to organizational change (hypothesis 1) and working in a family business (hypothesis 7).

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Table 4. Overview of Relationships between Organizational Characteristics and Workplace Bullying: Hypothesis and Results from the Regression Analyses Hypothesis H1: Organizational change is positively related to workplace bullying. H2: Top-down communication is negatively related to workplace bullying. H3: A people-oriented culture is negatively related to workplace bullying. H4: A task-oriented culture is positively related to workplace bullying. H5: Having a well-known anti-bullying policy is negatively related to workplace bullying. H6: Gender ratio (more male than female employees) is positively related to workplace bullying. H7: Being a family business is related to more bullying. H8: The presence of a union is related to less bullying.
Note: ns: not significant; /: not included in the regression analyses.

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Status () Confirmed (0.18***) ns Confirmed (0.23**) ns Confirmed (0.23***) ns Confirmed (.19**) /

Discussion
In this study we investigated the relationship between a range of organizational characteristics and workplace bullying in SMEs. Following the Three Way Model and findings reported in the bullying literature, we formulated eight hypotheses (see Table 4). Bivariate analysis revealed that the presence of union representatives did not relate to bullying in SMEs. Therefore, this characteristic was omitted from further analyses. The regression analyses revealed four organizational characteristics accounting for almost 30 per cent of the variance in bullying in SMEs. In sum, our study pointed at a lower bullying prevalence in SMEs with a people-oriented culture and a formal antibullying policy; whereas the prevalence was likely to increase in SMEs experiencing changes and in family businesses. In the following paragraphs, we reflect upon these results following the Three Way Models classification in view of underlying mechanisms.

Frustration, strain and conflict

In the workplace bullying literature, we detected two organizational characteristics that may influence bullying through their impact on frustration, strain or conflicts at work: organizational change and top-down communication. First, we expected a positive relationship between organizational change and bullying (hypothesis 1), which was confirmed in the bivariate and regression analyses. These findings align with earlier findings in large organizations (Baillien and De Witte, 2009; McCarthy, 1996; Skogstad etal., 2007), and lead us to conclude that organizational change can indeed be regarded as an organizational correlate of bullying in both large organizations and SMEs. Second, we assumed a negative relationship between top-down communication and bullying (hypotheses 2). Our expectations were confirmed in the bivariate analyses, while no significant association appeared in the regression analyses. Consequently, hypothesis 2 was rejected and findings in large organizations could not be generalized to SMEs. One possible reason could be that SMEs differ from larger organizations in the quality of top-down communication, which might not trigger or sustain frustration or conflicts. Therefore, top-down communication in SMEs may be less problematic for bullying as compared to top-down communication strategies in

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larger organizations. Alternatively, the bivariate association between top-down communication and bullying may have disappeared because it is mediated by other characteristics such as, for example, people-oriented culture (r = 0.71***). Future studies may therefore, further disentangle this relationship in SMEs by looking for potential mediators.

Destructive habits
Six hypotheses were formulated as regards the organizational characteristics that may stimulate bullying via allowing or encouraging destructive social habits at work. These hypotheses included people-oriented culture, task-oriented culture, the presence of an anti-bullying policy, gender ratio, whether or not the firm is a family business and the presence of union representatives. First, we expected lower incidents of bullying in cultures where the well-being of people is considered to be important (hypothesis 3). This hypothesis was confirmed in the bivariate and regression analyses, and findings in large organizations can be generalized to SMEs. Second, following earlier findings in the realm of bullying, we expected a positive association between a task-oriented culture and bullying. By contrast, however, the bivariate analyses showed a negative correlation between a task-oriented culture and bullying, indicating a higher prevalence of bullying in cultures with little attention for tasks and performances (hypothesis 4). This relationship disappeared in the regression analyses. In other words, bullying was not associated with a strong (or weak) focus on tasks and performances, and hypothesis 4 is rejected. Again, the relationship between the organizational characteristic (that is, task-oriented culture) and bullying may be mediated by other correlates. One possibility could be that small task-oriented organizations are sensitive to stressors such as role ambiguity and role conflict, which have been detected as important job-related antecedents of bullying (Agervold, 2007; Agervold and Mikkelsen, 2004; Einarsen etal., 1994; Hauge etal., 2007). In summary, however, in view of organizational culture, bullying seemed more prone to thrive in organizations with a lack of interest for social and human values. This reflects previous findings in larger organizations, highlighting the importance of a social and people-oriented organizational culture (Lane, 1990; Seigne, 1998). Third, we assumed a negative association between the presence of an established anti-bullying policy and bullying (hypothesis 5), which was confirmed in the bivariate as well as regression analyses. This finding aligns with results in large organizations, where more bullying was found in organizations that do not apply policies or punishments in case of bullying (Brodsky, 1976; Einarsen, 1999; Rayner etal., 2002; van Amstel and Volkers, 1993). Fourth, based on the bullying literature, we assumed more bullying in male-dominated organizations (hypothesis 6), which was supported in the bivariate analyses. Again, the original correlation between gender ratio and bullying disappeared after controlling for other characteristics: hypothesis 6 was rejected in the regression analysis. Given the results of the regression analyses, we tend to conclude that there is no direct relationship between the gender ratio and bullying in SMEs. This conclusion matches the mixed findings of research in larger organizations (Einarsen and Skogstad, 1996; Hubert and Van Veldhoven, 2001; Mikkelsen and Einarsen, 2001; OMoore etal., 2003). Fifth, we investigated the family business as a potential organizational correlate of bullying (hypothesis 7), which was exclusively inspired by the work of Neyens etal., (2007b). This hypothesis was confirmed in both the bivariate as well as the regression analyses. Specifically, our results revealed a higher prevalence of bullying in a family business. Sixth, we examined the role

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of union representatives in SMEs however, in our study, no association was found with the presence of union representatives.

