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PREFACE

,(
This publicatian Combating Oii Spills supersedes the 1980 editian of Sec/ion [Vor the IMO Manual on Oii Pollution which was entitled PrQctical information an means of dea/ing with oii spillages. The informatian contain(:d herein should be useful to Governments. particularly thase of developing countries. on the varous methods for dealing wth oii spiUages. This Sectian of the Manual was prepared and approved by the Marine Environment Protectian Committee of the International Maritime Organizatian. The Manual on Oil PolIution consists of four sections: Sectian 1
ISBN 92-801-1'242-2

FirSI pubUshed in /988 by the INTERNATIONAL MARITIME ORGA1'oZATION 4 Alben Embankmcnt, London SE! 7SR

Prinl~ by thc lnttmationa1 Maritim.,.c. Orsanization,

London

Prevention (revised editian published in 1983) Contingency Planning (revised edition published in 1988) Salvage (published in 1983) Combating Oii Spil/s is contained in this publication

Section Il Section ItI Section IV

,
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'i ,1

" :1

l(
lMO PUBLlCATION Sales number: 569 88.11.E

:1

It is recognized that each spillage presents its own particular problems to Adminisnations. depending on weather. ~ of oiI, locatien and resources at risk. In order that information 00 response techoiques. lessons leamed. new developments and use of chemical dispersants may be made available to Member Governments, Administrations are eocouraged to submit supplementary information to the statistical reports required by MEPC/Circ,138 of 15 May 1985 in order that it may be made available to Member Governrnents. The Marine Environment Protection Committee wishes to express its appreciation to the many experts who assisted in the preparation of the text and who cootributed photographs. tables and diagrams, thereby making this publication available in its present form. A series of manuals 00 chemical ponutien are currently in the course of preparation and Section 1: Problem Assessment and Response A rrangements was published in 1987. Furt\ler sections of this manual 00 chemical ~ollution should be completed in 1988/89,

1~

tii
Copyright
@

IMO 1988

,.

I~ I

1 ,
\
CHAPTER

CONTENTS I

Page
1 - l!'lRODUCTION _ _ .

I! ' II ..
I
3 3
"

CHAPTER 2 - TYPES OF OlL Crude oils 2.1 2.2 petroleum products

. .

.-

CHAPTER 3 _ FATE OF OlL SPILLS V; THE MARINE El'"VIROl'"MENT 3.1 3.2 Propenies of oiI .

5 7

Natural processes acting on spilled oH Movement of oii slicks :

- ..
16

I I~

3.3

il li1'1

il': 1.; ..
I a'.

CHAPTER 4 _ EFFECTS OF OlL ON MARIl''E AND COASTAL RESOURCES 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 lntroduction Ecological eHects -_ , .' ' _ - _.' . . .

19

20
23

II. ,1

Recreational beaches and sea areas Ports and marinas -

Iii
:Ik

24
26

I I I

Industrial installations .. _..... Fisheries Marine animals l\-1arinebirds Coral communities and ecosystems Wetland communities and ecosystems Nature ,eserves and marine parks - _...... ' ' . -. . . . .. .. . . . . . .

27 31
33
"

_.' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' . _. . . . . . . . -

35 37 39
v

1\

\
\

Page Page CHAPTER 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5 _ SITUATION EVALUATION OPTIONS Al'1> RESPONSE
40 40

II{

CHAPTER 8 - SHORE-UNE 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.S 8.6 8.7 lntroduetion.

CLEAN-UP .. 152 154 163 . . 169 171 174 178

III

Identification of souree and incident details........ Prevention or reductian of further spillages . . . . . . . . Aerial surveiUance, inc1uding remale sensing Assessment of the threat Spill iesponse options and their limitations . .

Methods of removing oH from shore-lines Finalcleaning Organization and management of work forces Applications of techniques to different shore.1ine types ~ Site restoration Care of wildlife ~

41
45

46

'..... . ........ .

CHAPTER6 6.1 6.2

_ CONTAINME/lil Introduction............

A.."1>RECOVERY OF OIL .. . . .. . . . . . 48 48
81

Booms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. .... Recovery devices Sweeping with booms Open sea operations without utilization S~cia1ized oil recovery vesses Safety precautions Sorbents

CHAPTER 9.1 9.2 9.3

9 _ DISPOSAL OF OIL AND OIL y. DEBRIS Introduction On-site temporary storage and separation for liquids and solid, , Land transport Oispasal methods Separation of oiI. Stabilization of oi1y beach materials Direct clispasal Burial Destruction , ., , , , " . ' . . . . . . . . 180 180
187

<..

6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8

102 of booms ... '.' . . .

109
110

189 189 193

194

118 118

9.4
9.5 9.6

CHAPTER 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5

7 _ CHEMICAL lntreductian Dispersants

DISPERSION ' . . . -" " . - . 123

128 131

9.7 9.8 9.9

196
197 197

Application techniques Precautions Condusion

9.10 Landfarming 9.11 incineration

142
142

199
vii

vi

.(
CHAPTER 10 - PRACTICAL TRAl11oil'iGA-"W EQUlPMENT l\lAl1loENAl'iCE Al'lD STORAGE
10.1 Introduction ..

Page

CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION

201 201
20-1

1.1 Of the estimated total of 1.5 mil1ion metric toos (toooes) of oii that eoter the sea each year as a result of marine transportation losses. almosl twO thirds are from vessel operational discharges. The International Maritime
Organizatian (IMO) bas been instrumental in reducing these discharges aver

i~ ~ !.,

10.2
10.3 10.4

Training .. _
Equipment maintenance _ and storage

.
. .

the years through various international cODventions, the most recent being the International Conventian for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships. 1973. as modified by the Protocol of 1978re!ating thereto (MARPOL 73/78)
. as shown in the following statistics rrom the United States National Academy

Exercses .. _

208

.CHAPTER 11 - CLEA-,,"-UPCOST CONSIDERATIONS

11.1 lntroduction 211

of Science:

11.2 Equipmenr

211 213

INPUTS OF PETROLEUM HYDROCARBON INTO THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT (M:ilIion metric

t011S

11.3 Personnel. _. . .. . . .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. 11.4 Logistics.......................................

213 l\larine transportation Tanker operations

per aonum)

1975 1.08 0.25 0.003 0.5 0.2 0.1 TOTAL 2.133

1985 0.7 0.03 0.02 0.3 0.4 0.02 1.47

BlBLlOGRAPHY

_...............

215

Drydocking
Marine

terminals

Bilge and fuel oils T anker aC,eidents N on-tanker accidents

Once fully implemented, MARPOL 73/78 should result in further, substantial reductions in the -quantities discharged. Besides limiting the amount of oii entering the sea, MARPOL 73/78 requires that discharges
are made in accordance with strict operational procedures such that the oiI

does not farm a persistent slick requiring any elean-up response. This leaves -accidental spillages, particularly rrom tankers. as a significant cause of large\ :

\;ii

,
1.','

1-"'

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scale oii pollution. In this area a1so,IMO has p1ayed a major role in reducing the risk of oiI spills rrom vessels by promoting greater safet)" and operating standards such as through the International Conventian for the Sarety of Life at Sea (SOLAS 1974), together with its associated Protocol of 1978. 1.2 Although the above table indicates that lhe amount of oiI spilled rrom tankeT accidents increased between 1975 and 19S5~this was duc ta a number of total losscs in the late 19705. Examination of tanker spiU statistics for the 19805 shows that the number of accidental oil spiUs, especiall}' the larger oneSt has been substantially reduced in recent years. Nevertheless. major spills do stiH occur rrom time to time and wiU continue to do 50. Further analysiS of tankeT spills throughout t};le warid shows that the majority (some 75070) accur in port during routine ship operations such as loading, discharging and bunkering. Most of these spills are. however. relativeI)' small (less than 7 tonnes). In comparison, accidents such as groundiogs and collisions give rise to less than 10070 of ali spills from tankers. but a quarter of these are larger than 700 tonnes. Oii spill statistics show that other ki.nds of ship (cargo and passenger ships) also cause numerous oiI spills. due to the large amount of bunker oii they may be carrying. UsuaIly these spills are not as large as those caused b)' tankers.

CHAPTER 2 - TYPES OF OIL

I I

2.1

Crude oils

II

Crude oils are complex mixtures of h)'drocarbons of varying molecular weight aod structure comprising the three main chemical groups, paraffinic, naphtheoic aod aromatic. These hydrocarbons raoge from simple, highly volatile substances to complex waxes aod asphaltic compouods which canoot be distiUed. Oxygen. nitrogen, sulphur. vanadium. niekel and mineral salts, - etc. may be present in various combinations. The characteristics of maoy crude oils will fali within the following ranges: Specific gtavity, 15/15C 1nitial boiling pOlnt cC Kinematic viscosity centistokes eSt, at 40ce Pour point ce Flashpoint (Abel) C Sulphur
\\'ax
UJo

8OQ. to 980 kg/m1 30 to 125 3 to 100 (15-20,000) but can be as much as 20,000 even at 40cC - 30 to + 25 but can be lower or as high as 43 -18 to 190 0.08 to 5 Up to 15 Upto 5
5 to 170

1.3 OiI spills can have a serious impact on coastal activities and those ,,'ho use ar benefit from the resources of the sea. In most cases. such damage is temporary and caused primarily by the physical properties of oiI creating nuisance and hazardous conditions. However. in some situations many years may be required for reeovery to take place and on rare occasions. the damage may be irreparable. The impact on marine lire is compounded by toxicity and tainting effects resulting from the chemical composition of oii, as wel1 as by the diversity and variability of biological systems and their sensitivity to oil pollution. However, damage to the en"ironrnent can of ten be minimized if correct countermeasures are taken promptly. 1.4 TIUsSeetion of the Manual on Oii Pollution. the fust edition of which was published in 1980, is intended to provide an overview of practical response measures which are available .to deal with oii spills. Since the first publication, there have been a number of developments. particularly Wth regard to the design aod construction of oii containment booms. an reeovery techniques. oii dispersant chemicals and their methods of application. This revised edition takes account of these developments and also includes a chapter an the effects of oii on marine aod coastal resources. However. like the first edition, it is not an exhaustive treatment of the subject of marine oii spill response. Rather. its purpose is to describe the various response optigns which are available and to assist those persons in government who have becn charged with response to marine oii spills in the selection of the most appropriate clean-up measures pertaining to a particular location.

wt.

fl/o wt.

.Asphaltenes fl/o wt. Vanadium, ppm V

2.2

Petroleurn products

\.

The products derived from refining crude oils wil1 have chemical and physical charaeteristics which depend an the nature of the crudes and the varous processes to which they have been subjected. The presence of sulphm. vanadium, wax and asphaltenes in crude is associated \\oiththe higher boiling paint materials. Therefore, although they will appear in the light and middle distillar:es, they will be relatively more concentrated in the heavier product5i, i.e. medium and heavy fuel oils, and more partieularly in the residues. The follo,,"ing typical characteristics will give an indication of the properties of" these various petroleum products: . 3

1,-

Gaso/ines (motor spirit) Specific gravity 15/15C Boiling range C Flashpoint C 0.68~.77 30.200 -40

CHAPTER 3 - FATE OF OIL SPILLS I!'OTHE MARINE ErliVlRONMENT

3.1 Properties of oii 3.1.1 Oils are generally c1assified either as crude oUs and refined products Of according to their viscosity. The varying composition of crude oil5 and . refined products is shown not ooIy by the different specifications. but also by their different behaVour in and on water and by different oil-environment 'interactions. 3.1.2 \\'hen an oii spill occurs at sea oiI will float and begin to spread. with the exceptian of a few oils whose density exceeds that of waq::r and which therefore sink. Individual oii properties are very important sDcethey influence both its behaYour on the sea surface and its rate of dissipation by natural processes. 3.1.3 Oils may pose hazards to human hea1th, in particular from prolonged skin contact and inhalation of vapours. Some crude oils contain hydrogen sulphide gas which is highly toxic. Good personal hygiene and proper safety precautions should be exercised by alI response personnel coming into contact with oils.

Kerosene Specific gravity IS/IS'C Boiling range C KinematC viscosity cSt,37,78C Flashpoint (Pensky Martens) 'C" 0.78 160-285 1.48
55

Gas oils Specific gravity IS/IS'C Boiling range C Kinematic viscosity cSt,37.78C Flashpoint (pensky Martens)'C 0.84 180-360 3.30

77

Fuel oils (Iight, medium and heavy) Specific gravity 15/50C Kinematic viscosity cSt,37.78C Flashpoint 'C Lubricating oi/s These are highly refined oils which. depending on their applicarion, vary widely in specific gravity and viscosity. A v.ide range of addith'es is used in these oils, many of which are surface active compounds, Certain lubricating oils contain toxic additives and present a hazard to human health when spilled. 0.925.{).965 49-862 90 upwards

Density (specific graviry) 3.1.4 This dictates the buoyancy of an oii on water and it influences spreading and natural dispersian. The density of crude oils and petroleum products is usually expressed in terros of API gravity in accordaDce with lhe following formula: API 141.5 -13\.5 specific. gravity

, ,
;

As a general rule, oils with a low density (high API gravity) teod to have 10\", viscosities and contain a high proportian of volatile components.

Boi/ing point and boi/ing range 3.1.5 The rate al which oUsevaporate is linked to their initial boiling point and boiJing range. The lower these are. the faster evaporation wiU aeCUL

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Viscosity 3.1.6 The viscosity of an oiI is its resistance to flow. High viscosity oils fiow with difficulty whilst thase with law viscosity are highly mobile. Viscosities decrease with increasing tempe:rature and so seawater temperature and absorption of heat from the sun are important considerations.

:~
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3.2

Natural processes acting on spmed oii

1
}

3.2.1 Oii spilled on the sea undergoes' a series of processes known as weathering which will change iLS characteristics and behaviour. The main faclors affecting the behaVour of oii are: physical characteristics of the oii. in particular, specific gravity. viscosity and volatility; composition and chmical characteristics of the oii;

pour point

~.
3.1.7 The pour poinl of an oU is the temperature below which the oii becomes a semi-solid and will not flow. This effect is the result of the formation of an interna! micro--crystalline strueture. The pour pqint of crude oils generally varies from - 35C to +40C.

meteorologica1 conditions (sea state, sunlight and air temperatures); characteristics of the seawater (specific gravity. currents. temperature, presence of bacteria. nutrients aud dissolved oxygen and suspended solids). A knowledge of these processes aud how they interact to alter the nature of oii i valuable when responding to spills. Figure 3.1 depicts the processes occurring in the water. the overlying atmosphere aud the underlying bottom sediruents ..Figure 3.2 shows how the relative importance of .the-processes vary with time.

Flashpoint

c.

3.1.8 The flashpoint is the lowest tempera ture at which sufficient vapour exists above tlie spilled oil to yield a tlammable mixture. This is an important factor in relation to the safety of clean-up operations. Many freshly spilled oils may be easily ignited until the more volatile components have evaporated and dispersed in the atmosphere.

Solubility 3.1.9 Some compooents of oils are soluble in water. Gerierally the more volatile components are also the more soluble. Although solubility is small relative to evaporation, it can be significant for toxicity to marine life.

~'

Asphaltene con/ent

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3.1.10 Asphaltenes play a major role in the formation and stabiLi!:y of water-in-oil emulsions. Low asphaltene oUs generally do not form s:able emulsions.
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THROUGH TlME PROCESSES ANO IN RELATlON TO OTHER CONTEMP.ORARY

Figure 3.1 - Processes taking place after an oii spill -1 Figure 3.2 - Time span and relative imporlance on an oii spill

0/ processes aCling

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Spreading 3.2.2 Spreading of an oii slick on the sea surface is a rapid and dominant process at the time of a release. decreasing steadily until it bas essentially stopped within ODe ta 10 days. Several factors affect spreading. lnitially lhe most important factor will be the volume of oiI spilled. provided lhe oiI is above its pour paint. A large instantaneous spill wilt spread more rapidly (han a slow discharge. 3.2.3 The surface tension forces between oiI. air and water soon begin to influence the spreading. Viscous oils will spread ~ore slowly than oils wi(h low viscosities. Oils spilled on the sea at a tempera ture below their pour poini hardly spread at aII. Afler a few hours the slick begins la break up and form narrow bands or "windrows" parallel to the wind direction. At (his slage the viscosity of the oii becomes less imporlant since further

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spreading is primarily duc to turbulence al the sea surface. Spreading rates vary duc ta differences in the hydrographic conditions such as currents, ridat streams and wind speeds. Some 12 hours after a spill the oii can be scaHer-ed within an area of up to five square kilometres, thus limiting the possibiliry of effective eleaD-Up.1t should be appreciated that except in the case of smal1 spills of law viscosiy oils. spreading is not uniform and large ,,'3riations of oii thickness occur withn the slick. Waves and turbulence al the sea surface act an the slick ta produce droplets with a range of sZes. The larger aDeS rise b:?':"l;;.lo the surface behind the advancing slick where they usually coalesce to form a ragged tail (figure 3.3).

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3.2.4 The most important pracess removing the oii rrom the water surface is evaporation. The speed and extent of the evaporat ion depends mainly on the proportien of low-boiling fractioos in the oii. Thus, light oils like gasoline or light fuel oiI evaporate very quickly (50010within a few hour.). Heavy oils evaporate more slowly and less extensively. Besides the oii type, evaporation rales depend on the amonnt of spilled oil. the weather conditions and ambient temperatures. As a general eule the higher the wind speed and the ambient temperature. the greater the rate of evaporation.

1;
3.2.5 Volatile component. with beiling point. up to 200C wiU be evaporated within 24 hours. Sometimes light oils may evaporate completely. A major consequence of evaporation will be an _inceease in density and viscosity of any remaining oiI.
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Oil-;n-water emuls;ons (natural dispersion)

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3.2.6 Usually liquid oiis will disperse as drop1e:lr.s ~ ,mnd~~"lIWJgh sea conditions. The oii droplets wiU diffuse th..~ ~ ~ !iz '3..m:!1he sea (natural dispersion)' and will be suspended. Un tb= .:EE:r(M" tEs:=,:::I3iiCih la the surface depending an the density diffen:oo= ~=e::=. Cle cii..:mr ~er and the size of the draplets. The formation of ~ cii!. fr"~':'-+,~ eses the contact between water and oii enorm~za.:: ~ .:x::':.:tiJ:= ,oiI by micro-organisms is enhanced. The relatioosbip bcr.w-:: ..-ind,.. 'iA!if iJ:I:::iplt and sea state in open seas is shown in table 3,~1cn. ~14._
!

The density also increases and can approach that of seawater. This reduces its buoyancy and if absorption of suspended solids occcurs the oii may eve.ntually sink. Taking iota account evaporative loss and ather dissipative processes the formation of water-in-oil cmulsions can increase the volume of the spill by a factor of up to 4. The stability of emulsions depends on the composition of the oii and its temperature. In hot climates emuIsions may readily break dOWI1.

~.
3.2.7. The rate of natural dispersion toget:bs::r -.fr::fu C'io-l3pCitldi ,", ',. ~ely determines the lifetime of oii on the sea slll"face.. ~ c:nspe sAA 1 noes the volume of the oii at the surface and redua:s ~~-Ao': ~ ~:E dJocs not lead to changes in the physicaI and ~ pr-~ cE ct:!==.~ material in the way that evaporation does. t.losr. ~ ar. slii;:k:- ~~ ~ill disappear Wlthin a few hours through dUs i:Ia.w:raU dijS.:L- .;, -ii = P:a:+A jr',jlifti lfuere is sufficient wave action.
i i

Water-;n-oil emuls;on

3.2.8 Most crude ar,d ruei oils contain ~ ~..,a1'1'J"'C7 ....lo,;",;.._::.:=t:alC a water-n-eil emulsion quite easily. Energy I1pU! ti ess=rria:-"-:EDd in:.' mers liule or no emulsification occurs. The amowu cf 4'55::'c::s::::J-are:: ..........mw.:: can be absorbed by oiI can reach 80"1. by vol~
u"jj,. ,-;~

3.2.9 Water-in-oil emulsion at sea can be fO~.~;Il f~ 7rmn~ .ith low viscosity oils but usually takes severa! days; W1:.:I.Tfs::3us cii7~" ~ most noticeable feature of a stable water-in-oil emulSirr:. ;.;.~ E.,-=c...b[C~ :xrange colour. Because of its consistency it is ofu:r! n:f '1"": UD 35:. -==:nIT:olate mousse"

3.2.10 The viscosity of water-in-oil emulsiC'm ~ C\::~.:II1tzCr '::: ... :.- man that ofthe oii from which they were formed.. ~. E'e t1S.ua!l:-:"~~Dpic. which means that they may be relatively fluid ~ ~ s:ir:e=---:?:!Jo='ut by waves. etc., but become stiffer. when resti.ng: m C""71' ~ CI:'" :m:=.'~ ',Xeach.
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13

12

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Other processes 3.2.11 Other processes also contribuie to the fate of spilled oii. The lightest compounds in the oil can, ta a certain degree, be dissalved in the wa.ter, solar radiation aver the oil film can promote axidation reactions that break large molecules inta smaller ones, and soroe oiI components are biodegradable. These processes tend to be more significant in trapical and sub-tropical environments. They are of minor significance ta clean~up operations as their combined contribution ta the reduction of the volume of oii an the water surface ar ta a change in its properties is very small. 3.2.12 Because the density of both seawater and of oiI varies with temperature, the oil may alternate between positive and negative buoyancy. Thus oii may temporarily submerge ta a limited depth, only ta rise to the surface again within hours or days. 3.2.13 Very few crude oils are sufficiently dense or weathered ta such an extent that their residues will sink. Sinking is usually brought about by adhesion of panieulate matter to the oit. Some heavy crudes, as well as most heavy fuel oils and water-in-oil emulsions require very little particulate marter

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to exceed the specific grnvity of seawater. There is also a possibiliry of tar lumps forming. Tar lumps ar tar balls are compact semi-solid or solid nnasses of highly weathered oii formed through the aggregation of viscQU.., bigh molecular weight hydrocarbons with sediments and debris present Un the water column. Tar balls can form anywhere at sea and somc of theso:e sink ta the bottom as a result of their high specific gra,ity. They can be traIb-~:JTted either floating on the water surface or along the sea-bed and may evemrual1y arrive on beaches. 3.2.14 In coastal areas. oil may be carried ioto cstuaries and intertid2!!.zones term. However. tida! cwrents rarely cancel each other completely. and this gives rise to a residual current which will determine the long.term movement

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by surface currents and winds and deposited on beaches, mudf1a:I:s and marshes. on may be transported iota and out of the. same interticb,.ll zone (or into others) repeatedly through. tidal acnon. Depending upl>n the

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characteristics of the sediments or suostrate, tbe steepness of the shGre-line profite and the available wave energy. oil may become deeply buried im ilayers under the beach sediments (more than oDe metre depth after oDe maj.QJrspill), mixed with surface sediments, or layered on tap of the sediment surface in the higher reaches of the intertidal zone. Erosion or scouring df oBed

beach sediments may enable oil to eoter shaUow subtidal zones.

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3.3

Movemen: of oU slicks

The movement

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figure 3.4, 3.3_1

Ai. oilslick will not usually stay in the satne position but ",ill drift
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under the influence of extemal factors. The most imponant of these ifaetors are winds. waves. tides and currents. The transport of water, particularly s:urface waters in the sea. due to wind. waves and currents is a diffJCW1ttopic about which much remains unknown. Friction between wind ama water induces a current at the sea surface which is negligible a few milllimetres below the surface. The presence of oH on the W1Uersurface alters ttDs vertical current profite. Oii un open water will move more quickly than.tb.e water

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directly beneath it, with the result that oii towards the lee side ol.f a slick will be thicker than that to windward. In addition, the slick will: rapidly
become elongated and will form windrows. The speed with whidh an oii

slick drifts under the influence of the wind depends on wind st~h and oii thickness. Typically it will move at between 2'7. and 5'1. of tlhe speed of the wind measured 10 m above the water surface. In open .mer, 3070 of the wind speed is normally used to estimate drift rate.
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17

only under the influence of currerits or tides. Current regimes may te constant but more comffionly vary in strength and direction over time. ~ strength and direction of tides will influence the mO'o"ementof the slick in tt.he short

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CHAPTER 4 - EFFECTS OF OIL ON MARINE AND COASTAL RESOURCES

4.1 Jntroduction

3.3.4 The different processes ehanging the oii properties and removing it from the water surfaee have been deseribed briefly. Ali the processes are dependent 00 a number of faetors. such as oU type temperature. weather cooditioos etc. They also affeet eaeh other. Therefore, it is important to uoderstaod how the processes interrelate aod hence in a realistie situation, wheo the type of oii and the ambient conditions are koown, ta be able ta forecast what will happen. 3.3.5 Thus the prediction of the fate of an oii spill combined with regular monitoring is ODe of the most important aspects for an optimal oii spill response. . -" 3.3.6 Many computer models of varying sopbistication have been developed for predicting this fate. These models can provide a reliable output if the input informatian is eorrect. The resu}t will stand ar fali with the input data and this very informatioa is ofteD not available. However. simple formulae using limited information can of ten give adequate prediction aod tools such ".as an oii spill sUrle rule can be useful for an-scene commanders during cleanup operations.

