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RICHLAND COLLEGE School of Engineering Business & Technology

Rev. 0 W. Slonecker Rev. 1 (8/26/2012) J. Bradbury

INTC 1307 Instrumentation Test Equipment Teaching Unit 6

AC Bridges

Unit 6: AC Bridges OBJECTIVES: 1. To explain the operation of an AC Bridge. 2. To review AC concepts of frequency and effects on LRC circuits. 3. To explain the requirements of balancing an AC Bridge. 4. To null an AC Bridge. AC Bridge Configuration When the four resistive arms of the basic Wheatstone bridge are replaced by impedances and the bridge is excited by an AC source, the result is an AC Bridge. Now, to balance the bridge, two Z3 conditions must be satisfied, the resistive (R) and Z1 the reactive components (XC or XL). Once balanced, the AC Bridge indicates a null. D AC bridge circuits are also used for shifting phase, providing feedback paths for oscillators and Z2 Z4 amplifiers, filtering out undesired signals, and measuring the frequency of audio and radio frequency (rf) signals. At balance:
Z1 1 Z2 2 = Z3 3 Z4 4

|Z| indicates the magnitude of the impedance


( Z1 ( Z2 1 )( Z 4 4 ) = 2 )( Z 3 3 )

Z1 Z 4

= Z2

Z3

and

1 4 = 3 3

Z1

Z3

IA X
Z2

IB
Z4

The null or balanced condition occurs when detector current becomes Zero (no voltage difference occurs from Y to X). This means that the impedance (Z) of the detector circuit appears infinite (), or as an apparent open circuit, so that each leg of the bridge is isolated from the other leg. For this balance condition,
VZ1 = VZ 3 VZ 2 =VZ 4

IAZ1 = IBZ3 IAZ2 = IBZ4


I Z I A Z1 = B 3 IA Z2 IB Z4

so

Z1 Z 3 = Z2 Z4

and

Z1Z4 = Z2Z3

and

Z1Z4 = Z2Z3

Z indicates both magnitude and phase

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This is the general bridge equation and applies to any four arm bridge circuit whether branches are pure resistances or combinations of R, C, and L. Most of the time, the balance equation is not dependent upon frequency. When the bridge is not balanced, these equations are not correct. . The circuit is complex and Z must be written in complex form
Z = Z

AC Bridge Calculations
200 Z1

150 Z3

D
Z2
100 + j 300

Z4 UNKNOWN

For example, the AC Bridge at right is balanced. In order to use the bridge equation, complex forms must be multiplied. When multiplying or dividing, the polar complex form is easiest to use. When adding or subtracting, the rectangular complex form is easiest to use. Since Z1and Z3 are already in polar form, change Z2 to polar form and solve for Z4.
= XL 300 = = R 100

Conversion of Z2, 100 + j 300, to polar form: tan


jXL = 300

3.0

= Arc tan ( 3.0 )= 71.6o

R = 100
Z2 = 316 71.6

Sin

XL Z

Z=

Z1Z4 = Z2Z3 The bridge equation


Z4 = Z 2 Z3 Z1

XL 300 = =316 sin 71.6 sin 71.6

(316 1.6 )(150) 47400 1.6 Z4 = = =237 1.6 200 0 200 0

Z4 = 237

11.6

Conversion of 23711.6 to rectangular form j


237
= 11.6

Sin =

XL Z

XL = Sin = 237 (Sin 11.6 )

Cos =

R Z

R = Z Cos

= 237 (Cos 11.6 )

Z4 = 232 + j47.7

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Review of Basic AC Concepts Resistance: Resistors limit current and dissipate power. There is no phase shift across pure resistance. Changes in frequency cause no change in the value of the resistance.

R=

V I

Z = R0

no change with frequency


freq.
Vg

R=

Vg

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Inductance: Inductance opposes any change in current. X is the symbol for Inductive Reactance which is the opposition to the flow of AC current measured in ohms. An inductor causes the current through the inductor to lag the voltage across the inductor by 90 degrees.
L= N A
2

X L=

VL IL

Z = X L + 90

XL =2L

frequency Capacitance: Capacitance opposes any change in voltage. XC is the symbol for Capacitive Reactance which is the opposition to the flow of AC current measured in ohms. Capacitance causes the voltage across the capacitor to lag the current through the capacitor by 90 degrees.
Q V Q C

C=

V=

Q = charge

Z = X C 90

XC 0 -j

XC =

1 jC
Vg

LR Circuits:
I is the same everywhere in a series circuit.
IT = Vg Z
Z = R + jX L

IT =

VR R

X L= jL

L
Vg

XL R
0 =0

|Z| Z = R + jXL

Z = R + jXL

at DC, XL = 0 so Z = R +j90 =+ 45 at mid freq. Z = R + jXL, when XL = R, at high freq. XL = Z = XL If Vg is constant as increases, R remains constant, both XL and increase, and IT decreases.
= 90

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RC Circuits:
Z = R jXC
C

XC =

1 2 fC

0 XC R 0

|Z| 0

Vg R

-j

at DC, XC =, Z = 90 at mid freq. XC = R, at high freq. XC = 0 Z = R

= 45

Z = R - jXC

45

RLC Circuits
Z = R + j (XL XC)
C L

at low freq. (dc) XL = 0, Z = R jXC The circuit is open! at co min, XC > XL, Z = R j(XC XL) and Z = R jX, when R = X, = -45 at 0 , Z = R , XL = XC so they cancel each other leaving Z = R at co max, XC < XL, Z = R + j(XL XC) = R + jX when R = X, = 45 at high freq. XL = , XC = 0, Z = R + jXL, Z =
Z= 90 0 + 90

o min o |Z: 0 Impedance vs. freq. I +

o max o

Current vs. freq.

o is the resonant frequency when XL = XC

Practical problem: Find the value of Z4 to balance this AC bridge.