Limitations and future research

Providing a first test of organizational correlates of workplace bullying in SMEs by drawing on the Three Way Model (Baillien etal., 2009) as a theoretical framework is the current studys main contribution. There are however, some drawbacks; our study tested organizational correlates of bullying and revealed that such characteristics, selected based on the Three Way Model and the existing bullying literature, explained about 30 per cent of the variance in bullying. Although these results are fairly satisfactory in view of the exclusive focus on organizational correlates, they indicate that other characteristics may be of importance too. Specifically, following the work environment hypothesis (Einarsen, 2000; Leymann, 1996; Hauge etal., 2007; Neyens etal., 2007), bullying may also be triggered by job- and team-related characteristics that pave the way for a stressful and discordant work environment. Alternatively, bullying has also been linked to a range of personality characteristics (Coyne etal., 2000; Vartia, 1996). Investigating to what extent job (that is, workload, role ambiguity) and team (that is, social support, leadership styles) characteristics or the personality of the parties involved may contribute to bullying in SMEs may therefore serve as a valuable route for future research. Additionally, we relied on the sub processes of the Three Way Model as a guideline to select and motivate the organizational characteristics; these characteristics may be linked to bullying via frustration, strain, conflicts or destructive social habits. However, the sub processes as such were not measured in the current study and our results do not allow conclusions with respect to the possibility to generalize this model to SMEs. Therefore, future studies may further explore the underlying mechanisms that relate the significant organizational correlates to bullying. A related issue concerns that our results suggested a number of indirect organizational correlates as well: top-down communication, a task-oriented culture and gender ratio were only related to bullying in the bivariate analyses. our study focused on main or direct effects of organizational correlates on bullying. However, some of these organizational features may interplay in triggering workplace bullying. In this context, Salin (2003) distinguished between enabling (that is, factors necessary for bullying to develop, such as perceived power imbalance or low perceived costs), motivating (that is, circumstances under which it might feel rational for an employee to bully, such as expected benefits from eliminating competition) and triggering (that is, changes in the work environment, such as downsizing and team-related reorganizations) structures and processes. Specifically, she underlines the multi-causal nature of bullying (Zapf, 1999) and describes bullying as the result of an interaction between at least two of these groups of explanators. Following this reasoning, future research could enhance insight in organizational correlates of bullying by testing interactions between characteristics belonging to these three levels of explanators. Organizational change was measured with a one item measure, which corresponds with a recent study in the realm of organizational change and bullying in large organizations (Baillien and De Witte, 2009). However, future studies could enhance this measurement by applying a broader measurement of this aspect, or even by distinguishing various types of organizational change as potential correlates of bullying in SMEs. This study also preferred to align with the Scandinavian conceptualization of bullying and did not differentiate between different sources of the bullying acts, such as, for example, vertical (that is, being bullied by a supervisor) as compared to horizontal

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bullying (that is, being bullied by co-workers). As this is among the first studies to explore whether the organizational correlates of bullying, predominantly detected in large organizations, can be generalized to SMEs, testing different forms of bullying was beyond the scope of the current article. Yet, different forms of bullying may relate to various explanations, making this topic a fruitful avenue for future research. For example, one diverging aspect may be their association with workplace power, which may be one of the most important factors contributing to the specific context of supervisory bullying (for elaboration, see Hodson etal., 2006). The cross-sectional nature of our study does not allow conclusions in terms of causes and consequences of bullying. For example, the existence of an anti-bullying policy may be an antecedent of bullying, or may be regarded as a consequence in terms of the SMEs reaction to a bullying incident. Future studies may thus, benefit from using a longitudinal design to gain a better insight in causes and consequences of workplace bullying in SMEs. And finally, our study specifically focused on a Flemish sample of SMEs; yielding limitations in terms of generalizing our findings more widely.

Policy recommendations
Bullying gives rise to high organizational (absence, employees who leave the organization) and personal (depression, post-traumatic stress disorders) costs. Such costs can partially be decreased and prevented by the managers and owners of SMEs (Hoel and Cooper, 2000; Rayner, 1997; Vartia, 2001). Given the fact that employees in family businesses are more prone to become a victim of bullying, owners and managers of family enterprises have to be aware of the higher risk of bullying incidences. Besides, as bullying is more prevalent in organizations without an anti-bullying policy, the introduction of such a policy is recommended. An organizational culture, in which much attention is devoted to the needs and concerns of employees, prevents bullying too. Finally, small enterprises ought to take into account the potential for bullying during periods of organizational change. Notes
1. The NACEBel-codes provide a European classification of sectors and branches within Flanders (Belgium) as well as the number of citizens employed within these specific sectors and branches. 2. This number was postulated by our research proposal.

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