4.1.1 The following discussion of the effects of oil in the marine environment is based upon the best information currently available. While understanding of effects has increased dramatically over the past decade, the results of such research continue to be limited by uncertainties about lhe total ocean ecosystem. In general, field research is needed ta verify the results of laboratory experiments. In particular. further research is needed an changes in behaviour of marine organisms resulting from exposure to oii, ecosystem ar population effects and the interaetion of oii with other contaminants. 4.1.2 The errects of a particular spill situation will depend on many factors, inc1uding the volume of the oii spilled and its physical, chemical and toxicologicaJ eharacteristics, local conditions at the time of the spiU (e.g. temperature, wind). tme of year. the presence of struetures or resources

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in the path of the spill, and locatian of the spill in reladon to the natuce and mixing of sediments. sea bottom topography and geomorphology of the coast. The variability of these and alher factors and their interaction caD lead to a wide range of ecological. economic and physica1 effects. 4.1.3 The topic discussions that follow are not intended suggest any particular order of priority with regard 10 e(fects. The ultimate value placed on various impacts will depend upan the circumstances surrounding the particular spill event. 4.1.4 A distinctian should be"made al the ou1set between the errects of spilled oil itself and the effects of elean-up measures. The two major categories of remediat measures ~ mechanical and chemical. In some instances. these remedia! measures may have adverse consequences whicb are more fully discussed in chapters 6, 7, 8 and 9.

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4.2.4 an fine sandy beaches. the oii is Iil<ely to remain on the surface, where'it can-be removed. On beaches of cobble. gravelor even cOarse sand. the oiI may penetrate with the tidal water table down to hard substrata. In sheltered lida! flats, mangroves and salt-marches. oii penetrates Dtc the anoxic muds, facilitated by animal burrows. decaying root masses 'and interstitial water movement, where it may cause local biological effects for loog periods. In such areas. biata are susceptible to physical smothering in the carly stages of a spill and are likely to exhibit chemicai tainting of their tissues for extended periods.

Ecotoxicology 4.2.5 In addition to the direct physical effecls of smothering or fouling, much of the mortality that occurs during th~ early stages of an oii spill resuits from toxicity of the more water-soluble, lighter aromatc componeots of oiI. These more toxic compounds (e.g. alI<yl-substituted benzenes and naphthalenes) generally disappear rather quicl<\y. The toxicity of a spillto marine organisms varies according to the presence of these compooents in the oii. The more toxic oils (gas oii and kerosene) dissipate quickly and leave liule residue. Medium fuel oii is moderately persistent and exhibits greater toxicity to most marine organisms tested than do most heavy fuel oils ar crudes. 4.2.6 Bioassays have been used extensively to estimate the toxicity of different oii types to different spccies and life stages of organisms. Most tests have measuredthe mortality of test organSmsduring an acute exposure period (usually 96 hours). The 96-hour Le-50 (concentration of oil producing mortality of 50'7. of the test organisms over the specified period) for most organisms tested falls in the range of 0.5 mg/l to 10 mgll (parts per million). Since laboratory tests eannot readily estimate reproductive potential, or survival of organisms under field cond.itions, these bioassay results represent very incomplete information about the potentiallong-term effects of an oii spiU in the natural environment. None the less, they do provide a measure of the potential for toxicity of a spill during its early stages, when coneentrations of oil in the water column are highest. The highest concentrations of oii measured in the water column during most spills have generally been in the rangeof 0.2 mgll to 0.5 mg/l. Much higher concentrations of 0.5 rog/l ta 1.0 rog/l occurred under surfaee oii slicks within 20 km of a subsurface blow-oul. Near the well~head measured concentratioos exeeeded 10 mgll in surface waters. 4.2.7 The effects of acute toxicity during ttie early stages of an oii spill may be local ar transient, ar may persist for several years after the spill. depending on the size, location and season of the spill' and the impacted species. lf the spill occurs during a peak period of reproduction. the entre
21

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4.2

Ecological effecls

4.2.1 Depend.ing upon the presence of factors noted in the introduction to this chapter, ecological effects resuiting from a spill may include physical and ehemica1 changes in habitats, changes in growth, physiology and behaviour of individual organisms. and species. toxicity and increased mortality in individual organisms and species aud destruetion or modification of entire communities of organisms throug\l the combined effects oftoxicity and smothering. Physical con/amna/ion of biata and habitat

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4.2.2 F10ating oil may contaminate mammals and birds that swim Of dive through the surface of the water. In the open sea, many birds and animals may be able ta avoid contact with an oil slick, but in coasta! areas, the organisms may be trapped between the shore apd the approaching spill and become contaminated. Jf fishing activities take place in the immediate vicinity of a spill, both fishing gear and catch are Iil<ely to be contamioated asa result of contact with dispersed oii or water-in.oil emulsion tbat may be floating an the surface, suspended in the water or settled the sea bottom.

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4.2.3 The magnitude and persistence of oii contamination in themtertidal zone depend greatly on the geomorphology and the sedimenl chiracteristics of the coast. Steep, exposed rocky coasts tend to deflect the wa 'c energy and hold 110ating oii away from shore. Long-term effects are Iil<e\y to be minimal on the ecosystems of such areas, where oii does not persist and' rapid recolonization by plants aud animals may accur.

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eurr.nt-~r da" \'lt' . . lo.,t. IIIol\@. lth. Ih orsamsms In ~h<:Immediat. ar~ of th~ ""''\1 could b. population d.I~lId, <: adul~s and J\\\~niles. he ulumat. t~;ot on the of th. 'ped., U e On Ih. h~. span. ,""uIt mobihty and rep~od",'\, straregy eyde" hillh ttd~lI' I'\a'!~tome vern., ,",silo larvae). SpeCles wRb shorl .life short-temt eff~t t\'lbthty and/or I'Ianktonic larvae tYPleall)' "'xhibit only ar.as whe.., oiI ~~-t.rm .ff",'1' may be evident in localize<l. """ confined ",hly perSlst.nl.

4.2.11

In general, recovery is very rapid in the water column. Significant

,".ets.on

plankton populations have noI becn observed in open waler, and

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t:-~ose seen in neaT-shaTe systems have been local aod transitory. with fult recovery in a few weeks. Toxicity and malformations have been observed in the floating eggs and larvae of some flsh species. However. effects on subsequent year-class strength ar overalt productivity are unknown because

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of high natura! variability. During the fi. l summer and sprins afler a major
crude oiI spill, juvenile flatflsh were rare or absent in the near-shore areas that were heavily contaminated. Adult flsh in the same areas suffered from fin disease, as weB as growth and reproductive disturbances. but effects an ~>~~ion-wideproductivity of flnflSh were small or not detectable.

Bioaccu'ttularim,

ttttd tainting

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4.2.8 Orgall\$IIU Ihat surviv. I~ '"ilia! I.thal effeets of o. '!lPiII take up pelrol.um coml\l)\\lIds both from Ih. surrounding wat.r o.r>;!sediments, and fron, COl\lall\\nat~ food.o.llt! d.posit them in their bssues. Th. ac~,!mulaled COII~lIlrlitions may be hlsh enough to affec\ ~aviour. (e.g. ab,hly 10e,eal~ Predato . ) sro,,"lh OI reproduetion and ma)' ~d to disease or .arly d.lllh. '
4.2.12 After initial destruction of intertidal or bent~c organisms. resistant or opportunistic species may undergo dramatic population increases and fluctuations in the affected area. RepopuHltion by the original species may be slow. Some near-shore benthic communities oiled by a major crude oiI spill began -ta show significant recruitment ooly in the second year and recovery was stiU oot complete after three to four years in the most heavily :r: r:>acted areas. Damage to marshy areas or mangroves may persist for ~ecades if the loss of vegetation leads to extensive erosioo aod chaoges -in soit characteristics

4.2.9

conc~ntrQtll,)\\'S of OUl or to

F\s~, erUSlllccans and ml)\luscs lhat ar. exposed 'ttl'lher to IUgh modc\'a.t~ concentrations for lol\$. ~riods. may aequ,r.an ObJ~tlonable, oily oeil)ur or navour, and, as a tesult, the nesh ~ay .be.unll\nr~elabl . This is a le'lIporary problem sine. \~ compon.nts

.or elevation.

causl~ the- '"'\\t Gre lost when m.'rn\a\ conditions are restot't\i Of wbc:n the organ~s..msUrC't\\n\mained in eletll\ \\'Uter. Depending an lh(' type of 011 aod
pr.va!hng h}'OrOllraphie and m.'('()rological eonditions, I"nting may be .xpene,!,'e(\ "'1' l~rlods ranging rr.."n a few days to several n"~ths. Extem:'1 eontamm8' lOIIdo., not nee.ssari~' lead 10 tainting of Ih. l"lesh, and wlll vary as th. 11,,10 CQn'.nt and metQbolie rates of the organism change with season. BC'~l\"!\~ of the serious ~'\\l\omic consequcnces arislng rrom a 1055 of sa\~s,C01\sh,t~rQble care is nt\.~ssaryto prevent contaminated fish ~nd ,hel.lflSh from te<\ching Ihe market. Ideally this should in\,-~lve orsalU7:ed laslll\@a"d ehe"liea\ analysi, b)' qUQlified personne! atlhe \\me of ilie sp,lI.

4.3

Recreational

beaches and sea areas

4.3.1 lnterference with recreational use and enjoyment of coastal areas lS an expected consequence of oii spills. Such an occurrence of ten prohibits boating. flshing, bathing and diving in the area. particularly when the oii has washed ashore. As a result, tourism in adjacent coastal communities can be greatly affected. This economic damage is highest if the spill occurs just prior to or during a major tourist season. lmpaets are typicallY short term and recreational activities normally resume shortly after clean~up has been completed.
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~;-oo: 4,3.2 4.2, 10 E,'\,Il\~ic81recovery of Q'l'iU.impaeted area is nOI "ependent solely ~nth~t\1\\"?\H"~ llnd composition of contaminants that ~i.st after.a spill. s e~iPUlut1,\'~'~ \tsual1y oecurs thtuugh severa! phascs, lOv". lving differ~nt pe e, al d~tle'''ltllimes. Reca,,,,",, rates depend on the POI~\ation dynanues (reprod.u('tlI.)l\1 Irowth and "';uuration) and ecolos.k.al interactions ~redutlon. c(\n\~tition, etc.) of te'placement species, wel\ .fter toxicity has ecreusC'd bdow significant lt\'t'ls. . . For lhi, reason, pressure may be applied by affecled coasta!
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communities to facilitate expeditious restoration. However. remedial measures used to achieve this goal may result in long-term adverse consequences to the natural defences of the coast. Care must be taken to ensure that effects of remedial measures are minimized. and that restoration of amenities is fairly balanced with potential adverse ecological impacts. This is discussed in more detail in chapter 8, .

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4.4.3 Vessel transits through Ihe affected area may need 10 be conlrolled or prohibited. Depending on the eXlent of a spill, these acti"ns cou1d be I:(oad in scope and could be continued, expanded ar initialed as matters J:rogress to further enhance public safety, as weB as the protectian of eeonomicalIy sensitive areas.

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4.4.1 A major oii spill occurring within, or in clase proxiniity to ports and marinas could have far-reachiog physical and economic effects. In major ports, the potential for serious economic consequences is bigh, due to indirect costs associated With measures taken by the design81ed spill response authority. During the initial assessment of a spill or tbreat of a spill in a port or marin~.the pri,ncipal concems that must be addressed are: public and vessel safety; and

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.2 economic interests. 4.4.2 Public and vessel safety must be addressed immediately and the necessary actions that are taken ta mitigate potential safety hazards could be economically costly _Indirect costs cou1d exceed the direct costs associated with any physical daroage from collision~ explosion or fire, loss of carga and clean-up. For example. it may be necessary ta establish uclosed" or Urestricted zones - temporary areas of limited ar prohibited access to persons. vehic1es, vessels, facilities, ar objects.
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4.4.5 Persistence of oii may prolong the economic impaets of a spill in a POrtor marina because of the presence of many structures aud objects in those areas. An oily fUm may adhere to surfaces extending between the high-water aud low-water marks of alI struetures subject to tida] influence. Inclement weather can add to persistence problems and impede dean-up efforts by increasing the oily ftlm SUf face area on objects and struetures through wind and wave action, aud by "rinsing" oiI iota the water rrom rrecipitation.

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Such restncuons aod interferences may seriously affeet normal

of installations. resul1ing in short-term economic losses.

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Ports may suffer aesthetic damagc resulting in economic

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operation

consequences.

structures. as wel1 as the persistence of oiI fumes. may dscourage recreational

and commercia\ use of waterfront faci1ities. aud adversely affeet tourism in the area. In addition. soroc ports contain enviro~mentallysenSitive areas which should be given priority for protection.

4.6

Fisheries

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Oii spill effects on various iife slages 4.6. I Direct kilis of adult fish have been observed at onIy a few oil spil1s.

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4.5

Industrial

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4.5.1 . Industrial installations in a spill-impaeted area caR be impaired or damaged by oU. power stations that rcly an coastal water for cooling processes are al risk rrom potential intake of oU that may contaminate
condenser tubes. Production may be limted or entirely suspended uutil the tubes have been c1eaned. Water supplies may be interru'pted if oU s taleen

Al other major spills some fish were found la have ingested oiI. Modest oiI contamination of muscle tissue was found in severa1 instances. giving

rise to tainting. Al some spills the reduoed hatehing of fish eggs was attributed
to oH exposure. Reproductive effects have been noted after some incidents.

up in desalination plants a10Rgthe eoast aud damage tei the plant may occur.
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Sublelhal effecls 4.6.2 The effects of sublethal exposures of fish to petroleum have been extensively examin'ed in laboratory experiments. In some cases. exposure to realistic concentrations (Le. similar to those observed under field conditions)

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have produced effects on reproduetive processes including behaviour fecundity. and success of fertilization and hatching. have induced abemllions (e.g. of development, behaviour. biochemical processes, and subcellular structure) that could lead to premature death through increased susceptibility to predation or diseasej and also induced carcinogenesis and mutagensis. Soroe of these laboratory observations have been supported by field observations. either under spiII circwnstances or in chronica1ly oontaminated marine envi.ronments. Detectable effects have usually been confined ta the immediate vicinity of the spill, or the effects ofthe oiI have been obscured by the presence of other contaminants al the site. 4.6.3 The formation of turoours has been detected in field populations of fish and molluscs, and the inddence of turoours has been rdate<! to exposure ta polynuc1ear aromatic hydrocarbons or petroleum. However, causality has not been demonstrated between exposure and formation of tumours. SiDee many alber contaminants occUr in thc same environment, further research is needed to determine the causes oftwnours and related diseases in marine species. 4.6.4 No data exist to demonstrate biomagnification of hydrocarboos in marine food webs. and the concentrations of polynuc1ear aromatic hydrocarbons in huroan foods of marine origin are not usually high a>mpared with other dietary sources. Consumption of fish from coasta! areas that receive repeated oiI spills along with chronic discharges of oily wastes from ships or from land-based sources .would, however, increase thc intake of hydrocarbons by human consumers.

Fish and shellflSh jarming and seaweed cu/tivation 4.6.6 Fish and sheUftsh that are confined in floatiDg cages or in near-shore enclosures or peos cannot escape rrom the path of an oiI spill, and may surfer mortality or tainting unless they can be removed prior to arrival of the oiI. Organisms that may be suspended .in the water column beneath floating racKs or buoys (e.g. oysters. seaweed. kelp) are less subject to direct mortalities from oii spills. Contamination of these organisms may stiU occur through bioaccumulation of dispersed or dissolved oii, or through physical contact with floating oii as they are harvested. 1f bioaccumulation and ";lintingare minimal, recovery of tbe harvest may be satisfactory foUowing a period of depuration either on site after the spill has dissipated or by relocatian.

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4.6.5 Fish stocks probably have not been affected significantly by individual oii spills, isolated in time aod space from otbers. While it is clear thatlarge spills can impact local populations or year.<:Iasses of IIsh for periods of up to two years, these effects have not been detectable in regional catch data. The lack of demonstrated effects is due to many factors, including confinement of serious effects to locaiized areas, ability of adult rlSb to avoid the spill, ability of adult and juvenile rlSh to repopulate an impacted area afler the spilll1as dissipated, the dispersion and transport of rlSb eggs and larvae from adjoining areas, tbe high degree of natural variability in rlSheries populations and in the levels and effects of o.verfishing. As a rasult of the mobility of the fish aud the other sources of variability in the catch data, it is un\ikely that changes in future calehes can be attributable to spill effects, except in extremely localized or confined areas, or in areas subjected to repeated spills and discharges.

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4.6.7 lntertidal areas of shellfish culture are particularly susceptible to spill effects. The shore.line effectively traps any oii that may be transported there and holds it while'successive tides deposit and redeposit it in the intertidal zone. Wave action may disperse the oii throughout the shallow, water colwnn and mix it into sediment layers. Together, these processes can cause direct physical contamination of the shellfish; bioaccumulation and tainting of the edible tissues; and persistent chemical contamination of the sediment,

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rendering the environment potentially unsuitable for shellftsh production for several years. In areas remote from the spill. shellfish may be saved by immediate harvest before the spill arrives. SheUlIsh in moderately contaminated areas may be relocated to elean are3S for depuration ar eleansing of the tissues. Shellfish in more heavily contaminated areasmight have to be destroyed. Where sediments have been contaminated. restoration may be speeded in a number of ways which are discussed in chapter 8. 4.6.8 Economically important algae and other pIants in the intertidal zone may be broken away from their rocky substrata by the weight of oii c1inging ta the fronds. Smalt decreases in population density may occur for a year ne afler the spill. Cultured seaweed grown on floating nets are particularly pro ta contamination by floating ar di&persed oii. Submerged plants, such as kelps, are less ""Inerable to spills because of the depths at which tbey occur.

:hey have been elosed to avoid contamination. Fishing vessels and gear may .}efouled by oiI. FishiDg grounds, regardiess of whether ar not stocks have been damaged by oiI, might be inaccessible either because of oii ar because of counter-pollution activities in the area." The oii contamination might present fire ar hea1th hazards to fishermen. . 4.6.10 Clearly, ali these factors are likely ta have an effect an the amount of fish available to be sold but, in addition, adverse publicity arising from the incident might lead to public concern about the quality of fish an the :arket. This can result in 10ss of sales over a wider area than that actualIy aifected by the spill.

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Marine aDimals

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4.7. t Many types of marine maromals. ineluding seals, otters. whales and Jrpoises, have been observed in areas affected by oii spills, either swimming ii. oii covered waters ar coated with oiI. These observations suggest that lhese marnmals do not actively avoid oii, at least under soroe circumstances. Most reports of spill effects an marine mamrnals invo.lve oit fouling of the pelage or fur of seals and olters. Although mortalities have no doubt been associated with oU exposure in some cases, the actual cause of death for an oiIed marine mammal found dead an a beach is difficult to establish with certainty.

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.',.7.3 Animals that depend an fur OI hair for thermal insulation (e.g. olters, fur seaIs, etc.) suffer loss of body temperature when their fur is fouled with oiI. Most other sea mammals (whales and porpoises, manatees, and phocid seals) reIy an blubber and vascular constriction for controlling their body temperatures. These animals are more resistant to thermal effects of oHing. Experimental immersion of seals in oil-covered seawater caused severe inflammation and swelling of mucous membranes, but these symptoms disappeared within 20 hours after retum of the seals ta elean water. Brief (75 minutes) exposure of porpoise skin ta crude oiI and gasoline caused ooIy ~ild and transient effeets and was followed by quick recovery. 31

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4.7.4 Marine mammals confined close to the $Ourceof a spill. or surfacing repeatedly in fresh oil slicks, will inhale vapours of petroleum. While prolonged inhalation of highvapour levels could cause death or nervous system damage. short-term .inhalation is likely to produce ,0oIy roild inflammation of mucOUStissues. Because the volatile componenS of oil disappear within hours of a spill, animals away from the immediate area of a spill are not likely to suffer serious consequences of inhalation. 4.7.5 Mammals other than aUers are unlikely ta consume significant quantities of oii except through ingestion of contaminated food. During feeding, baleen whales Ulay encounter oil dispersed in the water column, but they are more likely to consume oil that was ingested first by their zooplanktonic .prey. .-

ta aH types of disturbances when pups are present, wildIife management officiaIs should be oonsulled in carrying out c1ean-up aclivities near breeding or pupping areas. 4.7.7 Unless oUers are quickly and properly c1eaned. fouling of their fur is likely to cause death. either through hypothermia or as a result of oil ingestion ar aspiration of oil into the lungs during grooming. Although ingestion of oii for shon periods usually does not result in serious effects prolonged consumption may lead to organ damage and hormonal imbalances.

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O/her marine anima/s 4.7.8 Documented effects of oiI spills are rare or non-existent for most other marine mammals. iocluding walruses, whales, porpoises ~d manatees. Due ta their herbivor9ls habits, ingestion of oii by manatees could disrupt the normal digestive funetions of microbes in the gut; however, trus bas not been documented. Sea turtles are also susceptible to blockage of tmoat passages by ingested oiI and tar baIls. Fresh oiI is aiso highly toxic to turtle eggs. especiaIly during the later stages of development. and oii contarnination is likely ta have significant effects on turtle nesting beaches.

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4.8.1 Aquatic birds are the most visibly vulnerable to oii spills. Many species depend an the sea and coastal areas for food and nesting habitat. Some species reside permanently in one area, while others migrate seasonally over long distances. Species that spend most of their time an the water are particularly vulnerable ta oii spill effects. In addition. some species (auks and sea ducks) cannot fiy during lheir moulting period. and others (penguins) do not fly at ali. Sea-birds may carne into contact with fioating oii at sea by swimmingiota the slick. diving through it. or surfacing into it from below. Shore birds may aIso be impacted while feeding on oiled beaches.

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and reduced growrh in young birds. Direct application of fresh oii to the surface of incubating eggs (as may occur if a brooding adult were to become oiled) can also cause abnormal development or death of the embryo. During one actualspill, shore-birds avoided the oiled beaches along the ceast and moved to less preferred feeding habitats. Oiled shore-birds also speni less time feeding than did unoiled birds. The significance of tbese effects bas not been demonstrated under major spill conditions in the field, but it is likely to be small relative to the direct mortalities due to oiling.

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E/fec/s on popu/alions 4.8.4 With only a few possible exceptions (sea ducks in the Baltic region, jackass penguins in South Africa), oii spills appear not to have had major effects an the overall populations of tb,e species involved. The annual mortality may be naturally bigh for many species of sea-birds, especially during winter storm events, relative ta morta1ity caused by spills. Species that are dispersed over large ranges, therefore, are unlikely to suffer notable population decreases except on small and local scales. By contrast, species that are very restrieted in tbeir ranges, or that congregate at some time of year in some restricted location. are mucb more vulnerable to impact from a major spUI". Most vulnerable. perhaps, are those species with limited ranges that are subjected to repeated spills and low-Ievel oii pol1ution from nearby shipping roules or oii termioals. Such local populations may be most effectively protected by routeing ship traftic and other potential oii pol1uting activities at greater distance from the colonies. Ooce impaeted by a spill, local populations may recover quickly if the mortality is minimal.

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Direcl physical effecls 4.8.2 High mortality i~ llkely when sea-birds encounter oii at sea hecause it clogs the interstitial spaces of the feathers, wbich provide thermal insulation aod water repellency for the bird. Loss of insulation leads to jncreased metabellc activity and depletion of ener8Y reserves, leading to hypothermia. The loss of repellency allows water to soak the plumage, decreasiDg buoyancy and increasing the energy required for the bird ta remain af1oat. During extended periods of stormy weather, birds may be more vulncrable due to limited feeding aod diminished energy reserves, aod staning results. Drowning and hypothermia are considered the principal caU5eS of death for oiled birds.

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Coral communitie;s and ecosystems

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4.9.1 Less jnformation is available on the vulnerability and sensitivity of corals and coral reer commumties to oil spills. Because these diverse communities are important in supporting coastal rlSherieS, protecting tropical coastlines from wave actian aod erosion, and providing a basis for tourism and recreation. and because the intrinsic growth rates of hard corals are ery slow, a bener understanding is needed of the potentiallong-term effects of oii exposure an these communities.

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4.9.2 Several oii spills have occurred in the vicinities of coral reefs and rtear share-lines with fringing reef communities. These spiJIs have caused :ubstantial mortality among the fishes and invertebrates (including lobsters,

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crabs, gastropods, bivalves. octopus. sea urchins, sea ~ and sea cUCUI1)bers) in intertida1 areas, on the surfaees and marginsof ClOoOlStal fringing reef platforrns, and in adjacent shallow subtidal areas. Natural. a1gal. species and sea grasses were also destroyed in many of these are8S. la. ~ the subtidal reef corals themselves seem to survive these individual "'-. Many corals generate large quantities of muCUS when exposed lo oil .and tbis may protect them frC?m mo:re serious d.amage. Exposure of corals '~clispersed oH causes a variety of -responses. however. that tpay influanoe laag-lerm effeclS of pollution. Oiling impairs the reproductive process, l"<lduDg both the n\lmbers of breeding colonies and the numbers of\arvae ,procluced per coral h<;ld. lU)ddecreasing the rate of \arvaI settlement on artifi<iial S>lbstrates. Soroe corallarvae are ordinarily released only al nighl and .~ causes prematurerelease of the larvae an;! decreases chances of thoeir survival. lmpaired feeding'responses have also been noted in coraIs eo.p<>sled to oii. These reproductive and feeding effeclS may .ecount for d=ii! coral and fish diversities observed in areas near oii lerminals . ~ there 15 considerable tanker lraftic and where small operational spims may cur ..
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Recovery rales 4.9.3 Dense growths of green algae frequently appear in impacted recf ZDnes after the initial mortalities associated with a spill. Tbese blooms probbly result rrom an abundance of available nutrients and the absence of large populations of grazing organ.isms. Arter the initialloxicity has dissipated. recruitment of planktonic larvae and adult organisms can begin from nearby unaffected areas. Recovery of impaeted reef communities oecurs in most cases within a few years.