200 in series with 0.01592H

XL = 2L = XL3 = 100
X C=

2 1000 15 . 92 103

1 1 = 2 fC 2 1000 4 107

400

XC2 = 397.89 Z1 = 4000 Z2 = 300 j398 = 500-53.1 Z3 = 200 + j100 = 223.626.6 Z4 =

D
300 in series with 0.4F UNKNOWN C=

Z2Z3 ( 223. 6 26 .6 )( 500 53 .1 ) = = 280 26 . 4 Z1 400 0

1 =1 . 28106 2 ( 1000 )124

250

1.28f

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Capacitor Equivalent Circuits: Except for electrolytic capacitors, capacitors have almost no intrinsic resistance. Electrolytic leakage and dissipation factors are modeled using parallel/series resistances. RP is called leakage resistance and is in parallel with the actual capacitance. The RP/CP parallel circuit shown below is equivalent to the series RS/CS circuit. Electrolytic capacitors have a relatively low RP; other types of capacitors have extremely high RP. The higher the RP the less the leakage current so the capacitor can better maintain its charge and voltage. If RP decreases, the capacitor no longer acts as a capacitor; the leakage increases to the point that the capacitor appears as a resistor.

RS = RP CP RP

2 2

1+ D

CS = CP(1 +

D2

Bridges measure the ratio of reactance to resistance for the component under test. This ratio is called the dissipation factor, D, which is directly proportional to the power loss per cycle. A capacitor with a low leakage loss (keeps its charge when disconnected) is a high quality capacitor.
D= XP 1 = R P 2f R P C P

D=

1 = 2f R P C P

1 2f CS 1 + D2 R S 2 D 1 + D2

D2 D =2f R S C S 2f R S C S

Inductor Equivalent Circuits: Inductors are formed by winding a coil of wire. This wire has resistance. Each inductor then has a series resistance along with its inductance. This ratio of Inductive Reactance to its coil wire resistance is the storage factor or quality factor, Q. This Q factor is directly proportional to the energy stored per cycle. The greater the dissipation factor, the lower the Q of the coil.

LS RP R
S

Q= LP Q= Q=
1 D

X S 2fLS = RS RS
R X
P P

R P 2 fL

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Capacitance Bridges: If the bridge is balanced, an apparent open circuit occurs from Y to X. At that balance point, the ratio of each leg to the other is such that the voltage drops and the phase angles are the same, just as in a balanced Impedance Bridge. The standard frequency of the voltage source for these AC bridges is 1000 Hz. The following formulae show that frequency is not necessary for a capacitance bridge to operate at balance.
R 1 R 2 = X C1 X C2
V1 1 V 1kHz 0Deg R1 U1 + 0.000 V C2 R2

1 2 fC

R =
1
f C

1 2 fC
R
1

1 2 fC
1

2
2

(2

= R

(2

f C

2 f

(R

= 2 f

(R

C1

(Divide out 2f)


R1 C 1 = R2 C 2 C 1 C2 = R2 R1 R1 R 2 = C2 C1 C2 = R1 C R2 1

Capacitance Bridge

Example: For C2 unknown, R2 = 50k, C1 = 0.01F, and R1 = 300k for balance, then C2 = 0.06F Since reactance is a function of frequency, it is possible with capacitors to obtain a very low reactance for C2 (the unknown) for a frequency of 1 kHz. For example, if C2 = 10F then its reactance is 15.9. For an R2 fixed at 10k, the source voltage divider ratio for R2-C2 would be only 1.5% or 15mV for a 1v RMS source. The sharpest nulls are obtained for divider ratios of 50%, so a 1.5% ratio would give a very weak null. However, if the source frequency were lowered to 50 Hz and R2 lowered to 1k, the C2 reactance would be 318.3 and the divider ratio would be 30%. This ratio gives a much better null. So although frequency divides out of the balance equation, it can and does impact bridge accuracy. Other Bridges: This discussion has covered the basic concepts of bridges. Other bridges are Inductance, Similar Angle, Opposite Angle, Wien, Radio Frequency, Schering, and Owen bridges. A Maxwell-Wien Bridge is shown below (often called the Maxwell bridge), and is used to measure unknown inductances in terms of calibrated resistance and capacitance. Calibration-grade inductors are more difficult to manufacture than capacitors of similar precision, and so the use of a simple "symmetrical" inductance bridge is not always practical. Because the phase shifts of inductors and capacitors are exactly opposite each other, a capacitive impedance can balance out an inductive impedance if they are located in opposite legs of a bridge, as they are here.

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R1

V1 1V 1kHz 0Deg

RX + LX 0.000 V U1 R3 C1 50%

R2

Maxwell-Wien Bridge

The balance of the Maxwell-Wien bridge is independent of source frequency, (with the understanding of divider ratios already discussed) and in some cases this bridge can be made to balance in the presence of mixed frequencies from the AC voltage source, the limiting factor being the inductor's stability over a wide frequency range. Bridge Equations: LX = R1R2C1 RX = R1R2/R3

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