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Wetlan':' communities and ecosyslems

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4.10.1 The plant communities of coasta! areas are important for tbeir contribution of organic production lo coastai marine ecosystems. provision of habitat lo large numbers of marine invertebrates and vertebrates. and stabilization of shoreplines against erosionai effects of sea and wind. These plant communities (Le. mangrove forests in tropical areas and salt-marshes al higher latitudes) and !heir associate<! fauna are high!y vulner.ble to impact from oii spills in coastal waters. ~I

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community usually begins within one year, although the plants may exhibit reductions in growthand reproductive capadty and abnormalities in seed formation. Vegetative recovery is Iikely withinthree to ten years, even though oii components wiUprobably persist in the soft, fine-grained sediments for up to ten years or more. Disruption ar .removal of sediment surfaces and the underground rhizome system.bY contrast. may result in very long-tenn changes in nutrient content of the sediments and prolong the protess of recovery. 4.10.4 Oiling decreases rates of rooting in mangrove seedlings. Mature trees "!regenerally less seositive than young trees. Severe oiling of mangroves leads "o partial or complete 10ss of leaves, trees that Iose aU their leaves generally do not recover. Partially defoliated trees, however, may hegin reeovery within four months. although recovery varies according to the severity of the initial impact. Functional recovery of an impacted area may take five to ten years, including recovery of the leaf canopy am! the detritus cover on the root mats. A totally devastaled mangrove forest may take several decades to retum to a fully mature state. Restoration of both mangrove aud salt-marsh communities may be enhanced by artificial reseeding or by transplanting ':oung plants from unimpacted areas as discussed in chapter 8 .

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4.10.2 . SaJt-marsh and mangrove ecosystems possess several pliysical features in common which contribute to tbeir sensitiYtY to yil spills; a network of channe1s !hat help to transport oii deep into the vegetated coastal margin; low wave energy (so that natural dissipation is minimal) and a preponderance of fme, highly organic, anaerobic sediments that entrap the oU and hold it for long periods. Mangroves are particularly sensitive because uptake of oxygen through the pores on aerial root systems may be impeded by a coating of oii.

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4.11.1 Effects of oii on nature reserves and marine parks will vary, depending upon tbe ecological characteristics ohhe area and the particular species they support. Effects may be especially significant with regard to r::ture reserves and marine parks that have been accorded special status in : . ,;ognition of tbrir unique cbaracteristics or because they support .rare. endangered or threatened species. OiI spilled in such areas may result in irretrievable loss. For this reason. special protection is advised for those arcas. Sec Section U _ Contingency Planning of the Manual on Oii Po//ution. 4.11.2 Nature rcserves and marine parks which are established primarily for recreational pmposes will surfer consequenees similar to olher r~eational areas. Such consequences are of ten temporary.

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5 _ SITUATION EVALUATION AND RESPONSE OPTIONS

~I ldentification of source and incident details

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In the case of major oil spills, it will not usually be difficu1t to identify '~e origin of the spilled oUand to obtain information about its charat:teristics.

S.2.3 Consideratian should be given to transferring some or ali of the oii to another ship or ships to stop the olttflow of oii and to allow the vessel to proceed to a suitable port for complete discharge. This is a job that needs experience, expertise and probably special pumps and alher equipmenl which will usually be provided by lhe shipowner, cargo owner or salvage company under the supervision of the appropriate .government agency. The whole operatian will have a much greater chance of success if it can be conducted under calm water conditions and this possibly means moving the damaged srup ta shelter. The overall risk is thereby reduced, even if the operatian takes place much closer ta the sbare than it otherwise would. 5.2.4 Shou1d the vessel be aground, in such a posilion that anolher ship cannot get alongside, it may be possible ta use a shallow draught barge or floating storage tank ta remove part of the oiI carga. Another possibility is the use of floating hoses, ta transfer the oii ta a ship in deeper water. Such an operation will caii for the expertise and equipmenl only likely 10 be found in a major salvage company, tanker operator or govemment agency. 5.2.5 Addilional information on the foregoing may be faund in Seclion [lI - Salvage of the Manual on Oii Pol/ution and the lCS/OCIMF publicalion Perii al Sea and Salvage - A Guide for Masters.

~_1.2 Smaller oiI slicks in harbours. anchorages and coastal water'S. whose .IJ'jigins are unknown. may result Crom accidents or operational discharges. Iinless the incident is witnessed. identification of the souree is difficultj f\<>wever. chemical analysis can assist in such identification.

~.1.3 First informaticn abaut an incident may be received from any oDe I,f a number of sources, including the general public. Attempts must be roade (clearn as much as possiblc abaut the incident. to identify those responsible lor .the spill. to monitor developments and to pass information promptly 'ts it i5 received to the government agencies responsible for dealin,g with the IJil spill. The type of informalion required is outlined in Seclion Ilt::onlingency Planning of lhe Manual on Oii pol/ution. .

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Should an oil spill originale from an offshore inslaDalion, lhe operators o.r the installation will normally be the souree of information. Usually, information about the type of oU together with an c::stimate of tjuantily will I>ereadily available.

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S.2 Prevention or reduction of further spiUages.

5.2.1 Should a vessel have been involved in an accidenlleading to an oil ~pill, the first and most important response action is, if possible, to prevent further spillage. This must be given the utmost priority by all concerned.

5.3.1 Infonnatian concerning the movement of oiI which has already been jpilled is of Vital importance in choosing response optiODS.Such info~ation mighl be avaHable from lhe prediction methods described in chapler 3. More reliable information can be obtained from visual sighlings and pholographs, and the best way to obtain these is from an aircraft. SurveiIlance from the air should be conducled by lrained observers who can ideolify oil on lhe water surface visually or by use of electronic sensors as described in paragraphs 5.3.6 and 5.3.7. Olher faclors permitling, conlinuilY of observation by the same observers is likely to give more reliable information. ..:.3.2 The purpose of aerial surveillance is: .1 to determine the size, quantity and location of the spill; .2 to determine the movement of the oii;

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5.2.2 The master of lhe ship should be asked to idenlify lhe damaged tan1<s a.nd, if possible. to transfer the oil contained in tbase tanks 10 any space 8vailable. This mar be difficult if, for example, the boltom of the tank 'Concerned is damaged .

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.5 to observe and report an effectiveness of ni:sponse meb.-ures. 5.3.3 Suitable aircraft, which may be fixed-wing aircraft or heli<x>pters, should have good all-round visibility and appropriate navigational aids and communications equipment. If dedieated surveillance aircraft are llOli. readily available. consideration should be given to use of suitable govamnent, commercial or private aircraft. National regulations may demaod multiengined aircraft for long-range operations over the sea; safety is paramount and the pilot must be consu1ted on aii aspects of the proposed Dighl.

be used is the ladder search, carried out across the direction of the wind (see f"lgureS.l). Another factor to take into account js the direction ofthe sun, which may make observation of the sea surface difficult. Visual . surveillance is usually condueted from an altilude of 300 m-500 m, but al a lower altitude to confirm dtails of oii sighted. -

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5.4.2

Factors to be Cll1\sil\('rt'\' In assessing the threat include:

5.3.7

Remote sensing equipment using oth~r t,:"hniques is being developed to improve the quantification and char~ctenzatton of the- oU. These include laser l1uorimetry and airbome and satellite-mounted synthctk apertUre radar.

.1 the size of lhc '1'111o\ld lhe likelihood of further spills; .2 the type or IYI'c,
.3 the weather temperature

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or

"II _ physica! and chemical charaeteristics;

and force, sea state. sea f; current; retation ta marine aod coastal resources;

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5.3.8 Apart from the technica! skill needed to interpret the information gathered by remate sensing methods, the command ~d rontrol organizatian needs to be able to receive and take advantage of thls additional souree of
informatian.

.1

laud t I~tt' ur

h\\:hu,lIl\, wind direction

.4

the position of tlu: NJllllln the likely

mov(,H\(,llt

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of the spill; aod

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44

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.6 areas and resources at risk. such as:

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_ fisheri~s interests; _ birds and other wildlife; _ areas of particular environmental significance, e.g. marine parks. nature reserves and wetlands; _ industrial users of seawater. e.g. power 5tatio05; - desalination plants: _ amenity beaches; _ yac;hting aud other r~t:.eational facilities.

.3 chemical dispersion at sea. In some circwnstances the appropriate response will be to enhance the dispersion of oii from tbe surface into the water calumn by the application of dispersant chemicals. The advantages aod limitations of this technique are discussed in chapter 7: .4 shore-line elean-up. Given unfavourable circumstances. it is likely that some oiI will come ashore apd shore-line cIean-up will be necessary. Practical advice an shore-line elean-up is to be found in chapter 8; .5 combination of response options. A combination of response options M11usually be oeeded in a large spill. Only by having a good understanding of the advantages and limitations of the different options can responsible officials make the best possible decisions.

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Spiu 'response options and !heir limitations

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5.5.1 Responsibility for elean-up may tie with the national authorities, the polluter. ar elsewhere as set out in the contingency plan. Measures to deal with oiI spills have severe limitations and imperfections. Given unfavourable circumstances. there is a real possibility that no effective response will be available and the oii will have to be left to respond to natural orces. 5.5.2 In deciding what aetion to take, if any, the relative importanee of the various resources al risk should be considered. taking account of the likely success of available response measures at sea and the difficulties of the subsequent shore-line elean-up. Conflicting views may be given in an emergency about the importance of different resources aod decision making will be easier if an environmental sensitivity survey has been conducted in advance. The relative order of importance of different resources is likely to vary at different times of the year, "ith the different fish and bird breeding seasons, and the holiday season. These issues are dealt with in more detail in Seetion II _ Contingency Planning of the Manual on Oii Pollution, 5,5.3 The possible response options are: .1 no action other than monitoring the oii slick. This might be the proper decision if the oil is not moving shorewards. ar if 00 important resources are threatened. or if the oii is breaking up naturally. or if conditions are such that positive response oplions are not practicable;

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.2 containing or recovering the oil at sea. This is of ten the preferred option for both environmental aod socio-economic reasons. The advantages and limitations of these techoiques are described more fully in chapter 6;
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47

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~ CHAPTER 6 _ CONTAINMEl'o'T ANI> RECOVERY OF OlL

freeboard ta prevent or reduce splashover; subsurface skirt to prevent or reduce escape of oiI under the boom; fiotation by air or somc buoyant material; 6.1 Introduction

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6.1.1 When oii is spilled al sea, measures musl be taken 10 minimize physical damage to and pollurion of marine resources and the environrnenL Generally. it is preferable to treat the oH whHe it is on the sea and before it spreads over a wide area. OH may be treated either while it is floating on the sea Of after it comes ashore. The preferred method. where practicable, is to coUect and recover the spiUed oii.

longitudinal tension member (chain or wire) to withstand effects of winds, waves and currents.

Types of boom 6.2.4 Booms are usually grouped iolO the following four basic types and their performance and physical characteristics are shown in table 6.1:

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6.1.2 physical recovery is not easy. However. various types of booms and skimmers have been developed. Large booms and recovery devices make it possible to recover oH on the open seas as well as in C03:stal waters. given good weather cooditions. Collection and recovery systems may be either static or dynamic. Static systems rely on the oil drifting ioto them; dynamic aDes actively pursue the oH. 6.1.3 Proper aneotion must be given to forecasts ofweather and sea state. Weather conditions caD substantially reduce the success of clean-up operations and may also require personnel to work under conditions where lheir lives could be endangered.

Table 6.1 -

Types of boom, performance and physical characteristics

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boom

Em'll'Oll:RHntal

C'OIIditions

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6.2 Booms 6.2.1 unle.ss it is highly viscous or dense. oii when spilt on the sea will fioat and spread. Unless early control measures are takeo, the slick will cover a wide area in a comparatively short period of time, making c1ean-up operations more difficult. 6.2.2 To avoid this, oii should be prevenled from spreading in lhe firsl place. Booms can be used for lhis purpose as well as for collecling and deflecting oiI.

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EXln'lIaI lenlion member Innalable:

PreullfC innalab!c Self innll1ablc

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y Basic components pf booms .

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6.2.3 There are many differenl kinds of boom. Their slruclure may differ bul basically they comprise lhe following componenlS:
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.2 Inflatable boom .1 Solid Jlotalion boam The flotation consists of buoyant material such as plastic foam, and the skirt is mad_eof oiI and water resistant rabric ballasted along its lower edge. To facilitate handling, these booms are usually supplied in 15 m to 20 m lengths which are joined by connectors. The advantages of this type are that inflation is not necessary and minor damage may not affeet buoyancy. The disadvantages are that it requires large storage space and is susceptible to deformation during storage. These booms consist of inflatable air ehamber or tubes. In most eases the air is supplied from a low pressure blower but soroe inf1atable booms contain internal springs and nOD-returnvalves which permit self inf1atioD. The skirt is made of oii and water resistant rabdc. Some large inf1atable booms have independent buoyancy to keep them afloat during deployment and inflation.
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Air flotation

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Floating/submerging booms have"a similar structure but usually employ longer unit lengths and fewer connections. These are used in fixed locations such as al oil terminals and, when Dot in use,

are deflate<! and rest on the sea-bed.

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The advantages of this boom are similar to those of the solid f1otation type aod in addition it requires relatively 1essstorage space. The disadvantages are that a long spau of the boom tends to lay over under influence of CUITent or strong winds.

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Figure 6:4 - Fence boom

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Self.infJating boom
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The advaotages of ao inflatable boom are that it has good wave following characteristics aod requires relatively little storage space. The disadvantages are that unless self-inf1atable, it takes time to deploy and inf1ate aod rips aod tears caD cause loss of buoyancy.

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.3 Fence boom A fence boom consists of a singie sheet of material which constitutes both freeboard aod skirt; f10ats aod ballast weights are attached at intervals.

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.4 . Pneumatic barriers These employ a screen of ah bubbles released below lhe water surface. usually from a fIxed pipe an the sea-bed. Rising ah bubbles generate an upward water now which diverts horizontally at the surface. This surface current flows in both directions away rrom the bubble stream and can retain oil under low currents. The advantage of bubble barriers is lhal they do not obstruct shipping tramc and are easily aclivated. Disadvantages ioclude limited effeetiveness in deep water and strong currents, and they are subject 10 c10gging b!. silI.

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There are several olber tYPes of bOOmsand barriers such as: _ booms constructed of netting to facilitate retention of viscous oils (see rlgUre 6.6); _ a boom system incorporating a weir .or gate through which oii is colleeted and pumped wilbin lbe bOOID10 a receplion vessel; _ a boom system which has an externa1 tension member which relieves stressesupon the boom itself and improves its sea keeping properties
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1.through o submerged pipe with openings at regular intervals

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6.2.5 Adequate booms may be manufactured locally from readily available materials using any of the foregoing principles. Alternatively. booms may be improvised using anything that caD t1oat~ such as empty oil drums, log5. air bags. straw bales or alber sorbent materials packed in nets. etc.

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Hame.made baam
Physical properties of booms Figure 6.8 _ Improvised boom madefrom bomboo, rope, wire. limber and filled with rico straw sorbent

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6.2.6 .Material: The boem material must be oil aod water resistant and

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durable under normal storage conditions. The strength of tbe boem must be sufficient to withstand the various stresses during deployment and use. Soroc booms are constructed of fire--resistant material. Choiee of material is critical where booms are subject to high temperatures or prolonged exposure to sun1ight. ;,.2.7 Ability to retain oii: The oii retaining capability of a boi>m depends on its proille, size and ability to conform to waves. lnability to retain oii ~s due to oile or a combination of the following: .1 wave action causing splashover;

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Figure 6.9 _ Fixed oii barr;er constructed with straw bales and wire net/ing nailed to wooden stakes

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.3 inadequate mooring; tilting; high currentvelocity or excessive towing speed causing entrainment.

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6.2.10 Entrainment is caused by instability in front of the boom, when the upstream end of the slick detaches from the water surface and is carried underneath the boom. Typically, this occurs when the velocity differeDce between the boom and the waler exceeds about 0.5 m/s (figure 6.10). However, the effective velocity difference between the boom and the water can be reduced by angling the boom to the current direction, as shown in the following table. Table 6.2 _ Ang/ing

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of boom ta current direction ta reduce efJective velocity difference between boom and water
Velocity mls 0.35 Angle of boom 90' 45'

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Current

knots 0.7 1.0

0.5
0.75 1.0 1.25 1.5

-.
1 splashover by wave action 2 flow dOWDthe face of the boom 3 droplets sheared from the underside of the cootainec:1 slick

1.5 2.0 2.5

3.0

28' 20'
16' 13'

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Deploymenl of booms
Figure 6.10 _ Escape of oii from a boom
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Estimating the retaining capability of the boom 6.2.8 The skirt of a boom will be Iilled by Slrong eurrents, and the abilily of the boom ta retain oii will consequently be diminished. The angle of lill in a given eurrenl wil1depend an boom design parameters such as skirt lenglh and the weighl of ballast. A 15' till angle can result in the lass of 5007. or more of the boom's retaining capability. 6.2.9 However, even when the skirt remains vertical, turbulence may cause oil to be entrained inlo the flow of water under the boom. In tlus case, the abililY of the boom ,\O relain oii will depend on factors such as the deplh of Ihe skirt below the water surface (allowing for any till), the specific gravily and viscosilY of the oii and Ihe depth of the oii layer. However, the main factor is .the current velocity, and even at fairly modest eurrent speeds entrainment will be unavoidable regardless of boom design.

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,.2.11 The oplimum deploymenl of a boom will depend on wealher condilions, sea stale and olher factors. The foUowing are typical deploymenl methods: .
.1 Encirc/ing

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This melhod may be employed in the ear1y slage of spill control when the discharge rate is low and the effects of wind and current are not significant. The boom is deployed around the spiU source leaving a limited opening for the entT)'of work boats~if necessary (see figure 6.11a). The lenglh of the boom in Ihis application generaUy needs ta be al leasl Ihree times the lenglh of the object, e.g. a ship, ta be encircled. This method is employed primarily in calm or sheltered sea areas.
1f the source of the spill is a shore facility. the shore-line may cons-

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titute a part of the encircling barrier (see figure 6.11 b) or when it lSa ship, the ship's huli may constitute a part of the barrier (see figure 6.11c). 63

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Wayiaying Waylaying deployment is use<! for large spills where sufficient

lengths of boem are not available. or where encircling is difficult duc to wiod and current. Booms are Iaid al somc distance from

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Shore

the snurce of spillto interceptthe approaching oiI (see figure 6.12).

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In tidal waters, another set of booms may be laid on the ather side of the souree in anticipation of a reverse of the cuerent.

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.3 Deployment in channels and rivers
The spread of oii in a narrow channel velocity.
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river may be prevented

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by laying booms at an appropriate angle, depending on the current

A limited opening may be provided in the centre of the

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configuration to permit passage of vesseltraffic (see figure 6.13). Care must be taken to prevent the oit from escaping rrom the connections al the share mooring points during aU stages of the tide. 65

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.4 De/leelion deploymenl lf spilled oiI cannot be contained al the scene of an incident it may be deflected away from sensitive are8S. It is a150sometimes possible to defleet oU te a carefully chosen site froni'where recovery may be easily accomplished. Again. defiection is achieved by laying the boam al an angle to the direction of the current now (figure 6.14). Care must be exercised so that the defiection of spilled oii does not makc matters worse. particularly during night~time :i operations. 1
Wnd and

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Deflection
.5 Towing booms lf wind and current velocity are too high for stationary containment or if the oiI is already widely scattered. booms caD be towed at low speed (Le. less than 0.5 m/s) through the water. This method is primarily used in open sea aod is .described in paragraph 6.4 (figure 6.15) .

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Oii Booms

"u" shaped lowing

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OiI may escape rrom the boom because of the phenomenon of entrainment described in paragraph 6.2.10 and double or ttiple setting of booms may be necessary. If multiple deployment of booms is necessary. some separatien must be maintained between the booms. Al currentvelocities high enough to tilt the silit or to cause entrainment, a separatien of 1-5 metres between the booms is effective for the escaping oii to be held by the secondary barriers. .8 Netting This system consists of booms. buoys with anchors and weights laid upstream of the boom and sbee15 of net. Nets are set between buoy and weight, and between skirt and weigbt, tbus alleviating stress on the boom and improving retentlon capability (see figure 6.17). In cases where tar balls or mats are floating below the surface. it may be necessary to protect water intakes or sensitive areas from such poUution by allacbing ne15 extending to the sea-bed to the skirt oftbe boom. NormaUy tbis deploymenl metbod is used near the shore. particularly in areas where it.is noted that once a beach is cleaned of tar baUs or mats, they reappear.

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.6 Free-drift containment lf the current, velocity is too high or the water is too deep for effective mooring of booms, it may be possible to allow the oii encircled by the booms to <lrift freely whilst recovery is undertaken (figure 6.16). The rate of drift may be reduced by use of sea anchors or drogues. In shallower waters lengths of chain or alher material may be used for the same purpose. ~

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Oii floating at negative buoyancy is very difficult to track and on most occasions it is not noticed until its presenceis detected through visual sighting in shallow water or when it is deposited on a beach.
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Oii booms

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Figure 6.17 - Nel-Iype booms and length of booms avaHable, the method of deploymentto be med and the availability and readiness of work boats must be taken iota aeCOllnt. In particular the length of the boom required is of ten underestimatedi especially when angling ta counter the effects of currents..2 Precautions when handling booms The outer covers of commercially available booms are made mostl)" of rubberized or plasticized fabrics which are susceptible ta rips . and tears when dragged an rough surfaces such as warehouse floors and jetties. The utmost care must be taken not to damage the boom in the course of handling and transportation. When damaged. booms may have reduced effectiveness in retention of oiI. Inflatable booms can lase buoyancy when damaged. The force of wind and waves during rough weather may damage booms Or connectors. or cause moorings to drag.

Boom deployment 6.2.12 Deployment of booms involves hard and, sometimes, dangerous work and must be properly supervised. The following points should be taken inta account: .1 Deployment plan A sound deployment plan must be drawn up. taking iota consideratic;m the type of oii spilled, source of spill, quantity involved, extent of spread. environmental sensitivity. etc. In preparing such a plan, the site of deployment of booms, the kind

70

71

Mooring of boo"" .3 Precaut/ons for deployment Care must be taken when preparing booms for deployment to avoid twisting and kinking siDee it is difficult to correct this from the deck of a vessel or ooce the boam is in the water. Rough seas and strong v.inds cause major stresses an booms and their moorings which may result in boam failure . 6.2.13 Booms may be moored by conventional anchors or concrete blocks or to a wharf or a ship's hull by special attachments at the end.

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.1 Mooring by anchors ar concrete blocks Anchors ar concrete blocks are most commonly used in mooring booms. The number of anchoring points required depends on the configuration intended and wind and curtent strength. I Usually. mooring ropes of five times the depth of water are required. and when ropes of buOantmaterial are used. this must be campensated for by adding extra chain ar weights to the ropes. It is important to avoid vertical tension on the boam. This can be done by installing a buoy on the mooring line 3-4 metres from the boom (see figure 6.19) .
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Maintenance

o/ conjiguration

The configuration of boOlllS deployed at sea may be difficuJt to maintain because of waves and wind. and their effectiveness in retaining oii may be reduced. Ta maintain the chosen configuratian in adverse weather. the following measures must be taken: .4.1 1f booms are moored by anchors, increase the number of anchors and shorten the distance between the anchoring points~ .4.2 If booms are encircling a vessel spilling oiI, place convenient spacing items such as floating pontoons between the ship' 5 hull and the boom to stop the boom abrading against the hun (see figure 6.18).
Anchor

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rfs; of special end attachments Several devices are available to ensure oil-tight connection of one enct of the boom to a wharf or'ship's hull: .2.1 I-beam terminal: This device uses a piece of I-beam driven vertically into the sea-bed ar fixed on a jetty face as a terminal. A sliding floater. ta which baoms are connected. is fitted 00 the beam. The floater cao sUde to accommodate tidal changes (see figure 6.20);
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Magnetic connectors: One end of the boom is attached to a magnetic connector which holds fast to a steel surface such as a srup's huli or jetlY piling, These may have 10 be manually adjusted to compensate for changes in ship's draft or tidal level (see figure 6,21);
6 1. Steal plate

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2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Base stock Connecting rod Oii boom terminal Ufeline terminal Handle 7. Rubber cushion 8. Fonnecting.rod ba se

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Figure 6.20 _ Boom connection consisting o/ a flotation cy/inder with a sliding shoe fitting into a vertical runner flXed ta a harbour wa/l

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Weighted guy line: A length of weighted guy line is thrown over the booms and the booms are pulled clase to the sea wall. The line can then be secured ta a bollard (see rigure

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Figure 6.23 - Danjorth anchor

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Figure 6.24 - Fisherman's anchor

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Booms

Ta estimate the approximate force Fe (I<g)exerted an a boom with a subsurface area A,(m'l by a curreut with velocity Ve (mots) the following formula can be used:

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Fe = 26 x As x Ve' Thus, the force aeting an a 100 m length of boom wilh a 0.6 m skirt placed al righl angles ta a 0.5 mot waler flow would be:

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Weight

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26 x (0.6 x 1(0) x (0.5)'

390 I<g(force)

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It can be seen that doubling the current velocity would entail a four.fold increase in load. The force (Fw) exerted by wind (Vw) directly an the freeboard (AJl of the boom can also be considerable. Jf:i.. similar formula can be used to estimate windage: Fw = 26

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Moor;ng booms 6.2.14 Certain precautions must be tal<en when mooring ar securing booms:

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Anchoring:

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It is important ta select the correct. size and nwnber of anchors ta prevent dragging. A Danforth 'type anchor (see rigure 6.23) i is effective in sandy or muddy substrates, but a fisherman's anchor (see rigure 6.24) has betler holding capability an a rocl<Y.
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For example, the force an a 100 m length of boom with a 0.5 m freeboard in a 15 knot wind would be: Fw

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1831<8 force

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botlom.

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77

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In the ahove example the combiqed farces of current and wind would be 573 kg if they were aeting in the same direction an a rigid barrier. In fact. booms are flexible aud farm a curve. In additioD. the boam would be moored al an angle to the Ilow. Both these factors lead to a reduction of the farces aeting an the boam so that a considerable safety margin is included in the result of this ca1culation. Neverthetess. it provides a useful guide to magnitude of such forces and can help in the selection of appropriate moorings. The table below gives the holding strength of Danforth type anchors in dirferent substrates.

Portable I-beam terminal

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fOpe

Ancbor weighl (kg)

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Holdiog streogth Mud Sand

(kg foree) Clay

BoUard

15 25 35

200
350
600

250
400

300

700

500 700

Magnetlc

anchor

.2 Ter~inal attachments: Figure 6.25 - Retaining rope Other than the I-beam terminal flXed to asea wall, jetty or other structure. the holding power of the attachment is usually insufficient to withstand the tension sustained an the boam and measures to alleviate the stress levied directly on the bOOID may be neeessary. This may be accomplished by a guy rope extending from abil or bollard on the wharf or cleat on the ship's deck ta a section of the boom (see figure 6.25).

.2

Booms are best storedin the vieinity of the pier or wharf from which they will normally be deployed. The storage area should also be easily accessible by vehicles for transpon to other locations. Booms which hav_beendeployed at sea for extended periods must be hauled ashore an~ c1eaned ta remove marine growth . When stored outdoors, booms should be protected from Ihe direct rays of the sun and loeated in a well-drained position. When folded in storage. booms should be placed on pallets or shelves ta avoid deformation due to exeess weight aud must be periodically (once every 3-<imonths) refolded to prevent permanent ereases in the fabrie . When stored an reels, care must be taken to avoid twisting and undue stress.

.3

Storage of booms 6.2.15 In order to maintain booms in good condition and also to facilitate immediate transport and deployment. the following precautions must be observed: . 1 Periodically checl, for wear and tear of the boom material resu1ting from dragging and other handling, for deterioration of the fabrie. for corrosion ar damage of the connectors. Repair ar replace as neeessary.

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07 When stared indoors, the storage space should be free rrom moisnue and vermin. The storage space must be well ventilated or air conditioned ta avoid high temperature and humidity, which can lead ta the formation of mould . . 8 Immediately afler use in oii. booms should be deaned and essential repairs carried out before returning them to storage.

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6.3 Recovery devices

6,3.1 These devices, designed to recover oii off the sea surface, vary greatly in size and operating principle, In generalthey can be classified in four basie categories: .. . 1 suction devices;

Boom in slorage, folded

.2

devices using oleophilic material; induction devices; devices using other principles.

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Suc/ion devices

6.3.2 Suction devices consist of an inlet head. a pump and storage tank and operate by drawing oii ioto the tank through a restrieted opening designed to limit the quantity of water whic~ accompanies the oiI.

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6.3.3 Ideally the inlet head should be positioned sa that oii can enler but water is excluded. In practice this is not possible as the oillayer will vary in thickness and wave motion can swamp the head. To minimize the effects of waves. the inlet head should float at the oill.water interface with the minimum possible inertia. The size of the opening and pump capacity will determine recovery rate. The efficiency, Le. oil/water ratia, is dictated by the relatian between the size of the opening and the wave length. A number of specially designed heads are commercially available, such as the surface suetion aud adjustable weir skimmer (see figure 6.26):

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Figure 6.26 - Weir skimmers Oit Oows over a setf-levelling weir inta the well of the skimmer and is pumped to storage. Operational limit - sea state 1. Sensitive ta higher viscosity oits. emulsified oils, waves and debris. Preference '- free-flowing oils. Oleophilic devices 6.3.4 Relative.ly slow moving positive displacement pumps are preferable ta high-speed centrifugal pumps for pumping oily water mixtures ta avoid chuming these mixtures into rme droplets or emulsians. which can interfere with the separation of the colleeted mixture. AiternativeIy. a v~cuumor eductor system may be used ta draw the oily water mixture Dto the storage tank. 6.3.5 The required storage tank capaciry will depend on the pump capacity and should be adequate to allow the coUected oU to separate rrom the water. 6.3.6 By selecting appropriate combinations ofiniet head size, pump and tank, suction devices can be designed in a wide variety of sizes, from small portable units to large systems incorporated into vessels. 6.3.7 The efficiency of these devices depends on oii viscosity, the thickness of the oillayer and sea state. Clogging b)' marine vegetatian and small debris will reduce thelr efficiency. Another problem is the relatively short length . of the suction hose. which restricts its operat ing area. 6.3.8 These devices use an oleophilic material in the form of a disc, drum, belt, rope or brush to which the oUadheres aud are described in the foUowing paragraphs. . .1 . Disc system Discs are arranged verticaUy on a horizontal drive shoft which may be either linear or arranged in acircle (see figure 6.27). The lower half of each disc dips into the oii lind as the disc rotates the oU adheres to its surface and is pieted up rromthe water surface. The oii is then wiped off into rollection channels and drains into a reservoir. Disc skimmers are more effective in calm water and Willnot work with very viscous oil. However, soroe incorporate intermeshing toothed discs to alleviate the latter problem. They can be obtained

Weir skimmer

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in a wide variety of sizes. They generally require.a power unit (usually a separate hydraulic power pack) ta rotate the dises and to pump the recovered oH from the reservoir 10 storage.
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.2 Drum $)'stem
This system uses a large diameter ratating cylinder on a horizontal

axis. The drum or cylinder is partially immersed and oii which adheres to the surface is removed by a scraper and drained inta

a reservoir.

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Disc skimmer
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.3 Belt system This system uses oleophilic material on a belt which mns continuously through the oii layer picking up the oiI. The belt Tuns between two end raUers -where the oil adhering to it is scraped off into a reservoir (see figure 6.29). A pump transfers oil from the reservoir to a holding tank on share or on a vessel.

Figure 6.29 - Belt skimmers

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Bell-type skimmer
Belt systems are jairly large and usua/ly insta/led in vessels.

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.4 End/ess adhesion rope sys/ems A loop ar loops of rope made of synthetic oleophilic material runs continuously across the water surface between a coUection device, which drives the ropes. and pulleys held by moorings. The ropes adsorb oii and carry it into the collection device where roUers squeeze the oii out of the ropes into a reservoir (see figure 6.30). In coId weather, steam can be injected into the collection device ta facilitate the recovery of viscous oils. The Iength of the ropes can be adjusted to suit the area to be cleaned. Rope systems are unaffected by floating seaweed and debris and can be used in very shallow waters.

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Figure 6.30 - Oleophilic rope skimmers

The caJlection device can be mounted on the share ar an a vessel. Alternatively. il may be designed to be suspended above the sea from a crane ar derrick with multiple rope loops hanging vertically between the collection device and the water surface.

88 89

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Oii mop
.5 Brushes

Lori brushes

Brushes of oleophilic material arranged in rows operate in a similar rnanner ta ropes in recovery of oiI (see figure 6.31).

lnduction devices

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6.3.9 Induction systems are"usually built iota vessels, either with or without means of propuIsion. The vesseI moves inta the oiI slick 50 that the oii flows iota an onboard storage arca where the errects of waves and current are reduced a~d separatian of the oii 3nd water is improved. Thereafter the separated oii may be removed by conventional means.

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6.3.10 A variety of induction systems are available, combinations of collection and separatton techniques.

using different

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6.3.11 As wilh olber syslems. efficiency is reduced by c~1:ing wilh seaweed and other debris. unless protective screens are fitted. t"
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6.3.12 90

Commercially

available induction-type

devices include:

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.1 Multiple weir system

The oil/water mixture is induced to ilow through a tank containing

a series of weirs al a fixed depth below the water surface (see figure 6.32). Turbulence is avoided by controlling the inflow. Oii floats to the surface of the tank and overflows inta a reservoir.

Oii

~--+Water

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____ ---=-+ Tank
Water

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Weir Figure 6.33 - Dynamic inc/ined plane skimmer

Oii
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Figure 6.32 - Multiple weir system

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Aow way

Oii reservoir

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Jnclined plane syslem

The inclined plane consists of a belt which. in some cases, rotates in the opposite direction ta the forward motion of the vessel to ~educe the relative velocity between the belt and the water. As the vessel advances through the water. surface oil layers are forced down the inclined plane al the end of which the oii is released inta a reservoir and the oil.free water escapes.

Dip skimmer
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93

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.3

Hydrocyclone system A hydrocyclone system utilizes the concept of centrifugal forces. As the eraft moves through the water. oiI and water layers are forced to now tangentially ioto a ehamber where they rotate at high speed. Centrifugal forces separate the oii from the water. The oii moves nearer to the centre of the vortex where it is collected by the pumping system. The water escapes through the opening at the bottom of the ehamber (see figure 6.34). The stability of the vortex is somewhat affected by waves.

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O/her recovery sys/ems

6.3.13

Several other methods of recovery are available and include:

.1 Screw pumps These systems are principally designed to recover viscous oils and are based on the principle of the Archimedes screw. They are quite tolerant of debris (see figure 6.35).

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WATER

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.2 Varlex skimmers These systems use a paddled indueed vortex to draw the oiI and water over a weir into a separation ehamber from which separated oii is removed and waler drained away (see figure 6.36). .3 Nets

Vortex skimmer

r r

Nets can be useful as collect.ion devices for oil-soaked sorbents. for nearly solid emulsions. or for oily seaweed and other solids. In add.ition, oets built specifically for such use are now availabIe. which are usually deployed by lwo work vessel. (see figure 6.37).

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Figure 6.36 - Varlex skimmers

Figure 6.37 - Netting system of Ihepurse seine type for oii canlainmenl and recavery using Iwo vessels 10 carroiiloating oii

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96

97

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Figure 6.38 - Oii trawl for collecting f/oating cod-end solid oii into a detachable

harbours or beaches (see figure 6.39). For thin oillayers they will '-need a special inIel head. Primary separation of oiI and water can take place in lhe lank, wilh Water periodically drained off from the boltom.

Net boom
Their mesh size should be small so Ihal they can be used 10 collecl oii or debris for subsequent recovery. In some cases a fyke or bagshaped net. is used which caD be recovered and repIaced (see figure 6.38). It is important not to tow these nets al too high a speed or Ihe Irapped material will be forced oul of lhe net. .4 Vacuum lrucks Tank trucks normally used for collection of industrial, agricultura] or sewage sludges can be effective in oii spill eleaD-Up. They caD be llsed ta colleet even quite viscous oils or emulsions rrom canals, 98

/A1R/LtOVJ~ SEPARATOR 1-4000 SCFMl

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PUMP $ILENCER

VACUUM

ROTAR

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6: 8 lNCH HOSE

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MechanicaJ grab
.6 Manual recovery
SCOOps, mops, dip oets, elco caD alI be used 10 eleao up an oii spill.

Vacuum unic

If necessary they can be readily adapted for use on oiI or debris. Manual recovery requires 1argenumbers of personnel. Proper safety precautions and appropriate protective clothing are required.

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Grabs or elam shell buckets operating rrom the share or mounted on a suitable vessel caD be an effective and easily handled device for recovery of very viscous oils or oil contaminants. Grab dredgers have holds which caD be used to transport as weB as store the recovered oiI.

Use

o/ recovery devices

1 6.3.14 The besllype of device 10 use, and Ihe besl way of deploying it, will depend on the natnre of the oii to be recovered aod its volume and locatian. The following points should be noted: .1 Containment of oii spills
~-

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100

Recovery de\.ices are more efficient in thicker oillayers. For this reason. if possible. the oii should be contained before it has the . chance to spread. Booms can be used to collect or guide the oiI inta smaller areas to increase layer thickness. as described in 6.2. 101

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.2 Choice of devices Tbe best type of oiI recovery device ta use will depeod 00 the type of oiI aod the circumstaoces. Sa, for example, some oleophilic de\ices or screw pumps are likely to be more effective than other types for recovering viscous oils or emulsiotlS. Induction types will not be effective for recovering small slicks spread over wide areas, or for use in shallow ar confined watecs. Before making purchase decisions, potential devices should be teste<!under local conditions. Oii recovery technology is contioually evolving, and better devices than those described here may become available in the, future . .3 On-scene stoTage of qil

~ ~
Single vessel system 6.4.4 This system consists of a single vessel equipped with special booms extended from one Or both sides of the vessel by means of rigid arms Or bridles (see figure 6.40). OiI is collected in a pocket in the boom o'r diverted into a watertight companment in the huli of the vessel. The oii is then recovered by a ski.mmer ar brushes and pwnped iota the vessel' s storage tanks (see figure 6.41). '

"

However efficient 1008 as there is ~omewhere ta store the recovered oiI. For liquid oii, oii barges. floatiog storage tanks and coastal tankers can be used. Hea\ry" duty plastic bags. drums and other containers can be used ta store oiIy debris - see chapter 9. .4 Clearance of c/ogging by debris Debris must be constantly c1.eared otherwise c10gging will reduce efficiency. Some devCes are designed ta separate debris prior ta oiI collection.

-' an oii recovery system is, it is ooly of use as

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6.4

Sweeping with booms Flgure 6.40 - Sweep arm

6.4.1 . Spilied oii can be contained by booms and recovered by skimmers or by independently operatiog oii recovery vessels. For effective recovery of oiI spreading over a wide area, a system which is a combination of spilJ control equipment such as skimmer. boom, etc. aod oii recovery vessels can be used. 6.4.2 It is possible to use vessels of opportunity equipped with oiI recovery equipment as the component of these systems.

~
Single and multi-vessel sweep systems 6.4.3 Various systems have been developed in many couotries and these can be c1assified into the folIowing three types according ta the number of vessels used for the operation. Figure 6.41 - Single vessel sweep system
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8ingle vessel sll'eep system

Figure 6.42 - "J" corifiguralion lowed by Iwo vess;!ls, one ofwhich deploys the recovery device

II

Two vessel sweep system

11,
I

6.4.5 This system consists of two vessels, a special oii boom and skimmer. The boom is towed in UJ" configurati an by two vessels, one at eaeh end, and colleeted oiI is recovered by an oiI skimmer at the apex of the boom (see figure 6.42). Recovered oiI-water mixture is pumped into the tank of one of the vessels for storage.

.,1

Altematively, a variatian of the single vessel sweep system can be used with two vessels (see figure 6.43),

Figure 6.43 - Single ship system extended with additional vessel towing boom
10

increase the encounter rate

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104

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Two I'essel sweep system

Three vessel sweep syslem

Figure 6.44 - HV" configuratiofl lowed by Iwo vessels _ collection device

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. towed with boom array and oii transferred la third vessel

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Tow vessel 6.4.6 This system consists of three vessels, an oiI ooom and skimmer, and

can be deployed in one of Ihe following ways: .1 The oii boom is towed in "Vu ctmfiguration by NO vesseIs. Colleeled oii is recovered by Ihe skirnmer plaeed al the apex of the .'V" in the boom and pumped iota the third vessel (sec figure 6.44). . .2 Two vessels tow the boam in a '''U'' configuration. Oil-water mixture colleeled al the apex of the oii boam is drawn through integral manifolds and pumped 10 the storage barge <see figure 6.45). . .3 Two vessels concentrated concentrated deseribed for 106 tow the oii boam in a "U" configuratian. Oii by the boam is allowed to leak al the apex. The oii can then be recovered by using the method single vessel sweep system (see figure 6.46). .

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Tow line
Skimmers

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Tow vessel

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Barrier unit

Barge for recovered

oii

Figure 6.45 - Oii recovery with three vessels

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6.4.7

Precautions for the operatian of sweep system.s: .1 The wave height. wind direction and relative current speed which limit the performance of the system should be fuUy uoder-stood otherwise recovery effaers may be unsucessful.

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.2 To achieve the optimum performance. thorough training in vesseJ control and system operati an is necessaTy. In particular, a high level of seamanship is required for manoeuvring multiple vessels in combinatian with. booms al slow speeds (less than 1 mot). .3 The vessel or vessels to be llSed for the sweep system should be pre-designated 3nd the equipmen! should be stored in the vicinity of the berth for iIhmediate use in case of an incident. On the pier. there should also be Iifting machinery for bau ling and rigging of skimmers aod booms and other control equipment on to the vesseJ. Where recovery of oil-water mixture is expected to exceed the capacity of the storage tanks of the vessel. sufficieot tank capacity to transfer oil-water mixture from the recovering vessel and to transport itto tbe shore faciIity (or lanker, etc,) sbould be arranged, Flotsam aod jetsam hamper oii recovery operations. In such an event. it may be necessary to deploy supporting vessels to remove debris obstructive to the operation. 'i
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Figure 6.46 -

HUl> configura/ion towed by two vessels at 1-2 knots. OiI escaping behind boom is inlercepted by Q single ship system

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6.5 Open sea operations without util~zation of booms

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In sea areas where:

high capacity recovery vessels designed for independent operations are available;

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sufficient. suitable booms are not avaiJable;

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Two vessel operation allowing oii la leak from collection

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weather limitations aod/or current conditions may reduce the effectiveness of booms.

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6.5.2 Specialized oU recovery vessels caD be utilized wilhoul any deploymenl of collection booms. Experience has shown that fu many cases arter weathering, 900io of the oU is found in only 100'/0of the affecled area. 6.5.3 Because of this. independently operating recovery vessels should be directed to this area by means of surveillance aircraft and firstly pick up the thickest oii layers. Single and multi-vessel operatian is possible by coordinating manoeuvres to hold a:formation working rrom lee iota the wind direction.
s P atm'

6.5.4 The main advantage of a sig.gle or multi-vessel operatian wilhout utilization of long boom barriers is the high flexibiliry of the single vessels. a bigher recovery speed and in afeas of widespread 1ayers and windrows raster transfers from ODe recoverable oii slick ta the other. Alsa, lightening operations of oiI ~ecovery vessels are much easier to manage.

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Performance

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aiII I nlu bef sl<imminll

6.6

Specialized oil recovery vessels Figure 6.47 - Principles 0/ specialized sweeping crqfr

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6.6.1 In this context Hspecialized oii recovery vessel" is taken ta mean one which has been specifically designed 10 include Ihe following equipmenl: .1 oii skimmer(s);

and characteristics of specialized oii r:ecovery vessels .

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.2 srorage lank(s) for recovered oii;. .3 equipment facilities; ta transfer recovered oii to other vessels or storage 6.6.3 In general, the performance and characteristics of specialized oiI recovery vessels are governed primarily by the performance and characteristics of the. oii collection installation. Since the principles of collection -devices are described in section 6.3, this section illustrates the operating principles of soroe oii recovery vessels such as suction type (figure 6.48), adsorplion separalion type (figure 6.49), induction Iype (figure 6.50) and weir Iype (figure 6.51).

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.4 . machinery system.s; .5 debris removal equipment.

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An oU recovery vessel incorporating these features is illustrated at figure 6.47.

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6.6.2 Some of the specialized oii recovery vessels are built to the classification societies' rules and are designed to operate in open waters. Others are relatively small and most1y used in harbours and sheltered waters.

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Propulsion system : .6.6 .] .2 Requirements for the specialized oii recovery vessel include: rapid deployment in case of emergeocy; aod adequate manoeuvrability.

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The propulsion machinery of an oiI recovery vessel is required to satisfy conflicting requirements. .e. it must be capable of operatioo at Iow speed for an exteoded period du ring recovery operations. but it must aJso be able to run at high speed to reach the scene of an incident as sooo as possible. Se!ection of eogines must be made taking iota consideration the type of operation iotended aod sea area to be covered. Debris removal equipment 7 6.6. Debris in the oii may often hamper oii reeovery. A specialized oii recovery vessel should have debris removal equipment to ensure smooth oii recovery .without being affected by flotsam and jetsam. Since. in mosI cases, a large quantity of oii adheres to debris. it is advisable that the vesseJ has [he ability to positively recover and stare flolsam and jetsam for subsequent transfer and disposaJ.

Scissor ship
OiI storage tanks .1~

6.6.4 A specialized oii recovery vessel canoot operate efficiently if it has insufficient capacity to separate 80d stare recovered oil on board. IdealJy the vessel should be equipped with tanks capable of storing the entire quantily of oiJ likely to be recovered during ODeday's Operation. A smaller storage capacity may be acceptable if the vessel can transfer the oii regularly to another facility. Installation aod use of an oily water separator will effectiveJy increase the amount of recovered liquid that can be stored.

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6.6.5 lf the recovered oiI is to be transferred to olher vesseIs, the spedalized oiJ recovery vessel must be equipped with suitabJe pumps. deck connections, adaptors and transfer hoses. Pumping rate should be high enough to avoid uonecessary delay to the recovery operatioo. 116

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Performance 6.6.8

of specialized oii recovery. vessels

control material, for use when oii recovery with specializeddevices is diffirolt because of smalt floating oii slicks. shallow water or inaccessibility. 6.8.2 .1 The sorbent must satisfy the following requirements: high absorption efficiency;

The oii recovery capacity of these vessels is mainIy dependent upon: .1 throughput of skimming devices; .2 sweep width of the vessel; .3 optimal collection speed; and .4 efficiency of oil/water seParation.

.2 easy recovery after absorption; and .3 easy processing after recovery. Selection of a sorbent depends on its performance and availability .

6.6.9 When oii recovery vessels are to be stationed in' a specific port, the recovery capacity required for each vessel needs to be determined, taking ioto account the scale of oiI spill incident ~umed for the port. the Quantity of spilled oii to be recovered, number of vessels to be deployed aod work hours. The vanous processes acting on oii an the sea surface which are described in chapter 3 make it desirable to complete oil recovery within two days of discharge.

Kind and performance

of sorbenlS commercially available

6.8.3 Sorbents are classified into the following three kinds according to material: .1 inorganic materials (vermiculite,. volcanic glass); .2 synthetic organic materials (polypropylene fibre);

6.7

Safely precaulions

.3 natural organic materials (peat, pulp. cotlon, pine bark). Most of the synthetic sorbents on the market are made of polypropylene fibre and are most con\'enient1y used as pads. rotis or booms. 6.8.4 Due consideratioo ,hould be given to the performance and availability in selecting the sorbent. Performance data of various sorbent materials are ,hown in table 6.3.

6.7.1 Safety precautions have to be considered at aU times. In the presence of explosive or hazardous gas. explosion-P!oof equipment must be used and special. care should be taken to protect operating personnel. 6.7.2 Especially in the case of fresh spilled crude oii, vessels not complying with the tanker regulations are assumed to operate down wind at a safe distance with respect to fire and explosion hazards. Sampling the oii aod the atmosphere al regular intervals to check flashpoint aod fiammable gas coocentration should be considered untii the light compounds have evaporated aod the flashpoint of the oiI is weU above 6OC.

Sorbent applicalions 6.8.5 There are three stages when using sorbents to recover oii: .1 sorbent distribution; .2 sorbent collection ar harvesting; .-3 storage and disposal of the recovered sorbent.
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6.8.1 Sorbents are niaterials used to reco\'er spilled oii through adsorption ar absorption. Oii recovery is priocipally done with oii skimmers or oii recovery vessels, and sorbeilts are used as an alternative or auxiliary spiII

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The melhod, avaiJability of necessary materials. and manpower al each stage should be planned beforehand. Application teebniques for the various sorbenl :naterials are shown in table 6.4 . Table 6.4 F orm or sorbent
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Sorbent materials application techniques

Description oC technique
Placed in conrmed areas to pick up small quantities of oit; tbey should be left for a period or time for greater effectiveness. Used in tbe same manner as squares aod strips but usually more convenient since tbey can be tom or cut off at the optimum length. Very effective in: protecting walkways, boat decks, working areas, previously uncontaminated or cleaned areas; can be used to cover areas used as temporary storage sites for oUy materials. Disposal is facilitated by rolling up sorbent and placing in suitable container.

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C:m serve a dual fooction by absorbing oit aod acting as a boom but is only effective in very quiet waters. lbe tightly compacted sorbent material mcased in mesh restricts oil penetration thus requiring the boom to be rotated and moved around in the oiI to work efficiently. Il is usually betler to drive the oiI into lhe boom. can be used effectiveIy to protect sheltered areas against oiI contaminalion. Also can be deployed behind skimmers to pick up excess Of m~ oiI. Di,po,a1 is accomp\ishedby folding, rolling, aOlI!or
stuffing the boom into plastic or buriap bags for removal .

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Loose sorbent materials are Dot recommended for use in oiI spills on water. However. loose organic materials bave been successfully wed 10 stabilize stranded oiI in remote or inaccessible locat.ions.

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The following points require-attention

when using sorbents:

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.1 M.lted sorbenl will noI remain on the oii ,urface when distributed in "rong winds because of its lighl weighl.l50 g 10 200 g per sheel) . Two to three sheets of matted sorbents in pIy will be more effective in windy conditions. 121

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The recovery rate of the sorbent becomes lower as the oii film becomes thinner. For more effective recovery. booms should be used to cont ain and thereby thicken the oii layer. Distribution of sorbent on oii contained in oii booms can effectively suppress waves, and so prevent oii from splashing o\'er the boom. 7.1

CHAPTER 7 - CHEl\fiCAL DISPERSION

.3

Introduction

RecolJery of sorbents 6.8.7 The ultimate purpose of a sorbent is to recover smaU patehes of spilled oiI. This can be achieved only when sorbents an the sea are eollected after use. If not complelely recovered. sorbents distributed and subsequently saturated with oii may spread the eontamination further.

General principles 7. 1.1 Oii spilled on the sea surface will float and spread out ro form a slick .: dus process is described in chapter 3. Wave aetion and turbulence due to tides and currents wiH eause some of the oii to break up iuto small droplets which can be carried down into the water column. This process,. which is known as dispersion, can be enhanced by the application of dispersants. 7.1.2 Dispersants are chemical agents which alter the physical behaviour of oii on the sea surface. They consist of a mixture of surface active agents dissolved in a solvent which assists penetration of the mixture ioto the oil. The surface active agents reduce the surface tension of the oil, 50 iocreasing the rate of droplet formation and inhibiting coaJescence of the droplets. Dispersed oii wiH degrade much more rapidly than oUin a surfare slick and in some circumstances it will present less of a threat to the environment.

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6.8.8 In order that it may be collected, the distributed .orbent saturated with oii must remain afloat. Some sorbents absorb water and release oii as time passes and teod to sink. Furthermore, floating sorbents are .widely distributed by wind and current. Nets ar oii booms can be used to prevenl such dispersion and make recovery of the sorbents easier. For alI these reasons it is important to colleet sorbents as SOOD as possible. Storage and disposal 0/ recolJered sorbenl 6.8.9 Reeovered sorbent must eventually be processed or disposed of. Since the site of prooessing or disposal will usually be quite .ome distance from thal of recovery, arrangements for temporary storage and transport are necessary. 6.g.10 Ideally, the means of storage and transport must be arranged before starting recovery. Normally bags ar drums are used for storage of recovered sorbents. The number of bags and drum. to be used .hould be calculated from the quantity of sorbent to be distributed and the degree of sorption effected. Storage problems are compounded by the fact Ihat oily sorbent may be spontaneously combustible. 6.8.11 There are three methods for treating and disposal of recovered sorbent: .1 separation .2 .3 incineration; landfill. of oii and sorbent (for reuse of sorbent); and

.11

Complete separation of oii and sorbent is technically diffieult and oil remains to a certain degree in the sorbent. Generally, reuse ofthe sorbent is not a gooo option beeause of problems of storage after trealment and the requirement for additional personnel to process the oiled sorbent. The advantages and disadvantages of various disposal methods are diseussed in ehapter 9. 122

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Drerhead vieI\' of dispersed oii

123
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7.1.3 The cnvironrnental gains resulting from an Dcrease in the rate of biodegradation may be offset by the toxicity of the dispersantsthemselves and the dispersed oUreadily made available to organisms in the water body. This condition was evident when dispersants . ere first used. whieh stirred considerable controversy as ta the aeeeptability of dispersants in combating oii pollution. Without question. ODepositive result rrom the use of cartier dispersants is that the chemical eomposition of dispersants as well as the application methods have been scrutinized through a continuous proeess of experimentation and f,esearch. As a result. dispersants which are more effeetive and less toxic are now being manufaetured. Scientific studies and governmcntal reports around the .world are coming ta the view that dispersants, in strietly dermed circumstances, are a viable opt ion for response to oiI pollution incidents.

Contingency planning 7.1.5 Negative environmental impaets may be avoided by adopting ameans of identifying these sensitive areas, determining the high risk regions susceptible ta oiI spill pollution and consequently developing a strategy in lhe form of a national contingency plan. Further plans should be developed an a local level within the context of the national contingency plan. An example of a requirement included in tbe contingency plan would be a provision to field test a dispersant on tbe spilled oiI to determine whether ar not it would be effective. The contingency plan should identify the individual or agency responsible for ~ordinating the response gen a pollution incident occurs. Reference should be made in this regard to Section Il - Contingency Planning of the JMO Manual an Oii PoUulion. 7.1.6 Contingency plans should contain fue national policy with respect to dispersant use. For those maritime areas shared with neighbouring countries, a strategy for dealing with the use of dispersants shauld be described in bilateral or multilateral contingency plans. It should be recognized that time is the most formidable adversary when considering the use of dispersants. Oii cannot be a1lowed to weather, or the increase iri' viscosity will render dispersant use ineffective. Contingency plans should therefore allow for a rapid response. 7.1.7 In preparing a contingency plan. provisions should'be included for the possibilily of a large spill that may result in the depletion of the local stockpile of dispersants. In the event of these and other lypes of logistic problems. the contingency plan should include pro\isions for restocking and replenishment. .

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Environmental

considerations

7.1.4 The use of dispersants should be determined by a comparison of potential damages to the marine environment from both treated and untreated oiI with consideration of both long-term and short.term effects . Of course. not aU aspects of the impact of dispersnts an the m~rine environment are fully understood. but if any generalizations can be made with regard to which areas in the environment where dispersants can be applied, areas of a high dilution capacity and a high f1ushing capability (open waters) are preferred. Conversely. areas wbere the dispersant/oil mixture may be concentrated. or have a high residency period (confined waters such as small bays. bouled harbours and marshes) should be avoided. However, these generalizations are dependent upon a third important consideration: the sensitivity factor. This is the degree to which the environment will react in response to dispersants and the dispersant/oll mixture. Some environments or components thereof are so sensitve that. despite ideal diluton and flushing systems, they will be negatively affected by tbe toxicity of dispersants and of dispersed oii. However, in the field it is of ten observed lbat tbe short. term effects are much less damaging !ban if tbe environment was left exposed to untreated oiI. .

Response 7.1.8 It isrecOgnized that the applicatio~ of disper.ants must takeplace before the oii weathers. Ta conduet an effective response and to save time, fuel and dispersant for spraying units should be available for immediate loading and subsequent replenishment. Supply and communication links should be maintained at the highest level of readiness. 7.1.9 Ta mnimize response times the an-scene commander shouId earry the authority to commence a dispersant spraying operation within the geographical and other limits et out in the contingency plan. If the onscene commander. does not carry this amhority then it shollld be possible for such authority to be obtained rapidly.
125

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...

It is important to identify specific sensitive resources (both subsurface and surface) in the area being considered for dispersant use. In addition, consideration should be given to the prevailing wind (which more directly influenees untreated oii) and current(s} (whicb would more directly infIuence dispersed oii). The use of dispersants is largely dependent upon balancing the consequences of response options and choosing the one that will best preserve the most highly valued resource.

124

Use of dispersants 7.1.10 Dispersants can be used to reduce the threat posed by surface oii to sensitive resources such as bird colonies, coastal habitats and amenity beaches. An oii spill in an area of high dilution capacity heading towards a sensitive environment GUl be treated with dispersants to reduce the hannful effects of the slick. The uno action option may be an acceptable response option in cerlain instances. .
H

7.1.12 Public health considerations are primarily focused on tbe shorltenn effect of making the oiI more available to organisms in the water column and the possible consequences on the food chain. Research in this area bas been incomplete; however, as a precautionary measuce, dispersant use in shallow marine environments ar areas containing aquaculture and shellfIsh should be avoided.

7.1.11 An untreated oii slick will undergo natural dispersion as a result of mixing energy generated by wind, waves and tides. The dispersant option should be considered when it is evidenrlhat natural dispersion will not suftice in protecting sensitive environmeDts. However, dispersants do Dat physically remove oU from the sea, they simply enhance the rate of natural dispersion. The dispersing plume of oiI caD be more harmful ta subsurface organisms than the surface slick. Care needs to be taken, therefore. that dispersants are used only in situations where the benefits of reducing tqe surface slick outweigh the risk of damage by the plume, and in situations where containment and/or recovery of the oi! would be impractical.

7.1.13 Water intakes for desalination and cooling should receive special consideration in relation to dispersant use. In most cases, oii, whether dispersed or not, cannot be tolerated by such installations. Use of dispersants clase to water intakes could introduce oii ta the system and thus should be avoided.

7.1.14 However, it should be reeognized that each incident and each location is different and the decision as to whether or Dot to use dispersants and how they should be used should be made on a case-by-case basis. . 7.1.15 Any significant application of dispersants should be carefully monitored ta improve understanding of how the use of dispersants affects a particular environment. Comparisons should be made of untreated areas . versus treated areas. Monitoring should not only be dane on a short-term basis. examining immediate environmentaJ consequences and dispersant effectiveness, but when possible over a prolonged period, considering 1008term environmental effects.

7.1.16 A more detailed account of when and under what circumstances dispersants shouId be used, including environmentai considerations. can be found in the IMO/UNEP Guidelines an Oii Spill Dispersan/ Applica/ian and Environmental Considerations.

Limitations

'-,
Close-up of dispersed oii plume
126

7.1.17 Dispersants will only work effectively under certain rather limited circumstances. Not ali oils are amenable to dispersant treatment. Heavy fuel oils and heavier crudes will not disperse, because of their high viscosity. It has been gener~lIyaccepted that oii with a viscosity of higher than 2000 milli Pascal seconds (mPas) or ODeat a temperature below its pour point is difficuIt to disperse and that for oils whose viscosities exceed SOOO mPas. dispersants are likely to be ineffective. Lubricating oils are also difficult to disperse, because ofthe additives they contain. Information on pour paint and viscosities of various crude oils is contained in table 7.1.

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7.1.18 Similarly, dispersants will not usually work effectively on oils which have weathered to a state in which their viscosity is substantially greater than 2000 mPas. The limiting effect is usually emulsification, and many oils which are dispersable on initial contact with the sea lase their dispersability within a few hours. For these oils it is important to apply the dispersant as 5000 as possible arter the spUI.

Approval

7.1.19 At the olber end ofthe spectrum,light fuel oils such as diese! disperse naturally so rapidly that there is aften !iute to be gained by the use of dispersants. except possibly to reduce a potential fire hazard.

7.2.2 Because dispersants may be used in large quantities, it is important. that on1y low toxicity produets are used. Dispersants of aU types are available in formulations which, on the basis of laboratory tests, do not measurably increase the toxici[y of the dispersing oii plume to marine organisms. Many countries wiIl on1y permit the use of dispersants which have p.assed ecotoxicological tests relevant to the areas in which they are to be used. Separate tests for al-sea and onshore use are reconlmended. Some administrations also require products to pass tests for biodegradability. 7.2.3 Tests have also been developed for dispersant efficiency. It shouId be noted that some dispersants are more effective on particular oils tban others. It is recommended that only products which have been tested for toxicity and efficiency tests using oils more likely t9 be spilled in the area, and under local conditions, are .stockpiled ..

7.1.20 Because dispersants work by enhancing the rale of natural dispersion. some turbulence is necessary for the dispersant to be effective. Beaufort wind farce 3 or higher is normally required to give adequate natural mixing energy-. Mechanica1 turbulenc;e can be effective - mixing devices can be towed through the water, or ships' propellers can be used to churn up the slick. On beaches, tidal energy, surf or salt.water sprays can provide the necessary mixing.

-'

Storage 7.1.21 These limitations seern to be less acute if the dispersant has some time in which ta soak into the oil, such as on a beach. There is evidence that more viscous oils (up to 100000 mPas) will disperse if the dispersant is applied some time before the tide rises.

7.2

Dispersants

7.2.4 Dispersants which are exposed to air or moisture may become ineffective within a few years. However, tbey should retain their efficiency for many years if they are free from water-and kept in airtight containers. Mild steel comainers may be corroded by some products, and if drums are used for storage it is advisable to use high-density polythene liners. and to keep the drums under cover and out of direct sunlight. Long storage may cause separation of the ingred.ients; the containers should be roUeeIar tumbled vigorously ta achieve good mixing before application.

Types of dispersan/

Dosage

7.2.1 Dispersants are available in two types: conventional and concentrate. Conventional dispersants are solvent based. They consist of an aqueous or hydrocarbon solvent. contain a mixture of emulsifiers and are applied undiluted. Concentrated dispersants are a mixture containing emulsifiers, solvents and wetting agents, containing more active ingredients than conventional and dispersing a higher volume of oiI per activated volume of dispersant. They are'applied undiluted for aerial application and diluted or undiluted when applied by surface vessels. Table 7.2 shows in general terms the types of oii and the probable effectiveness of the various types of dispersant.

7.2.5 In detennining the proper dosage, manufacturers of dispersants offer recommendations on the containers. The problem with recommendations is that they cannot account for ali the variables experienced in the field. Recommendations are" defined as' dosage per unit area (see figure 7.1). In actual spills the distribution of oii on the water surface and the thickness of the slick are not uniform. The selection of the proper dosage is largely judgemental, using the recommendations as an initial guideline. Recommendations are most accurate du ring the period immediately following the spill where the unweathe;red oii has reached a uniform thickness after initial gravity spreading.

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128 129

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7.3

Application teehniques

Application
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7.3.1 In considering the proper system for application. three major concerns arise, namely time (see figure 7.2), cost and operational environment. It is important that the oii spill is acted. upon immediately before weathering occurs. otherwSe dispersants can be ineffective. It may also be necessary to intercept rapidly and treat a spill before it reaches a sensitive environment. Dispersant use involves costs wmch are sigruficant, perhaps forcing a decision for a response that is less than ideal.

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Example:

Average thickness ofthe stick is estimated at 0.1 mm. The manufacturer recommends his produet be used at one part dispersant to 20 parts oii. Using the graph, a dosage requirement of 8.3 litres per hectare can be determined.

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7.2.6 The key to applying the proper dosage is dose monitoring of the spill. Charts and nomographs are avaitable from manufacturers aod consultant firms which consider the type of oit, its thickness, volume and other factors which can be cross.referenced to yield a dosage recommendation. When considering dosage. a general assumption should be thatthe minimum amount of dispersant is applied to yield the greatest result. The best data avaitable foi' proper dosage is past experience as weB as trial application. Monitoring of the results is important for future reference. An example of a problem encountered in the field is surface reforming of the oiI after initial application which requires additional dispersant lO remedy.

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Figure 7.2 - Chem;cal dispersanl appl;cal;on logislics - effeclof operating distance an treatmenl time

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7.3.2 Soroe of these costs include obtaining the dispersants from the manufacturer, delivery to the pollution site and personnel costs: training, protection aod deployment. These cost considerations must be weighed against other response alternatives. The operational environment includes physical factors that may limit operations, for example, wind, sea state or surrounding topography. The application that is most efficient over aH others when the above concerns are taken as a whole, is the one to be chosen.

Spraying Iram ships 7.3.7 Almost any size ship has a usefui rele ta play in dispersant spraying. Large tugs, supply vessels or even warships can carry substantialloads of dispersant and remain on site, spraying, for long periods. Smaller vessels, such as inshore fishing vessels, can make a useful impact on patches of oii in shallow or confined waters. 1.3.8 While ships are readiIy available in most coastal areas, can carry large loads of dispersant and are versatile, they are also very much slower than aircraft. This means that for a fast response, potentially available vessels should be identified, with spraying equipment permanently mounted Of stored nearby. Even so, in some circumstances, for example if the oii is weathering rapidly ar drifting rapidly towards the shore, ships may be too slow ta make any useful contribution.

::;,-

7.3.3 Dispersants can be applied ta a slick either from aircraft ar from ships. Aircraft can be deployed rapidly from a base which can be some distance from the spill. This offers a ~ignificant advantage when time is of the essence because the oii is emulsifying. Ships, an the other hand, can carry larger quantities of dispersants. and 50 offer significant advantages in situations where spraying is required over a long period. Figure 7.2 illustrates dispersant application logistics. Table 7.3 shows typical operating characteristics and table 7.4 shows the performance of various aerial and shipborne systems.

Shipborne sprayng equipment

7.3.4 Whether ships or aircraft are used it is important to plan in advance for a fast response to an incident. Forward operating bases (airfields or harbours) should be identified. Means of supplying those bases with adequate stocks of approved dispersants and spraying equipment should be arranged. National aviation authorities should be consulted about the use of aircraft for spraying over the sea. Environmental protection authorities should be consulted in advance about any restrictions on dispersant use which may be in force.

7.3.9 A number of different sizes of spray set are available, ranging rrom large, permanently mounted equipment for use an tugs to small. portable inshore spray sets for use by small vessels. Spray booms extend from either side of the vessel and produce aflat fan-shaped pattern Crom each noule striking in a line perpendicular to the boat's course (figure 7.3). Because of the tendency of the bow wave to move oii aside, the spray booms should be mounted as far forward as possible (figure 7.4). Spray nozzles should match pump rates to give a uniform spray of coarse droplets. Mixing energy must be provided and this can be supplied by the bow wave of the vessel. ship's propeUers or by mechanical devices towed by the ship.

,."

..
\,":,

7.3.S The design of spraying equipment is critical. Dispersant will be wasted if it does not reach the oii. This can happen if the droplets are too small so that the spray is blown away Crom the oii by the wind ar if they are too large and pass through the oii layer. Excessive variation in spray rates will result in under or overdosing. Spraying equipment should be tested before use.

;,

1.

7.3.6 It is difficult to see oii from a ship or low flying aircraft. It is important, therefore, for a spotter aircraft ta guide the spraying ships or aircraft onto the thickest part of the oii. An .exact description'of the slick can convenient1y be tra'hsmitted from the spotter aircraft by use of a grid on which the contours can be plotted. The orentation and scale of the grid and the boundary coordinates of the slick can then be passed by radio to the spraying ships or aircraft. 132

,
~,

"

'

i;
'.;';:

133

~.
'~1'

c:~,


Lenglh over.11 15 to 20 h fTom huli

Figure 7.3 - Diagram 0/ a typical spray boom arrangement for fug ar work baal applicalion o/ chemical dispersanls (high pressure bow spray system)

Figure 7.4 - Bow spray system

134
/~.

7.3.10 One example of a widely available dispersant spray system is a low pressure portable unit which can deliver about 75 litres per minute~ either undifuted or diluted with seawater. An inshore version is avaiJable which is smaller aod suitable for use on launches or other small vessels and wruch will deliver about 20 litres per minute. High pressure spray boom systems are alsc available delivering about 1000 litres per minute .

135

;,' (1.

.. r~:
. --

Spray ing Iram aircrtift -~--_..-. ---.- -,- ..,.'---_ ...~ . 7.3.13 For work over the sea, soroe aviation authorities prefer the use of aircraft with at least two engines for safety reasoDS. Apart from that, dispersant can be sprayed from almost any sort of aircraft. Small aircraft carry smaller loads of dispersant. but can manoeuvre over braken areas of oii more readily than larger aircraft. Typically. a small twin~nginedaircraft

can carry 800 lilres of dispersant, De3's 5000 Iitres, and a C-130 fitted with an Airborne Dispersant Delivery Syst.em (ADDS) over 20,000 litres. Because
mechanical mixiDg is not possible when spraying rrom aircraft, it is necessar)' 10 reIy on appropriate sea conditions for adequate natural mixing.

BoII' spray sySlem

7.3.11 Spray booms are usually supported by _::nnd wires which must be Iightand easUydemountable, and protected froc corrosion. The length
of a boem should be such that in normal condit:i:oc:s of use it will not enter the .water _. dispersant sprayed under- water camra: reach the oiI.

7.3.12 -lf purpose made spray equipment is nO!~ble.

use fue systems with the dispersant fed inta the lIrE:
SUeaID

it is possible to
via an eductor.

However, this does not use the dispersanl as e~ because it is diluted with water before it is applied to the oiI. Water j:!s should not be pointed directly iato the oUslick but should be eievaledsoO!;nthe diluted dispersanl falls llke rain. Alternatively. spray or coarse fO! rozzles may be used. In .'. aU Ca5esit is important to avoid the spray pen~ the oit and being lost . :~'.
in the water below. ..

ADDS pack spray system

137
~':.I

136

..
'It..;

7.3.14 Helieopters are mueh more manoeuvrable than fixed wing aircraft. and so are preferable for use in eonfined areas or where small spills oeeur. Areas whieh are inaccessible by boat and fixed wing aeroplanes are sometimes aeeessible by helicopter. The main disadvantage of helieopters is their relatively low carrying eapaeity. although this can be offset to some extem by using underslung buckets - ground erew can replenish one whiJe the helicopter is discharging another.

7.3.16 The rate of delivery of Ihe equipment should be appropriate 10 the dose rate recommended by the dispersant manufaeturer (see table 7.3). For example, a Iypical dose rate of 1 pari of <Iispersanl 10 20 parts of oii will require 50 litres of dispersant per hectare Qver oii of 0.1 mm thickness.

Aerial spraying equipment

,.

7.3.15 Spray. sets for aireiaft can.-be either permanently mounted ar portable~ A pump system delivers dispersant to a spray boom mounted under the fuselage ar aloog the wings. Spray pumps are operated by power from the engines ar by an air-driven propeller. Ooly type 3 dispersants are recommended for aerial spraying. aod the pumps and pipework should be appropriate for use with these higher viscosity products. Crop-spraying equipment will not be capable of providing an adequate now rate without modificati an.

7 .3~17 AIthough droplet size is important, experience has shown that it is difficull 10 regulate. Ideally. droplets should be belween aboul 300 and 1000 microns in diameter. At this size they are too large to fonn mists which are susceptible to wind drift, but are not so large that they pass through the oii ta be lost in the sea below. Fonunately. the wind shear behind an aircraft tends to cause the dispersant lo break up into droplets of about this size, almost regardless of noule diameter. 1I0wever. it is desirable to run a small-scaJe test spray to confinn the effectiveness of the spray system before fulJ.scaie applicatio~.

7.3.18 For maximum efficiency a reasonably uniform distribution of dispersant across the width of the swath is required. Careful aUention to the spaciog of nozzles along the boom wilJ aehieve this _ the specification in table 7.5 is an example of a system which will give an adequate distribution across the swath. Agaio, a test spray shfluld be carried oul.

7.3.19 There are two types of helicopter spray systems. The integral ar on-board type has a tank and pump in the helicopter with a spray boom in the forward part extending beyond the span of the rotor. The pump ean be powered directly from the engine Or byelectricity. In a bucket system the whole unit is carried below the helicopter in 8 pod. Spray pumps are usualJy powered by a diesel or gasoline power paek mounted on the pod, and controlled through an electrical cable connected to a control unit in Ihe cockpit.

Slralegy for appliclion al sea

7.3.20 Dispersant speayed on sheen. or al Ihe edges of Ihicker oil which is a1ready turning 10 sheen, is wasted. Vessels and aircraft should be guided onlo the Ihick patches of oiI, which will be coloured black. brown or orange. The thicker oii in a slick is usually found towards the down-wind edge, but if the sliek arises rrom a cominuous scuree, such as a weIl blow-out, the thicker patches wilI be near the souree. Spraying operations from aircraft ar ships are best controlled from a spotter plane.

SmalJ aircraft spray syslem

138

f: .
139
it

t.~: ,.

f
-

'"

TYP1CAL AIRCRAFT sPRAY PATTmN S~A YING WHILE Fl YlNG lNTO THE WlNO ONL Y (FOR THIS CAS _ 1.33 SPRAY RUN LENGTHS ARE CONPlETED PER MISSIONI

direction

w,"'

1
Sprep.g Reposil:>oning

1<--

Atu 01 lIlick .. sprev , klngth

----->1

._-~ ,
I 1

,
I ___ ____

,
'
'

'

,
I
I
I

'
I II
I

:
I

I I

1 .
I

'* T
I
1 I 1 I

II II

1 I
1 I I 1 I

I I

,'t ' ,
" I
I 1 II Il I 1-

'j ,
I
I I II II

, -T

Spr8V ,length

'-1 'I
I I

I
1

1:
~~_."

1:
1
1

I~-r"

l~~i""'"
~ 1.

Helicopter spray system

7.3.21 Spraying should normally be carried out upwind (see figure 7.5). Downwind spraying may be praeticable when the wiDd velocity is low. Crosswind spraying may sometimes be useful but can result in under-dosing nd wastage of dispersant. 1f the slick is large enough, vessels should a1ign in an overlapping eehelon formation, but where it is broken into windrows they should bre"k formation and be guided individually onto the thicker patches. Application an shore 7.3.22 Dispersants are rarely the best way of taekling gross pollution on beaches, but can be very effective in cleaning up residual traces of oiI after the bulk of the pollution has been removed and provided the receiving waters have adequate dilution capacity. Ways of removing gross pollution are discussed in chapter 8. 7.3.23 Dispersants can be applied from backpack spray sets, specially equipped alI-terrain velticles or, if the beach is firm enough, rrom lorries equipped with inshore spray sets. Concentrated dispersants have been found ta be the most effective, but equipment for spraying these products is not yet readily available and most beach spraying sa far has used conventional types. It is important to note that the use of dispersants on beaches poses

I I

1 1

Oillence ftorn bese to Ieodlng edge of 1ick

'1'

:.

,.
Base of ope tion.

.1.

".

Figure 7.5 - Typica/ aircrafl spray pat/ern - spraying while flying in/o the wind on/y different environmental problems to their use at sea because of the different organisms and higher concentrations in the water. For this rei0n, some countries require a different s,et of toxicity tests for dispersants ta be used on shore. 7.3.24 Spraying should be carried out in front of the advancing tide, but at a sufficient distance sa that the dispersant has about an hour to soak in - this is particularly important when using concentrate dispersants on viscous oH. Where there is insufficient tde ar surf action ta release the dispersant-oil mixture from the substrate, high pressure salt-water sprays can be used, provided care is taken not to drive the oii down into the substrate. Another technique is to spray dispersant on the oii and then to bulldoze the surface layer ioto the surfline, although caution should be taken not ta disturb areas which are important ecologically or prone to erosion. Care should be taken ta ensure that the dispersant is not assisting the oii to penetrate the substrate.
141

1('

140

, identification

of sensitive resources;

effective contingency planning; ability to respend quickly; selectien of dispersant appropriate dispersability of the oii; strategy; to oii type;

effective application

effective spraying system (droplet size); effective mixing of dispersant a,pd oit by natural agitation or mechanical means; aud adequate volume of water to accept dispersed oiI. Decisions to use dispersants to combat oiI spills should take into account ali of the above factors.

Use of dispersant for beach cJeaning

7.3.25 There is little point in spraying dispersant alone onto vertical structures. as it will simply run afr. Brushing the dispersant iota the oil is likely to yield better results. Olher techniques for cleaning vertical surfaces are described in chapter 8. .

1.5.2 Unsuccessful use of dispersants results in separation of the oiI slick into patches. with variable surface tension. Such oii is difficult to recover by mechanicai means, or to elean up from the shore.

, c~

7.4 Precautions The need to bear in mind the possible damage which can be caused by dispersants and dispersed oii bas already been covered. It is also important to note that some components of dispersants are harmful to humans. For trus reasan spray aperatars should al a11 time wear protective clothing, goggles and masks, and on board ships non-essential personnel should take shelter while spraying is in progress. 7.5 Conclusion and effective use of dispersants depends on a number

(~,

7.5.1 Appropriate of factors:

, i

~~-I

i 143

1"


Pour polnt ("e)

Table 7.1 -

Hydrocarbons compendium

Volume fractlon dl!iltlIIed orr nt IOO"C 200"C 300'C 370"C

Denslty (kRlIIlre)
CM.lde

Vlscoslty 40"C
(eSl)

Wnx

ronl. (w/w%)

A'ph. Spreadln~ eocmclent eont. (w/w%) (mN/m)

Cn.de 200"C+ Grollp I

Argyll

370"C+

Auk Bregn Cabinda

Cormorant

Dunlin

Onmbn
Lucina Nigerian light

Ninian Sarir
Schoonebeek Soyo

SUt7. Mix Thistle

Zueilna

12 9 6 21 12 6 33 15 9 6 12 24 15 10 9 9

21 21

33 24 21 27

0.115 0.140 0.156 0.076 0.124 0.115 0.026 0.117 0.141 0.120 0.085 0.030 0,070 0.12\ 0.165 0.130

0.294 0.332 0.379 0.203 0.320 0.294 0.114 0.295 0.351 0.290 0.241 0,093 0,205 0.281 0.352 0,352

0.490 0.525 0.581 0.354 0.497 0.486

O.2P-6

0.615 0.685

0.417 0.733 0.599 0.612 0.525

0.507 0.609 0.471 0.416 0.203 0.393' 0.431

o.m o.m

0.831 0.834 0.823 0.868 0.850 0.850 0.R68 0,826 0.836 0,849 0.833 0,903 0.859 0.858 0.837 0.824

0.916 0.925

0.903 0.931 0,930 0.923

5.06 4.38 3.51 17,,5 , 5.8 4.9 21.7 5.80 2,82 5.62 R7.0 11.2 3.90 3.65

0.92(a) 5.4(a) 1.50 6.5 0.10 7.0 1O.3(a) O.IO(a) 0.3 5.2 O.IO(a) 4.3(a) <0.05 12,0 8,0 5.3(a) 14.7 R.3(a) 9.0 8.0 O.04(a) O.4(a) 4.70 0.7(a) 0.2 0.2 26.5 15.8

o.m

Set! notes on poge 148.

..-;~ .

Table 7.1 - (conlinued)

Pour polnl ("C)

Volume rradlon dl~tllled o" ni 100'C

200"C

Dem:lty

(kR"llre) Crude 370"C+

Vls('oslty 40"C
(eSl)

Wa.
('ont. (w/w%)

Asph.
('001.

Sprendln~
('(lemelen. (mN/m)

(w/w%)

CnJde

200"C+

JOO"C

370"C

Group 2
PP 200+ >.5-10 C Lagunillas

-21 3 -27 9

Tia Juana P~ado

West Nederland

0,OR9 0.021 0.OO9(b) 0.025 0.064 0.015

0.210 0.110 0.220

0.225

0,957 0.987 0.930

1.0\ 5

498 3730 98.9

0,8 0.3

5.)7 6.4(a)

Group

3 0.995 1S.O
6.78

rr

200+ di-IO C

Arabian H",,"Y
Champion

< -36

-15

0.110 0.027 0.106 0.037

0.094

0.249 0,153 0.250 0.\39

0.217

0.400 0.541 0.398

0.424

0,507

0.8R7 0.910 0.888 0,901 0.918.

0.921

3.7 0.4 4,8 3,0 2.2

4.3
<0.05

< -36 < -30 Khafji -30 Nigerian Medium

Export SanIa Maria pp 200+ >5-10 C MaY3 - 35

-9 -12

0.350
0.346

0.508 0.605 0,456

0.992 0.959
1.0]7

18.1 12.0 43.0 65.3

4.2
<0,05

6,0

-37

32(c)

0,016

0.210

See "ores on page 148.

- --

..~

.,,,~ .

....

Table 7.1 - (eonlnllerl)

Pour polnt (OC)

Volume f'tactlon dlstllled o". at IOO"C

200C )ODoC 370C

D.nslly
(k~ml .)

Vl"",lly
4(lC (eSl)

Wax

cont.
(wlw%)

A'ph. eont.
(w/w%)

Spreadlng coemclent
(mNlml

Crude

200"C+

Crude J70"C+

Group 5
PP 200+ <5-10 C Zakum <-38 PP 200+ >5-10 C -6 Abu Dhabi -33 Berri -3 Beryl -30 Brass River -3 Brent Spaf -19 Ekolisk -34 Kirkuk -6 Kole Marine -6 Monlrose -15 Murban -6 Murchison -3 Nigcrian Lgt. M. -15 Qalar Marine <-36 Saharan 81end -4 Sirtic8 -6 0.125(d) O.336(d) 0.558(d) 0.692 0.828 0.939 3.19 <O.O~

18 6 21

15

29(c)

.. ...

Statfjord

-]

12 6 ]8(c) 9

0.132 0.119(.) 0.140 0.212 0.167 0.212 0.139 0.134 0.157 0.123 0.158 0.103 -0.139 0.198 0.208 0.139

0.358 0.565 0.355(.) 0.571(.) 0.345 0.523 0.672 0.445 0.372 0.643 0.460 0.537 0.348 0.342 0.526 0.364 0.561 0.356 0.548 0.357 0.570 0.302 . 0.560 0.]60 0.477 0.702 0.635 0.440 0.]48 0.552

0.694 0.651 0.662

o.m

0.752 0.649

o.m

0.674 0.770 0.676

0.829 0.838 0.839 0.805 0.834 0.804 0.844 0.850 0.822 0.827 0.830 0.855 0.842 0.804 0.815 0.832

0.925 0.935 0.928

0.924 0.955

0.949 0.918 0.921' !

,

3.20 4.39 3.48 1.93 3.72 2.16 4.62 4.9 3.17 3.5 3.28 3.42 3.80 2.1 3.4] 3.64

5.9 5.1 (.) 8.0 4.8(.) 4.5 6.2

0.09 0.28 0.3 (a) <0.05(.)

<O,05(a)

25.0

0.15 4.7(a) 3.2(a) 4.8 2.2 5.7 0.2 (.) <0.05(a) 0.]6

26.3

<0.05(a)

Stt notes on pag~148.

..'

,~~y:~;.
-..:/:: ; ).~"

ir

..

'Jf7'
Notes for table 7. J: From Concawe. 1983. (a) Calculated rrom data of 370 + (0C) Long Residue. (b) Volume fractian dislilled ofr al 1S0C. (e) Paur point of 343 + (0C) Residue. (d) Volume fractian disrilled off al 80",180" and 290"C respectivel)'_ (e) Volume fractian distilled off 8193",209" and 316"C respttti'. ely. For thase audeoils for which no data on the POUl poinl of the 200"C + residue are a\'ailable, an e:stimauon ofwhether the paUl POlO[ Voill be higher or lower than S'-IO"C has been made based on compositiona! data. The flashpoint of aII the various crude oils is below 6S"C.

_' ,;~_~ ;i,~~; . .:r$~"?.' ,

.. "','it.:/i~, " ,,"'~ "".:~-'l." ~- . ~,~[? -,.;"

~=l:~'~.: ~ ~ '" :: =ij '" ~ '" -<:

'2 ." g

~ ~

J:~}'f'; ~.
.

, .~~t.~ . .. ,:: ..
-;.:~ ~;~",

tJ .B

'-

_o :S~-.;;;
_"'C ~

"
+

~ ~ , o , ~

,
o"

'"

~~

~
,g
E

~.sc.~

."E. a-c e ... -- E

+ ~ , ~

~ , , ~ ~ ~ 'T

,
~ ~ o

~@

J
.~

=E : E,s .., .

-o

~- = c

0_

~
N

~ ~ ~ ~ 8 ~
N

~ " j
il
u
-

~ '6 ~ :E

:;;

'@
Table 7.2 -

._ :t
ee

s E~.c"f'ii

Oii and dispersant types and uses

~ ~ ~

'"

:!!2"'~S f-o<r.:=
o

"Si.!:: cc :::~

- :c ~~
~ ~

OILTYPE

D1SPERSA~. TYPE Conventional Aqueous solvent H)'drocarbon sull'eot Concentrate

h~ Eli. s
c

;r

:;:

. ..
u

.. ..
Ci 13 '7 ~

:c z:s, =

~
E ~ ." ~
.5 'O
Q

S ~ ~ o
. c

Light distillate fuds High spreading Tate 00"'" viscosity) products and crudes Low spreading rate (high viscosity) asphaltic crudes. residuals and weathered oiI Waxy crudes Water-in-oil emulsions N on-spreading oils

X'
X

X'
X

XI
X

_. ."
OI

'" .~

~ ~

>-= .:01: ~~.E-

~"= r.'.s'S
"'C

c~
~ E

"
:s
,,;

i ..,.:
N

"

~ ~ 1'1 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ , "i ~ ~

,.;

~ t o .~
~~<Il

"-,,,

~~
~il

=8 :E~ ~

~.
C

"E "sa
o
'ti ..

~ , '" ~

'" N

~
N

.I
~

~
.

-= .~ g
S~~~
ro"Cii' .c
~ X l::

ii ::;

"2 ,E' ~ ~~
...; '"

x>c~

... ~.2.E:

.:_:E~Ei5"O

X'

X'

'"
Si
I

~ OI

li. >.." ..,~ c !f

~q

~ ~ ~
o

~ 8 ~ ~ ~ ~

!
>. 'ii

......__ ~"t

-g;.::=g.~
o!!te::.:::

ii o
>

~s~8e: c.c.v>.o
U

~
-; '"

e:'EJ1E il

5.~~~
.0>'

X' X'

X2.)

~ .!:l Q
<~.

..,." c ..5:2i
~~
.l!i E

i'!ii:C U. "5

:;;:

d ;:
~
ii c
..!.

X'

,,:
"

"
" c .&
u

, ~

:;;:

'"
o
N

Chemical dispersion not effective

" :c
OI

!Application or dispersants in this case should be solely ror the purpose or controlling a fire hazard. Disper~nts are not normally used on such rueIs because of their high rate of e\"aporation and because of their high tox-icit}'. 2 Ma)" be more effective if diluted with hydrocarbon soh"ent. 3 Effectivenes.s ma)" be "Iimited. "
I

= c.-

!.c ~

~ ..,. ~ -; ~ ~

'7

,;
u

" I i " E
8

:~ t :: ~ "R B ;;;;
d ~ ~

1!

.Oi> 5<:::

= e " 'e; " -J

~.= ti

eu

"d-&~ Se"
tI'J -;:

~~
.e;

15.

.~ "il :I:

. ~
>
u

-f 8 , <
~

~ ~ E ~ -1: c: .::: -~
.li j:: <: ~ ~

~ -g ~ u

!~1
fi

~ ~]~ ~ ~~ ~ ~~~
149

148

.: t '!=ti

E ~ = I;l":"! Olt.::c:"CI

CI

Table 7.5 -

Description of a Iypical small aircraft spray system

e.

:.-"" ... E .... ~

1
~
.~

-a.::g
''Q

!,:iC

!.a~!
c

" ,
N

00 00

'O

00

~ ,

~ -b

~.ri f ~t ~
-e .. "'~
;o.K .. "CI~ir.
1II~~

..

Tanks and pipework 4 standard 200 I mild steel drums fittecl with filler, ourlel, vent and fluid-Ievel indicator conneetions. Mounted in wooden fcarne. reinforced with steel plating, secured by reinforced webbing straps and fastened on f100r to sem rails. FilJerconnections joined by a common flUer pipe accessed through a eear doar.

!S: '"
~ ::: ~

.~

o':
~~
..

~
,-

. -""
;:;
u

."

~- li
E.:Ill ~;C":c

8
.c

uEoc

~_Q,I .... ~.e-c:-

-~-.EE-=
... ,S-

'6
~

..

E}

~~:~-J~
.

Er-~i-!~

" 'S ..,.

~
N

" 's " 's ..,

N

..,.
~
o
N

Vent connections joined by a common vent pipe wi.thoutlet in the opposite door . Outlets via gravity feed to common gallery mounted in wooden frarne.

1.

c'i
;~~lS
Ci
J:J

ii:

c'" ii:

~.Eg.l~ .li.c~E

c.:o-,-

e:~: E
E
fo,;;

';' ~

..,
~
",'O
I

e ~
00

Oullel of galle)' via pipe and IIIter, through lower skin of aircraft.
Pump and con/rols

2 ~
.

~
U' ..,.

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

El.'ft~ := .5:t:~E
III

M~C_C

:;o~!;g
-t>.~ 0lS.!.i:

o; DoS

8 ~
/1

tII_

~v. .~. ~v
>2
N
I

",'O

Wind driven pump with variable pitch propeller mounted eXlemally on port side of aircraft.

"'o-

Oi:

:c

"'c. >~

~ ~
J,

'"

t
~ ~ , E ~ ~ ~ ~ o
]

"'o'll!~
o.'"

-;i ~

Propeller pitch controlled by pilot through a cable. In normal flight, blades are feathered and pump is stationary. OutIet of pump ta two-way val ve. ODe autlet tocommon line, one ta spray booms. filler

~ t;; ,..:

..,.
I

:s

E.!l .c < "CI t,-

~ ~
o
V

" "
~

~ ,

li
o

'" ~

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8.1

.10

CHAPTER 8 - SHORE-LINE CLEAN-UP

.11

availability of local transport. storage and treatment facilities for the recovered material;
COSlS;

lntroduction

.12

national policy.

8.1.1 From past experience. it is likely that regardless of response measures taken al sea, soroe ait will reach the coast. This can result in contamination of the shaTe-line. aod cleaning operations may be necessary la allow the coast to recover its natural state aod socio-economic value. 8.1.2 The decision whether or not..to elean the affected shaTe-Hoe depend on factors such as: .1 the impact of stranded oit on the environment; .2 the impact of stranded oiI on commercial activities; .3 the possibility that stranded oii might recontaminate another part of the shore-line; and will

8.1.4 The technique employed may range from manual c1ean-up to the use of specialized deamag equipmenL Dirferent methods have to be selected as the clean-up progresses.

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the feasibi~ty of clean-up operations.

8.1.3 The choice of the best methods and appropriate equipment in each case will then be determined by other factors such as: . .1 nature. amount and distribution of stranded Oili

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8.1.5 The decision whether Or not to elean the shore-line and the selection of techniques ta be.used should be made in advance as part of the contingency plan for the area. Delay could allow the oiI ta become mixed with sand and adhere to rocks or vegetation. The pollutant could spread and 'penetrate further into the beach material, consCQuently increasing the difficulty and costs of eleaning. 8.1.6 . targe Quantities of oily material may be collected and disposal of this material is a major consideration, which is dealt with in chapter 9.

8.2 8.2.1

l\'lethods of remm..ing oii from..,.shore-Iines CI~aning of shore-lines is usually carried out in two stages:

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.1 the primary phase, which consists of removal of noating oii and heavy contaminatioo as 5000 as possible in order ta avoid further pollution;

.2 the final cleaning phase. which is to remove the final traces of oii aod oily staios. .

Pumping oiI
Col/ee/ion of stranded oii 8.2.2 This can iovolve pumping, mechanical or manual removal of oil, or th.e use of specialized collection equipment. 8.2.4 The oii is sueked or pumped directly from the beaeh or allhe waler's edge through hoses into collection vessels. Entrainment of air ioto the hoses wilI oflen reduce efficiency and should be avoided, except in the case of very viscose oii, where entrained air or water can assist the now through t1)e hoses. If nattened suction heads are mounted on vacuum trucks, the lroeks may drive along lhe beaeh at the edge of the oii, although it should first be ascertained that the beach is firm enough to support the weight of the loaded trucks. Alternatively, oii caD be scraped ioto trenches dug iota the sand, from whence it can be pumped.

Pumping/s~imming oii 8.2.3 Pumping liquid oii is the easiest way of collection. Vacuum devices are the most efficient way of pumping oii because the pol1utant, "which generally contains debris and sand, need not come into contact with the pump mechanism. Industrial, sanitary ar agricultura! vacuum trucks caD be used to pump oii from open water or pools provided there is gaad aecess to the beaehes. The effieieney of pumping equipment may be inereased by attaehing a Ilattened (fish laiI) suetion head 10 lhe hose, which permits the collection of thin layers of oiI. A specialized suction head may be aUaehed to the vacuum truck to allow continuous pumping. Other portable vacuum devices, especially designed to col1ect oii, are now available an the market. Other pumping methods may be usefu1 if the depth of the oii is suffieient, although the pump must have a high toleranee to solids. The throughput of such pumping devices varies rrom 15 m3/day to 100 m3/day ar mOre, 154

155

Meehanieal removal

o/ oiled sand

8.2.5 Depending. on local conditions. various types of earth-moving machinery such as graders. bulldozers. scrapers and fr.ont-end loaders can be used. On Iarge accessible beaches. such machines can handle up to 250 m3/day of oiled sand, but seleetivity is low, Iypically 10/. 10 5% of oii in sand. especialJy on thin layers of oiI. Furthermore, the use of these heavy machines can result in the mixing of the oiI iota the beach. Wherever possible the use of tracked vehicles should be avoided and care must be exercised ta ensure that excessive removal of sand does not result in beach erosion:
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8.2.7 The oBed material is usually skimmed by gradersinto ridges parallel to the shore~line. working down from the top of the beach. It is then picked up by front~end loaders or elevating scrapers (see figure 8.1). Heavy equipment must not crass areas which have been cleared in this way more than necessary, to avoid mixing the remaining oii further into the sand.

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8.2.6 This method is not recommended for sensitive areas. but might be applicable in the case of heavy poliutioD of recreational beaches.

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Specialized col/eetion equipment 8.2.8 Variolls specialized devices for picking up stranded or floating oii are available. The main principies used include: .2 scraping: oiled surface layer of beach is removed with a blade;

.1 adhesion: oiI is picked up on a roller surface;

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8.2.9 Generally. separation of the collected material is achieved by sieving (sediment/tar balls) or by gravity (oil/water). These devices can deal effectively with fresh and viscous oii on sandy beaches . .3 scooping: an elevating belt scoops the oii from the beach or water.

8.2.10 The precise method of use depencls on the,equipment, but it usually operates alongside the oii. paraUel to the surf line, from the elean side of the beach. The oii picked up is tben either conve)"ed directly to a vehicle alongside, or into temporary storage.

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Manual removal

o/ oiled material

8.2.11 Manual co!lection has wi<!eapplieation and can be used on any type of coastline but is particularlyappropriate for sensitive and inaccessible areas. It is more selective than teehniques involving heavy machinery, but productivity is low (up to 2 m3/day per person). The recovery of manually cleaned areas tends to be more rapid, due to less physical disturbance.

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8.2.J2 Oiled material iscollected with rakes, sho\"eIs or scrapers, depending on the type and ferm of pollution. It is then"transported either using vehicles, or manually. in dustbins or heavy gauge plastic bags. If bags or bins are

8.2.16

Periodic monitoring

is recommended

in order to measure the rate oiI.

of natural degradation or cleaning of the oiled areas. Notices should be posted

warning the public of the presence of stranded

to be moved manually they shouJd not be overloaded.

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Washing in the surf zone

8.3

Final cleaning

8.2.13

This technique can be used ta clean lightly contaminated

bouJders.

Beach c1eaners
8.3.1 Beach cleaning machi nes have been specially designed for deaning recreational beaches polluted by litter aod other solid debris. They are also

cobble, pebble aud graveI. It is particularly appropriate before or during

those seasons when storms and heavy seas are expected. The contaminated material is pushed iota the surf where wave acrian and abrasion will remove the oiI. Material which is pushed inr6 the sea wiII eventually be returned ta the beach by natural wave and tidaI 'movements. but the method could result in a change of beach profile.

suitable for the collection of solid oiI in the form of !ar balls and lumps. They can be self-propeUed or towed by a tractor. The most common operating principle is the removal of the Iop layer of the polluted beach followed by separation of the pollulant from the sand by sieving.

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8.2.14 A grader pushes the contaminated material directly into the surf zone. The grader is then reversed along the cleaned path aod repositiooed in such a way that a second path is cut parallel to and overlapping the first

}Valural recovery

is difficult.

In certain cases the onIy practical option will be to leave stranded oiI lo dissipate naturaIly. This may be justifiable in areas of very high ecologica1 sensitivity in which any clean.up operation is likely to cause more damage than the oii itself. Alternatively, it may be applicable in areas of insignificant commercial or environmental importance especially those exposed to rough sea conditions where natural cleaning may be rapid. OiI may have ta be left to degrade naturally if access ta the contaminated area
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8.3.2 Beach eleaners typically operate at a speed of 3 to 10 krn/h. which corresponds ta a working area of 5,000 ta 15,000 m2 per bour. The operation of these devices should be in a similar manner to the use of earthmoving maehinery and specialized colleetion equipmem. i.e_ working from the tap of the polluted beaeh towards the water. Low pressu~e j1ushing High pressure hot water washing 8.3.3 F100ding the beach with seawater can be used to f10at away fluid oils from practically any type of beach with a high water table. Provided the substrata is not significa.nt1y disturbed, the technique can be used in some sensitive areas. SiDce the oii displaced cauld recontaminate another part of the share-line. it should be contained b)'-"booms or channelled to collection sumps and recovered by skimmers, pumps or vacuum units. 8.3.5 The use of high pressure hot water jets is sometimes used to remove weathered oii from hard surfaces. Suitable equipment delivers waler at a pressure ranging between 80 ta 150 bars and a temperature between 600C and 95C. The use of seawater is not recommended and a plentiful suppJy of fresh water is required. Some devices can also deliver steam al 1500C and 20 bars, but it appears that in practice s!eam cleaning is Iess efficient than hot water eleaning. High pressure washing shoiIld onJy be used on hard surfaces such as rocky shores. boulders and artificial structures. The technique is less efficient an very weathered oiI. 8.3.6 The washing should begin at the top of the surrace which bas to be eleared aud proceed downwards to its bas . Bunds. trenches or boolm shoold be used 10 concentrate the oii aod water mixture before collection. This technique will destroy m05t of the marine biata living on the sureace. 8.3.4 Sinee high pressure hosing may cause the oii to penetrare into the beach ar damage flora and fauna, low pressure is used gently to flood the beach. Aushing should begin al the highest contaminated point aud continue towards the water's edge. Effieiency can be improved by digging shallow parallel trenches to collect the oii and water.

Sand or gril blaSling

8.3.7 This method can be very effieient on flat hard areas. such as artificial structures and leaves a very clean finish, but the displaced oii. sand and surface material needs ta be collected. 00 a rocky share, the collection of waste is very difficult. There is a risk of silicosis from this method and in some countries the use of sa~d is prohibited. ~ 8.3.8 Clean-up should proceed from top downwards. People using this equipment or oearby must be protected and opera tors properly trained ta avoid damaging artificial structures. Removed material can be picked up from the beach by manual ar mechanica1 means.
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Use of dispersants

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8.3.9 Dispersants are approved in some countries for use on beaches to facilitate tbe final c1eaning, Tbe efficiency of dispersion is limited by the viscosity of the oii, although to a much Iesser extent than al sea. aod the energy in the surf zone. Furthermore, environmental consideratioDs willlimit considerably the use of dispersants in sensitive areas such as salt-marshes. mangroves. carals. estuaries, etc. They should not be used near seawater intakes or where the oii could be carried further iota the substrate, e.g. cobbles and pebbles, Dispersants may be sprayed undiluled on polluted beach areas. rrom backpacks or specialized equipment. In some countries aircraft are used. The oii may then either be dispersed by flushing with seawater or left ta ridal action.
166

8,3,10 The use of gelling agents to hold dispersant against tbe oii on vertical surfaces such as sea walls. etc. can improve efficiency. In view of possible health bazards of dispersants, personal protective equipment should be worn by the operators when applyirig dispersants.

Use of sorbents 8.3. I 1 Sorbents assist in the recovery of thin floating Iayers of oii after cleaning operations. They can also be used to protect beaches from incoming oilor to coUect oii dislodged by washing. Types of sorbents and their use are fully described in chapter 6.

167

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8.3.12 Sorbents may bespread manually ar by using special application equipment. Oiled sorbents may be collected manually or with recovery units, depending on the type an,d Quantity to be picked up. Aera/ion by harrowing ar ploughing 8.4 Organization and management of work forces

8.4.1 Proper organization of the work force engaged in shore-line eleanup is vital to the success of the operation. As a general rule a two tier organization structure is required: .1 a base or headquarters, which co-ordinates data conceming evaluation of the pollution, efficiency of the eleaning operations, and organizes the allocation of resources on the polluted shore-line; .2 .working teams, with delineated areas. which undertake the cleanup operations. assess the situation on site and provide the base with the required data. These aspects are covered in detail in Sec/ion Il - Contingency P/anning of the Manual on Oii Pollution. 8.4.2 Base t;Jrganil,ation: AlI c1ean-up aperations should be directed by the an-scene commander of the response team. Accordingly, a base should be easily accessible. signposted if necessary and equipped with the necessary tele-

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8.3.13 lf a lightly cootaminated sand or gravei beach has 00 recreatiooal value or is notin use at the time, oit can be left 10 degrade naturally. The rate of natural degradat ion can be increased by aeration. A harrow, such as a disc-plough or a rotavator towed by a tractor. is used to achieve an even mixing of the contaminated top layer of sand or gravd with elean beach substrata. This ~ethod can be used obly on beaches with sufficient load bearing capacity for agricultural machinery.

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communication equipment aod basic office facilities. If possible, accommodation aod food for the members of the response team should be clase to the base. For a prolonged operatian. establishment of a shift system may be necessary.

Communica/ions: Permanent contact should be kept. with ali warking teams involved in a share-line elean-up operation. Ponable radio and radiotdephone systems are the most convenient means of communication between working sites aod headquarters. Supervisors of these teams should repon ta the base aoce or tv.;ce daily. Telephones and lelexes should nonna11y be used for communications aver tonger distances.

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Surveillance: A good knowledge of the actual situatian is essential for effective control of operations. A mechanism for regular reporting of progress made by working teams should be established. A vailability of a helicopter ar a fIxed wing aircraft may prove ta be an ad.vantage in obtaining an overall picture of the situation espedally if more oiI is expected to carne ashore. Aerial surveillance is dealt with in more detail in chapter 5.

C/ean-up teams at work

8.4.3 Working leams 8.5 Organiz.a/ion: Any area of operations. e.g. a stretch of shore-line, should be supervised by a responsible person who. reports the activities to headquarters and estimates daily resource requirements fo~ elean-up. te~porary storage and disposal. Accommodation and food for the working teanis .together with Irrst-aid facilities, must be provided clase ta the scene of operations. Public access ta polluted areas should be restricted dui"ing cleaning operations. Applicalions of lechniques 10 direerenl .hore-Iine types

8.5.1 Table 8.1 Iists Ihe main shore-Iine types and describes the behaviour of oii on each type. Because the behaviour and persistence of oil on a particular shore-line is different. and because of the variety in ecological sensitivity, techniques for elean-up should be selected accordingly.

Training:"It is of ten necessary to provide an-site training on appropriate techniques and use of equipment. This is especially the case during a 100g operation, when the working teams may be changed.

8.5.2 Table 8.2 summarizes techniques which may be utilized for both primary and final elean-up on different types of shore-line. It provides guidance on those techniques which are recommended, those which are possibly useful and those which are not applicable ar not recommended.

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Maintenance: Maintenarrce of equipment used in the marine environment is necessary ta avoid mechanical failures. A mechanic should be available to assist operators in maintaining and repairing equipment. Maintenance procedures are more fully described in chapter 10.
171

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Table 8.1 -

Behaviour of oii on some common types of shore-Iine

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Comments Oii is aftca carried past rocky outcrops and cliCfs by reflected waves bUl may be thrown up onto the spash mnc whcre it may accumulate an rough or porous surfaces. In udai regions. oiI colJect.5 in rock pools and may COOl rocks throughout the tidal range. This oii is usuaUy rapidly removed by wave action but is more persistcm in sheltered waters. OiI penetnition increases with increasing stone sle. In areas c:xpcrienciog strong wave action. surface stones are clr.aned quickly by abrasion whereas buried oiI may persist for somc time. Low viscosity oils may be nushed OUl of tbe beach by natural waler movement. Partide size, water table depth and drainage charaeterstcs detennine the oii ~netration of sand beaches. Coarsc sand beaches teod to shelve more steepl)' and dry out at low water enabIing some degrec of penetratioo to occur particularly with low viscosity oils. OiI is generally coocenlratcd acar to the high water mark. Fine grained sand is usua1ly associatcd. with a naucr beach profLIe rcm.aioiog wet throughout the lidaI cycle 50 that Iittle penetration takcs place. Howevcr. some oii can bc buricd wbcn cxposed to surf conditions. for cxample during a starm. Extcnsivc dcposits of mud are charaetcristic of low merg)' cnVronments. Unle pcnetration of the substratc by oiJ oecurs bceause the scdimeot is usually waterlogged. but oii <:an pc~isl 00 the surface over loog pcriods. If tbe spili coincides witb a starm. oiI can became incorporated in the scdiment aod persSt iodeCmitely. Animal burrows aod plaot coot channeIs can also bring about oU penetration. Most coraIs are submerged at ali stages of the tide and so are un1ikely to be affectcd by floating oii but, in some parts or the world, corals dry out at low water. In such cascs -oU adheres in much the same way as for rock}' coas1$, resulting in seriow damagc to the coral and rceC .communities. However. the strong currents and wave conditions associated with coral rcers are likely to bring aboul rapid cleaning.

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Replanting vegelation an salt-marshes 8.6.6 As a first step. it is necessary to evaluate the nature of any damage in order ta determine if natural reco".ery is likely. lf SO, a monitoring programme should be established to observe the rate of natural recovery. 8.6.7 Revegetation may be advisable if: .1 the affected area is used by rare or endangered species or migratory birds: lack of cover for a season could endanger the biota; .2 the marshiand is exposed to erosion; and .3 the marshland is used for fishing, hunting or recreation. 8.6.8 Two techniques are available to restore marsh vegetation, each with its advantages and disadvantages: .1 Seeding:seeds can be sowed manult1ly or by aircrafL Tbis technique can be Iow cost but bas some Iimitations: waves aod curreots may wash the seeds away before growth. migrating water birds ,may damage young plants, and there will be some delay before the cover will be high enough to protect wildlife and prevent erosion.
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Transplanting: this consists of planting young seedlings in cleaned. areas. Planting is done manually, ensuring precise control concerning depth of planting. spacing between seedlings, seasonal timing aod lida! elevation, which requires advice from expert5. This technique is Iabour intensive. but gives rapid results: it is advisable to concentrate an the most important sites, Le. those suseeptible to erosion ar providing special habitats.

Mangrove resloration

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8.6.9 Restoration of mangroves following oiI spill damage is feasible in some cases once the oiI in aod an the sediments bas weathered, although success to date has been variabIe. Sueeess is dependent on expert control as well as a range of natural factors sueh as wave action .tidal elevation and availability of seeds/propaguIes or young seedlings.

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Replanting I'egelation
176

8.6.10 Several techniques bave been used. including manual or aeriaJ sowing of seeds/propagules and transplanting of local or nursery seedlings, Planting is unlikeIy to be feasible in remote locations or for restorng large areas. The sowing of seeds/propagules has greatest potential sinee it is likely to eause least physical damage and, if obtained from local sources, minimal logistic and equipment support is required.

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8.7

Care or wildlire 8.7.4 The effeetive and humane treatment of oBed wildlife is a very specialized matter and must be left to experts assisted by trained personneI. Particular concerns to be baroe in mind include the following. Wildlife can be dangeraus to handle and require specialized management. If Caplure and treatment is necessary. it must be undertaken only by those with experience in appropriate immobilization and anaesthesia techniques and in the treatment of concomitant medical problems. such as zao ar wildlife veterinarians or wildlife agency personnel.

8.7.1 When an oiI spill oecurs, efforts should be made to minimize direct and indirect effeclS an fish, shore ecosystems, sea mammals and the most ooticeably affected group. birds.

8.7.2 Aerial aod baat surveillance should be conducted ta determine where the mammals and birds are concentrated aod how they may be affected by the oiI. Such surveillance should be conducted so as not to cause unnecessary disturbance. Important mammal aod bird feeding. resting aod breeding areas can sometimes be protected by boom deployment. The sensitivity Qf coastal areas and priorities for protectian sho~ld be established by contingency pJans as described in Section II - Contingency P/anning of the Manual on Oii Poflution.

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8.7.3 Noise-making devices. such as propane cannons. and other harassment methods have been effective in driving away some bird species threatened by oii spills from bays. estuarine and river areas.

8.7.5 Experience has demonstraled thal oiled birds are generally free rrom disease when captured. However t the potential for disease outbreaks when in captivity means that they must be monitored as a precautionary measure against transmission to wiId populations. Diseased wildIife must be treated by veterinarians experienced in avian pharmacology. RehabilitatioD centres may have to be set up for cleaning and, lf disease outbreaks occur. for quarantinl:. It must be stressed that wildlife rehabilitation efforts must be condueted with the view that birds are only ta be held captive for a brief period of time. Released birds must be disease-free. Care must be taken ta assure that any medical treatment employed during rehabilitation does not later pase a threat to the health of a hunter or predator, especially an endangered species. which may conswne the bird released back to the wild. For this same reason corpses should be disposed of properly.

Bird c/eaniiJg stalion

178
179

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9.2.2 Temporary storage for oii recovered at sea will normally consist of integral tanks an board the recovery vessel ar tankers. towable floating tanks, towed ar self-propelled barges. depending an type and quantity of oii ta be recovered. Temporary on-site storage during sbore-line clean-up operations should be established at an early stage. The size, number and lype of facilit}' required depends upon the amount and nature of the material to be recovered. As a general rule it is necessary to establish separate storage for Iiquid oii and mousse. and oiled debris. etc. 9.2.3 The storage facilities should be established close ta the cenlre of cleanup operations in a place wilh easy access to public roads. Close to such storage facilities. cleaning facilities for personnel, quipment aod vehicles should be established in order to ensure that..the pollution is not spread from the beach to public roads and personnei accommodation facilities. 9.2.4 Storage for liquid oii ar oily debris may consist of a pit lined with heavy gauge plastic sheeting ta prevent contamination of the ground water. Ta facilitate access the breadth of the pit at the bottom should not exceed 2-3 metres, while the length could be 10-20 mettes or more. If lhe plastic liner shouId be damaged, oii will probably Ieak from the pit and may contaminate extensive areas of soil. Oii moves much more slowly through wet soi! than through dry. To minimize the possible extent of contamination. therefore. the pit should be deep eoough to reach the water table, 50 that the soil at the bottom is moist. However, the pit should not be more than two rnetres deep. aod ifthis is inadequate to reach the water table, the sides and bottom of the pit should be thoroughly moistened before the liner is put in place. Befare the liner is put in place it should be protected by means of a layer of sand or fine gravei (see figure 9.1). The fun capacity of the pit should never be used completely if there is a risk of overflow in connection with heavy rainfaIl. If possible a drain.pipe with valve should be established at the bottom of the pit to drain off rain aod seawater.

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9.2.5 A Iarge quantity of water will normally be collected together with the oii and means of separating the oily water mixture should be provided close to the temporary storage. Separation can be by the gravity method in a pit with a smaU skim.mer to recover the 'oil, or by means of special separation equipmeot. The seawater separated from the mature can be returned to the sea, while the oii should be transported for recycliog or final disposal. Figure 9.2 ilIustrates a simple portable plant for separation of oilywater mixtures.
Water Oii Oii Water

Figure 9.2 - A simple portable plant for separation o/ oily-water mixture

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9.2.6 Solid materialsuch as contaminated sand, pebble, shingles, debris etc., as well as drums aod plastic bags containing recovered material, can be placed an a suitable level surf~ce, e.g. a parking area ar a field, which is protected around the perimeter by a baok of saH ar sand aod covered with a plastic sheet. If vehicular access is required to such a protected area the plastic cover should be protected bya layer of sand 9r soil. Figure 9.3 illustrates such a temporary storage sire.

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Land transport

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9.3.1 Any conventional road tanker can be used for transport to the disposal site. In an emergency. improvisation will probably be required and vehicles such as vacuum trucks. gully suckers. farm tank vehicles, flat-bed lorries carrying open tanks (with precautions against spillage by slopping) or drums wilh temporary covers. may be used.

9.3.2 Attention to safety and cades of praCl!Cemust always be a prime consideratian when using vehicles to transport volatile liquid oiI. Transport of oily debris
9.3.3 Conventional vehicles used for moving solids are generally suitable.

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9.3.4 Heavy duty plastic bags of about 25 I<gcapacity (or larger, provided they are only half filIed) have been used to collect oily beach material and debris. WhiJe this is a convenient method of collection. probIems can be encountered at the disposal site sinee it may be necessary to empty the bags and dispose of them separately.

9.4

Dispnsal methods

9.4.1 Whep deciding on which disposal method 10 be used, aii possible methods should be considered. lOc principal methods are: .1 Oii reclamation where the liquid oii is recovered for further use . .2 Stabiliz.ation where the oily wastes are treated in such a way that they 00 longer constitute a threat to the environment.
.3 DirecI disposal where the untreated

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.4 Destruclion where the oii eonlent in the aUy waste is destroyed by incineration or broken "down by biodegradation. 9.4.2 Adoption of a single technique may ee unnecessarily restrictive, siDee the best results are aften obtained by using severa! methods. The prime aim should be to recover oii for reuse~ using other methods only as a last resort. The various options for separatian and disposal of oii and debris are summarized in table 9.1 (see page 181). 9.5 Sepa~'ation of oiI 9.5.1 If possible, free waler collected with the oii should be separated al the an-site temporary storage either by decanting or by means of a skimmer. However, some water will inevitably be present in the oil in the form of an emulsion containing typically from 50010to 85070 seawater. Where possible, these emulsions should be.treated on site to minimize the volume of liquid to be transported. Emulsion - breaking

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9.3.5 Open.topped 200 Iilre oii drums with two holes near the top through which stout carrying poles can be inserted, have been found to be quite effective for trnsporting oily materials rrom a beach. Also. ordinary metal ar plastic dustbins ar other liquid-tight garbage containers have been used. Collected material should not be stored in drums or bags for extended periods of time since they tend to deteriorate quite rapidly.

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9.3.6 Before initiat ing transport by road, the police and the local authorities should be consulted for a tlearance of the proposed route and to facilitate entry into restricted areas. Furthermore, a place for cleaning and control of the vehicles and especially the tyres should be established, if necessary at both ends of the route, to avoid transferring oii ta the roads. 188

9.5.2 Unstable emulsions have been dealt with on a large scale by simple gravity separation or by heat treatment followed by gravity separation. The effect of heat an the oil-water mixt lire reduces the viscosity and promotes a raster and more efficient separatian. Because of the high viscosity ofthe emuJsion, natural circulatian canoot be relied upon to transport heat throughout the storage tank and as a result it is possible that pockets of water vapour can build up and eventually cause rupture of the tank if steam coils or live steam injections into the taok are used. To avoid this the oilwater mixture should preferably be heated by circulat ion through an external h",at exchanger where it is possible to control the temperatllres within safety working limits; the ambient temperature must be 8C lower than the flashpoint. Generally. a working temperature range of 60o-66C should be used with a maximum temperature of 80C ta maintain operational safet}". The duration of treatme"t cannot be specified but must be established empiricaIly. "

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9.5.3 Slable emulsions have been successfully broken by the use of commercially available demulsifying chemicals. These are materials which,
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to be treated), reduce the stability of an emulsion so that the viscosity is decreased and separatian of the oii aod water is achieved. There is no single chemical suitable for aH types of emulsion aod it may be necessary to carry out trials an site to determine the most effcctive agent aod optimal dase rate. The trealment is best carried out during transfer of the emulsion rrom the collection device to a lank or rrom ODetank to another to enSUTe goad mixing aod therefore minimum dase rate. The emulsion breaker caD be injected into the inlet side of a pump ar into an in.line static mixee incorporated into a vacuum intake. Arter separation the water phase will contain most of the emulsion breaker .and up to 0.1070of oii and sa care should be exercised over the disposal of this water. Recent experiments show that emulsions can be partially broken by mixing thoroughly with sand in standard equipment such as concrete mixers. lf an emulsion typically containing 70070water is mixed with about 50070by volume of sand, the water content can be reduced by half. The clean sand aod free water which separates can .be returned to the beach.

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Washing oiled beach material

Recavery 01 oii Iram beach material 9.5.4 If the recovered beach material holds a high content of oii it may be feasible to recover the oiI. This usually involves washing the oiled beach material with water, sometimes in conjunction with a suitable solvent such as gas oii to release the oiI. Water-washing can be carried out using low pressure hoses to loosen and lift off oii from debris contained in a temporary storage pit. The resulting oil-water mixture can then be pumped away and separated by gravity. Separation can also be achieved in a closed system using hot water as a washing agent. 9.5.5 A range of equipment has been developed for washing oiled material, rrom standard concrete mixers for small-scale batch operations ta mineral processing equipment for large-scale continuolls treatment, e.g. washing equipment used in mining and quarrying. Although these systems have proved successful in lrials, they have not yel found widespread application at oiI spill incidents. The cost of cleaning large amouots of beach material an site could compare favourably with other methods that involve transporting the material somc distance Crom the coast. 9.5.6 Beaches which are moderately polluted with tarba1ls are not usually amenable to clean-up by heavy machinery and in most cases manual cleanup is undertaken. To reduce the quantities of material wbich require transport

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to a disposal site, the oii aod sand mixture can be sieved either mechanically or manually. The oillumps can then be collected. for disposal and the sand replaced on the beach, thus reducing the risk of eros ion.

9.5.8 If the water and solids content is very lo\\' lhe recovered oii caD normally be delivered to heavy industries, such as cement aod steel works or central heating plants, as ordinary heavy fuel oil.1t should be established that the flashpoint of. the recovered oil faUs within acceptable limits:

,9.6

Stabilizalion of oUybeach materials

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Disposal of recovered oii 9.5.7 When planning for the final disposa1 of recovered oii, refinenes and industries using heavy oiI should be asked if they are able to receive and process the recovered oiI. Refmeries may be able ta accept such oii even if it is mixed with water and some sand but the presence of salt may cause difficulties. The recovered oii can of ten be taken as refinery stop or accepted in the reception facility of an oii terminal. In addition, there may be other industries which receive recovered oii for reprocessing.

9.6.1 An approach which is somelimes applicable 10 oily sand, provided it does not contain large amounts of wood and seaweed. is to bind the material with inorganic substances such as quicklime. cement, pulverized fuel ash waste. etc. This forms an inert product which does not allow the oilto leach oul. The stahilized material can be disposed of nnderless stringent conditions than unstabilized oily sand and caD al50 be used for' laod reclamation and road construction where there is Dat a requirement for high load-bearing properties. There are also a Dumber of commercial products. based an the same raw materials but treated with vanous chemicals, which are claimed to improve their efficiency.

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9.6.2 The optimal amount of binding agent required is primarily dependent on the water contenl of the waste rather than the amount of oiI and is best determined experimentally on site. However. for quicklime the amount required is between 5% and 200Ju weight of the bulk material to be treated. Treatment can be either carried out using a mixing plant or a layering lechnique. The farmer whilst offering better quality control and less land area, requirs the use of expensive equipment including a continuous drum mixer. Smaller quantities could be treated in a batch process using standard concrete mixers. Provided there is sufficient land available close ta the locatian of the spill. the layering technique is probably the mosl cost effective. The waste is spread oul ta a depth of about 0.2-0.3 metres and mixed using a pulverising mixer which incorporates the Urne.
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advice must be obtained with respect to sites intended for burying and landfiJling and the disposal operation must be closely regulated. In soroe countries there may be municipal regulations or legal restrictions on the selectian of sites for this purpose. Less stringent requirements may be applied to wastes with less than 3070 oiI. .

.9.6.3 On occasions it may be preferable to carry out a primary mixing in pits at the site of the spill to render the oiled material more suitable for transport. The fmal treatment can then be undertaken at a larger reception facility using specialized equipment. 9.6.4 Inevitahly, stabilizatian techniques give rise to a great deal of corrosive dust and if possible the treatment site should be selected so as to minimize its spread to adjacent property. It is also important that operating personnel wear protective clothing and face masks to protect skin. lungs and eyes. 9.6.5 In spill situations where sandy beaches have been polluted by oii the binding agents can be mixed with the aily sand in conjunction with or immediately after the collection of the oily sand. Such mixtures can be used directly for road beds, parking lots, etc. ar caD be stored for subsequent use in civil engineering ~orks. The mixture of binding agents and oily sand is a clean, easily~handled material which can be readily transported and stored.

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9.7.3 If a suitable landf1l1 site has not been designated, disused quarries often make satisfaetory disposal sites. However. they are oftea impermeable ta water and it is important to ensure that the quarry is deep enough to prevent the overflow of any accumulated rain-water which could transfer oil outside the site.

9.7

Direct dispusal

9.7.1 Direct disposal includes landfilling, co-disposal with domestic wastes and buriaI. Direct disposal is only appropriate for wastes containing less than 20"7. of oii. Stabilized material may also be disposed of by this method. 9.7.2 The choice of diret' disposal sites must always be agreed with the authorities. When landfilling ar burying oilor oily dehris. extreme care must be exercised 50 that in due course the oii will not leach into aquifers or surface water. Test wells around the site should be established to make it possible at intervals to analyse whether leaching is occurring. In this regard expert

Co-disposal of oily and domeslic wasles 9.7.4 The co-disposal of oii and domestic waste is of ten an acceptable method even though degradation of the oii is likely to be relatively slo\\' due to the lack of oxygen. However, oil appears ta remain firmly absorbed by ali types of domestic waste with 1ittle tendency to leach out. The oii)' 195

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waste should be depasited on tap of at least 4 metres of domestic refuse either in surface strips 0.1 metres lhick or in slit trenches 0.5 metres deep to alIow free drainage of water. The oily material should be covered bya iayer of soil followed by a minimum of 2 metres of domestic waste to facilitate degradation and prevent the emergence of oii ta the surface when subjected to campression from site vehicles.

9.9

Destruction

Destruc[ion covers both enhancing the biogradation of the oilor physically destroying the oily wastes. Two methods are recoffimended: landfarming and incineration.

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9.10.1 It is well established that microbial populations increase rapid!y in the soil around an oii spill. With this in mind, many refineries around the warId have for maoy years practised laodfarming to get rid of their refmery wastes. 10 many cases, aerobic decompositioo of oily debris is fargely completed in ODeta three years. Although low temperatures slow down the rate of oxidation. landfarming has been successfully applied in cald climatic conditions such as Scandinavian countries. In subtropical and tropical climates rates of degradation are more rapid .

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In cases of shore-lines lightly contaminate;d with oily debris ar tar balls. it may be possible to bury the collected material at the baclc of the beach provided there is no risk of damagc to vegetation ar that the oii could be unco\"ered by tidal action. A covering of at least one metre should in such cases be sufficient.
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9.10.2 Landfarming requires adequate land within reasonable distance of the spill site. Landfarming sites should not be Iocaled where underground and olher water supplies would be affected by the possible release of contaminants. In addition the soil permeability should be low to avoid percolation of leachates iota the ground water. The site may be divided ioto sections by roads to provide access for heavy trucks. In some areas it may be necessary to establish temporary roads. The site should be cleared of brush, timber and rocks larger than about 30 centimetres. Before spreading the oily debris, the top soil should be loosened up by a bulldozer or a ripper and TunaCf diversion channels should be constructed to prevent surface drainage rrom flowing through the arca. A bund and a gravity interceptor are necessary to retain any oiI sheen floated out by rain. 9.10.3 The oily debris, wmch should t>e"'iree oflarge solids, should be spread evenly aver the surface in a layer 2 to 10 centimetres thick and allowed, if possible. to weather until it no longer appears wet and sticky. The maximum quantity of oii spread on the soil should be about 10 kg/m2 (100 tonnes/hectare). After the weathering period the debris should be thoroughly mixed into the soH with a plough. discer or ti. rototiller. If the area is frequented by shorebirds the plougmng should take place imInediately. The mixing should be repeated at increasing intervals ta increase aeration f1nd hence the rate of decomposition. 9.10.4 The soil pH should be adjusted to a value higher than 6.5,' if necessary with lirne, to provide a suitable environment for microbial growth. Fertilisers such as urea. ammonium phosphate etc. may be added ta enhance oii degradation rates: as a rule 10 parts nitrogen to 1 part phosphate should be added per 1()()parts of oiI. 9.10.5 lf landfarming techniques are employed the use of natural sorbents such as straw and bark during the clean-up are preferable to synthetic materials since they break down more rapidly. 9.10.6 Once most of the oii has degraded, the soil should be capable of supporting a wide variety of plants, including trees and grasses. However. care should be taken if food crops are to be grown on such sites as the possibility of contaminatio~ by heavy metals may exist. 9.10.7 Another effective means of enhancing degradation is to employ composting techniques. particularly if natural sorbents such as straw, peat and bark have been used. Provided the mixtures contain relatively low levels of oii, they can be stacked' ioto heaps to facilitate composting. Because the heaps retain heat the technique is particularI)" suitable in colder climates where degradation through landfarming is slow. However, this method is only applicable for small-scale operations. 9.11 Incineration

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9.11.1 The open burning of oily debris is not recommended except in ver)' remote areas since it usually causes atmospheric pollution. When oiI is burnt in the open it also tends to spread and be absorbed into the ground. ]n addition, a tarry residue may remain since it is rarely possible to achieve complete combustion.

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9.11.2 These problems can be overcorne by using an incinerator. A number of portable incinerators have been developed which contain the oily waste and facilitate the high temperatures necessary for total combustion. The rotary kiln and open hearth types are most appropriate for oils with a high solid conten. As a general rule, incinerators used for domestic waste are not suitable since chlorides rrom seawater may give rise to corrosion. High temperature industrial waste incinerators, whilst likely to tolerate salts, may not have sufficienl capacity to deal with the additional burden created by a large quantity of oily waste. However, iflong-term storage is available, this may be an acceptable route. 199

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9.11.3 ODe of the devices developed to dispose of oii and debris in femate Iocations consisLS of a kiln which 'caTI be assembled an site from low cost materials such as 45 galion drums. Oil-contaminated beach material is introduced manually al ODe eod of the kiln al a rate of up to seven tonnes per hour and elean sand and pebbles ace discharged al the other eod. Combustion is seJf-sustaining if the feed material contains al least 25% oii and no more than about 500;0water. Depending an the material used for the constructian. the lifetime of the unit may be Quite short but should be capable of dealing with al least 100-600 tonnes of contaminated sand. A simpler portable burner suitable for the smaIl-scale buming of tar balls and debris can be constructed rrom a single open 45 gallon drum. Air is supplied tangentially from a suir.ablecompressor or fan blower to support combustion.

CHAPTER 10 - PRACTICAL TRAINING AND EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE AND STORAGE

10.1

Introduction

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When an oiI spill incident occurs. decisions have to be made quickly and equipment must be ready to be deployed at very short notice. The only reliable way for this to be achieved is for contingency arrangements to have been set up in advance, equipment to have been properly stored and maintained and personnel weB trained in its use. However. training should not be limited to learning how to use particular items of equipment, but must also include instruction in the response strategy set out in a contingency plan. The ade<iuacy of such preparations, although tested to the full in actual incidents, can also be tested to a large extent through practica! exercises .

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10.2.1 Two types of training are generally reeognized, each with separate objectives. The ficst, of ten referred to as uhands-on" training is intended to train a crew to become proficient in the deployment and operation of particular types of equipment or in the execution of a particular clean-up technique. After the initial instruction, proficiency eomes with frequent practice and exercise. 10.2.2 The second type of training is concemed with the various levels of management of a clean-up operation and is intended to provide a thorough background in the subject, upon -which response decisions can be made. A degree of overlap between the two is llkely to be beneficial since this provides management with a clear appreciation of the factors likely to affect the performance of a particular technique or piece of equipment and at the same time gives equipment operators a better understanding of the overall strategy. Both types of training caii for a balanced mix of theory and practice.

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10.2.3 The typical outline of a "hands-on" training course is shown in annex J. As can be seen, the general approach usually followed is an introductory talk on each technique followed by detailed instruction on the

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operat ion of equipment available within the eontingency plan. As far as possible, practical sessions follow immediately to reinforce the salient points ofthe theory and as a result groups are best kept to between 10 and 20 people.

10.2.5 FoUowing ah instructional course, frequent exercises are the best way to maintain familiarity with the deployment and operation of equipment and 50 avoid mistakes when called ta respond ta an actual spilI. After an exercise, a debriefing meeting should be held ta resolve any difficulties and to discuss any improvements which can be made. For boom deployment exercises in particular. observation, photography or video recording, either rrom the .sir or from _some elevated vantage point, is valuable in assessing the configuration of a boom with respect ta currents. The use of some inert material such as foam ar polystyrene chips ta simulate oii is al50 helpful in demonstrating whether or Dat the oil would. in fact, be ehannelled to the collection point. _

10.2.6 The frequency with which such training exercises should be conducted should be related to Ihe risk of spills and Ihe likelihood Ihat a response team would be called out. However. as a minimum, exercises should be held four times a year so lhat operating difficulties under different seasonal conditions can be identified. Such exerCSesshould be conducted in addition to any more general exercises of the contingency plan. 10.2.7 In eases where a number of strike teams of different disciplines are to be tr:ained, it would be useful to initiate general alarm cxercises regularly to practice co-operation and interaction of the different teams and equipment in order to control and improve the complete contingency arrangements.

Training an management of oii spill clean-up ]0.2.8 Annex 2 shows the typicaJ outline of an oiI spill training course which would usually be supported by video recordings, lectures with visuaJ aids and practicat demonstrations ar exercSes. Although it has been found from the series of national training COurses given by IMO that video recordings are the most favoured teaching medium, they do not provide good opportunity for question and aruiwer,sessions. On the other hand, videos are particularly useful in demonstrating in visual terms. A mix of videos and lectures is therefore found best. The optimum size of a group is between 20 and 50 and each should be provided with some written support material before presentations are made. The paper exercise with which the course is concluded helps to reinforce the main points of the Course and is usuaUy approached with greai enthusiasm. ]0.2.9 Broadly, there are two ways to present such a course, either for a specific area of interest or as a general case. The principles of the general case are then Ieft ta be applied. by the participants to their own areas of interesl. ]f a course is designed around a particular area. then the risk of

I,

. Hands-on training

10.2.4 The objective then is to familiarize each trainee witli the equipment and with the conditions to which it is best suited. In addition. its limitations and the most probable causes of failure should also be identified with suggested remedies. Obviously, if the same personnel operate and maintain the equipment there is a better chance of keeping equipment running in the field.

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l~,: spills caD be discussed in tenns of operations carried out in the area and the types of oii handled. The techniques for assessing the probable impact of a spill an local sensitive resources can be explained and the contingency arrangements devised ta mitigate such effects outlined. 10.2.10 Haviog completed the training course. the traioee should become familiar with l)is or her area of responsibility. both physically. on the ground. and within the organizatian set up to implement the contingency plan aod should get to know the other people involved. One way to do trus is through exercises. The conclusion from these factors is that as the equipment caD only have a very Iimited proven usage in oii spills, periodic failures aod breakdowns should be expected.

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Types of maintenance 10.3.2 Assuming that all the design problems have been resolved and the equipment is fundamentally sound, the decision then bas to be made an the type of maintenance to be carried ouL Tbere are a number of fonns of maintenance which can be considered. These are normally included in the existing maintenance scheduIes and wiII be based 00 one of the following systems: .1 Calendar system - The equipment il inspected and certain routines are carried out on a fIXed time schedule Le. weekly. monthly, anoually. .2 Equipment running hours - As certain running hours are reached, the equipment maintenance routines are aciivated. .3 Equipment reporteei. breakdown - Equipment is repaired as defeets are

10.3

Equipment

maintenance

and storage

10.3.1 For the operator/owner of the oii spill pollution equipment there are some basic guidelines whicb need ta be considered if a reliable response is ta be achieved:

Equipment/design .1 Pollution equipment can be stored from year to year without being required. Then suddenly it is required to operate in aii cond.itions for extensive periods continuously - a very tall order for any item ,of machinery or equipment.

.4 Condition monitoring - Measurements made on the equipment at regular intervals to ensure that it remains within designed criteria . .5 A combination of ali or some of these maintenance methods.

.2 The industry is relatively small anCI numbers of units of any particular item of equipment are low. AH testing and development costs have to be built ioto the price of the unit and consequently the development and proving triaIs have to be very carefully controlled. .3 The conditions in which the equipment is required to operate vary considerably with oii types, sea states. etc. Historically the forces prevailing in the marine environment not always been appreciated. have

.4

10.3.3 Before deciding which form of maintenance procedure to adopt. it is essentiaI to analyse what is actuaIly going to be best for the equipment. Requirements for pollution equipment are totally different from the majority of operations normally requiring maintenance. From experience. failures tend to result rrom a lack of use of the equipment rather than over-use and it is important that the maintenance procedur'es take this into account. 10.3.4 When planning these maintenance requirements it is most important ta consider the personnel who will be used to carry out the maintenance routines. Unlike most other items for maintenance. the equipment should not require a great deal of attention. After its "maintenance" it will probably be placed back on the sheJf until the next time it is due for "inspection". There is not very much job satisfaction in this and after a time it is Iikely that the potentiaIly well-designed maintenance procedures will not be carried out satisfactorily. unless good supervision is exercised.

.5

Due to the nature of the work. hydraulic power is used extensively. being the only real form of power transmission suitable for the work required. Hydraulic power i relatively sare and reliable providing good tor.que and load characteristics to drive the specialized equipment. It is essential, however. that it is properly designed for the extreme environ.mental conditions in which it may be required to operate.

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system. each operator is given the responsibility for sections of an equipment stockpile. They must ensure that the maintenance is pitched at the correct level and that their equipment is in a continuai state of readiness (this includes packaging, documentation and spares) and, where necessary, they must update and modify procedures as required.

10.3.7 A computerised maintenance system can be of considerable help in the planning of the workload, for unlike planned maintenance, oiI spills are anything but planned, and, as a consequence, maintenance routines are continuaIly having to be updated - an almost mpossible task ta achieve manually. With the use of a computer, information on equipment can be presented in almost any form - analysis of hours worked - maintenance hours - frequency of equipment failure, etc., aII can be used to indicate whether the correct level of maintenance is being carried out. In cerlain cases it can even be used ta help justify the replaeement of an item of equipment.

Storage

Equipment maintenance
A working system 10.3.5 To ensure the equipment will be effective. in the field, aII three areas previously described must be satisfied: well-designed and tested equipment; competent trained operators; correctly maintained and

.10.3.8 As far as possible, equipment should be stored under co~er in a dry, well-ventilated stare. In order ta prolong equipment life, humidity, temperature and exposure ta ultraviolet radiation should be controlled. In addition, it should be protected Crom damage by pests. Booms which may be folded or reeled in storage. should be reguJarly unfolded or unreeled to prevent the material sticking together or creases forming which \\oul lead to points of weakness.

equipment.

10.3.9 Ideally, the store should provide a clear working area where equipment can be cleaned to remove oii and salt-water and some maintenance carried oul. Oood access to the equipment is essential, both to facilitate inspectian and maintenance and also ta give access ta road vehicles and lifting equipment so thal equipmenf can be deployed quCkly in an emergency. However, security arrangements must also be considered to prevent vandalism and Iheft.

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10.3.6 Ta link these requirements tagether. a comprehensive planned maintenance system is necessary to ensure that the traimog of personnel and maintenance of the equipment is co-ordinated and executed in a cost. effective manoer. A factor that has been fiernIy estabtished is that 00 matter how reliable the equipment may be, it will be proven useless unJess goad reliable trained operators are available ta use tbe equipment. One praven methad to achieve these objectives. fundamental to the system, is to use a singIe team who aII depJoy, test and maintain the equipment. With this 206
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ANNEX 1 TYPICAL OUTLlNE OF A "HANDS-ON" TRAINING COURSE .

Safety considerations. 2 3 4 5 6 7 General theory of containment and recovery. Detailed instruction in deployment and use of different booms. Practicai exe~cise mooring and towing booms. Detailed instruetions in deployment and use of different skimmers. Practica] exercise of above skimmers in different oii types.
pumps.

Detailed instructian in use of temIX>rarystorage faci1itiesand transfer

Equipment storage
10.4 Exercises The level of exerCses.range from the type 01 paper exercise run dunng a training course. through exercising communication links, up ta [nil mobilization and deployment of equipment. This lauer type of exercise serves several funetions not least of which is training. In addition. weaknesses in the contingency plan are exposed. Hbottle necksu in the arrangements for equipment deployment can be identified and the timescales required to implement instructions realistically assessed. They also bring ali those involved in the contingency plan together and can be used to develop a team spirit. No matter what lengths are taken to simulate a spill. real experience can only be gained from actual spills and the opportunity of attending as an observer should not be passed up. There is nothing like learning from other people's mistakes.

8 9

Practicat operatian of pumps. Practical deployment of booms, skimmers. temporary storage and transfer pumps:
.] rrom share;

.2 ~m open water. 10 Il 12 13 14 15
16

General theory of use of dispersants. Detailed instruction in use of different dispersant applieation.systems. Practica! depIoyment of spraying equipment at sea. General outline of shore-Iine clean-up techniques. Detailed instruction in use of different equipment types. PracticaI beach elean-up exercse comparing different techniques.
Quiz.

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17 18

General discussion. Course assessment.

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ANNEX 2
TYPICAL OUTLINE OF AN OPERATlON TRAINING COURSE MANAGEMENT
1 LI

CHAPTER 11 - CLEAN-UP COST CONSIDERATIONS

Inlroduction

. Types of oiI (samples of each). Risks of spills. Fate aod movement of oils. Effects aod resources al risk. 'Surveillance aod assessment. Response
technique.
OptiOllS -

11.1.1 The costs arising from oiI spills fall inta two broad categories: c1eanup aod damage. As a general rule. the initial response is aimed at trying to prevent ar reduce damage.
11.1.2 In tenns of elean-up costs, oii type is an important factor as spills of more persistent heavy crude and residual fuel oils usuaUy result in a more difficult and costly operation. The International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Ud. ([TOPF) analysed the cl~.up costs for 26 spills from oii tankers which occurred between [980 and [986. Tbe average cost of these spills, adjusted to 1985 values, was US$3,830 per tonne spilled, a1though it varied from $71 ta $21.000 per tonne spilled. This large variation in costs was due ta a number of external factors such as the location of the spill, the fype of oii and the extent to which natural dissipation of the oii assisted c1ean-up. [t should be appreelated that the foregoing costs are specifically related to these 26 spills. With regard to compensation for such costs reference is made to chapter 5 of Seclion Il - Contingency Planning of the IMO Manual on Oii Pol/ulion.

2 3
4 5

.-

6
7

general introduction aod major limitations of each

Use of dispersant: theory. followed by practicat session. . Containment aod recovery: follawed by practical session. SbaTe-line clean-up: followed by practicaI session . Oii and oily debris disposal techniques. Organizatian and contingency plan. Use o~ computer systems. Public relations. Sources of compensation aod preparation of claims. Emergency response aod safety considerations. Paper exerCse - working through an oiI spill scenario in groups. Course assessment.

. 9
10 11 12 13
14 15 16 17

11.1.3 Whilst many costs can be readily identified, such as equipment. materials, labaur. etc. there are always the administrative support costs ta be considered. In making decisions an the preferred response techniques, the an-scene commander should be guided by the foUowing rough cost estimates.

11.2

Equipmenl

11.2.1 Many countries have only limited or no speelalized oii spill response equipment. In the event of a medium to major oii spillage, the locally available resources would not be adequate and whilst [MO has promoted establishment of regional agreements wheteby countries would pool resources, in many regions there is stiUonly a minimal amount of equipment available on a regional basis. Consideration must alsa be given to the time which would elapse between requesting equipment from external sources and ilS actual operati an on site, which may realistically be expected to be two or three days.
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11.2.2 Provision of national stockpiles of specialized oii splll response equipment is costly aod not accorded a high priority by most developing countries. The intergovernmental schemes for liability aod compensation for oiI pollutian damage. as weB as the voluntar)" industry agreements, will normally compensate reasonable costs for bringing equipment to a spill incidenL The insurers, aod in cases involving the IOpe Fund, the Fund. will usually ensure that a teehnical expert from ITOPF is despatched to the spill site ta advise the authorities an methods aod techniques of pollution combating aod any equipment which may be reQ.uired rrom external sources. In arder ta have the equipment an site as Quickly as possible, trus would involve air transportation of equipment for containment aod recovery ar, in the case of chemical dispersian, the provision of stocks of chemical dispersants and possibly a specially eguipped aircraft for dispersant application. Any of the foregoing options involve charter of a large cargo aircraft such as a C-130 (Hercules) which, in 1986. cost approximately $1500-2000/h. In some cases the aircraft mobilization costs in an emergency may be considerably higher. . 11.2.3 Whilst a number of operations for recovery at sea have been undertaken, in almost every case they met with limited success aod only a small quantity of oii (approximately IOOJ. of the total oii spillcd) was .reeovered withtbe remainder cleaned up an the shore.line. 11.2.4 The other option, ebemical dis pers ion at sea, is again dependent on the type of oiI and on the type and availability of dispersant and application equipment Tbe actual chemical dispersant costs approximately $1600 per tonne and to this must be added the cost of vessel or aircraft bire. Dispersant application from a !arge aireraftsuch as a C-130 (Hercules) costs around $4000 per tonne of dispersan!, which, at a dispersant ta oii ratia of20. means about $200 IA'r tonne of oii. Application from smaller aircraft and vessels tends to be much cheaper - costs are likely to tie in tbe range of $500 to $ 3000 per tonne of dispersant ($25 to $150 per tonne of oii). It should be note<!that the foregoing cost estimates are based on 1986 figures.

shore-line elean-up, such as graders, front end loaders. steel bodied trucks, etc. are normally available within any country from either the government sector (public works or highway department) or through private companies.

11.3

Personnel

11.3.1 1f specialized equipment is brought mlo a cOUOlryfor use on a spill incident, it is unlikely that sufficient trained personnel will be available locally aod the equipment supplier must provide a team of equipment opera tors with attendant salary, trave! and living costs. At sea operations will nonnally utilize available vessels such as tugs. offshore supply vessels, warships, barges, small tanker.s, etc. On a continuing operatian, it may be necessary to make provisions for crew changes at regular irrtervals. 11.3.2 Operation of aircraft will require ground crew support for fuelling, food, dispersant supply and maintenance, with the attendant costs for regular and oyertime hours worked. 11.3.3 As previously iodicated, in most cases shore-line elean-up can be anticipa.ted. Such operations are labour intensive and involve recruitment of a large work force, provision of on-site supervisory personnel and a backup organization. Thousands of man days with the attendant labour costs can be expended in shore.line elean-up operations and such activities are of ten co-ordinated by military or civil defence units.

'.

11.4 Logistics 11.4.1 Any successful response o'peration is largely dependent 00 properly organized logistic support. Recovery at sea requires deployment vessels, tankers, barges or floating storage tanks ta temporarily stare recovered oii, shore facilities to receive oil etc. Similarly, vessels and aircraft will be required for dispersant ehemical application and surveillance aircraft will be needed ta monitor alI response operations. AII the foregoing activities presuppose the existence of a logistic unit which will co-ordinate supply of fuel, equipment, dispersant. provisions. maintenance and personnel sa that turn around can be effected in minimum time. 11.4.2 Shore-line elean-up entails the provision of transport for the work crews to their assigned site, food, water, toilet facilities, etc. As material is collected it must be transported to the disposal site which might be al 213

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11.2.5 Despite aII efforts to treat oiI at sea, the bulk of the spilled oii of ten eventuaIly impacts the shore-line. Depending on the type of shore-line and on the cxtent to which it needs to be deaned, the cost of dean-up and disposal of the recovered material can raoge from almost nothing to about $7000 per toone.

11.2.6 The principal component of the foregoing costs is the prevailing local rate for casuallabour and in low wage areas the shore c1ean-up costs would be minor. Use of manuallabour presupposes availability of forks, rakes. heavy gauge plastic bags, etc. The mechanical equipment used in 212

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some distance rrom the area of operations. If landfill is chosen as the disposal option, it is desirable to study the seleeted site in order to minimize any potential future problems. Costs for disposal at sueh sites. includ ing transport, can range from SIO to SI00 per tonne. depending on the location of the sites. Whilst incineration is one opti an, costs ean be high. In one case it was estimated to cost approximately $250 per tonne to incinerate recovered oily residues. but in many eountries lower operating cost incnerators have been used.

BffiLlOGRAPHY

;~

.~,
~'

Bruel A. (1981) Oii spill c1ean-up and proleclion techniques for shore-Iines and marshlands. New Jersey, USA Cairos John, Jr_, Anhur L. Buikema, Jr. (1984) Resrorarion of habirals impacted by oii spills. Virginia Polyteehnic Institute CEORE (1986) Fight against accidental po/lution on coastal areas. Training Course. CEORE, Brest, Franee CEDRE (1988) Use of dispersanlsfor conlrolling offshore oiI slicks.Field guide for the treatment of slieks by boat. CE ORE. Brest. Franee CONCAWE (1980) S/udge farming: a lechnique for Ihe disposal of oily refinery wasles. CONCA WE, The Hague, Netherlands. Reporl No.3180 CONCAWE (1980) Disposa/ lechniques for spill oii. CONCA WE, The Hague, Netherlands. Reporl No. 9180 CONCA WE (1981) A field guide 10 coaslal oii spill conlrol and clean-up lechniques. CONCA WE, The Hague. Netherlands, Reporl No. 9181 CONCAWE (1983) Characlerislics of pelroleum and ils behaviour al sea. CONCA WE. The Hague, Netherlands. Reporl No. 8183 CONCAWE (1983) A field gUide 10 in/and oii spill clean-up techniques. CONCAWE, The Hague, Netherlands, Reporl No. 10183 CORMACK, D. (1983) Response 10 oiI and chemical marine pollulion. Applied Science Publishers, London Exxon (1984) Oii spill responsefield manual. Exxon Production Research Co., Houston, USA Exxon (1985) Fale and effecis of oii in Ihe sea. Exxon Background Series. Exxon, New York IMOIUNEP (1982) Guidelines on oii spill dispersanl applicalion and environmental considerations. IMO. London IOPC Fund (1982) Claims manual. IOPC Fund, London ITOPF (1981)Aer111 observalion of oii al sea. Technicalinformalion Paper No. 1. ITOPF. London ITOPF (1981) Use of booms in combaling oiI pollulion. Technlcal Informalion Paper No.2. ITOPF, London ITOPF (1982) Aerial applicalion of oii spill dispersants. Technical Informalion Paper No.3. ITOPF, London ITOPF (1982) Use of oii spitl dispersanls. Technlcal Informa/ion Paper NoA. ITOPF, London .

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214

215

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ITOPF (1983) Use of skimmers in combating oii pol/ution. Informotion Poper No.5. ITOPF, London .

Technicol

ITOPF (1983) Recognition of oi/ an sharelines. Technicallnformation Paper No.6. ITOPF, London

ITOPF (1.983) Shore-line c1eon-up. Technicol Informotion ITOPF, London ITOPF (1984) Disposol of oii ami debris. Teehnicollnformotion ITOPF, London

Poper No.7. Poper No.8. Paper

ITOPF (1985) Effeets of marine oii spills. Technicol Information No.IO. ITOPF, London ITOPF (1986) Fate of marine oii spills. Teehnirollnformation ITOPF. London

Paper No.ll.

Koops, W: (1985) Manual of oii {?OI/ution. an sea. an coast and on inlond waters. Staatsuitgeverij (Government Publishing Office). The Hague. Netherlands (in Outch) Koops, W. Oii combating handbook Kuipers H.D. Processes which injluence the motions and characteristics of
oii al sea -

Moller T.H:, H.O. Parker, J.A. Nichols (1987) Comparative costs of oii spill clean-up ter:hniques.Pcoceedings of tbe 1987 Oii Spill Conference.
American Petroleum Institute, Washington

u.e.

National Research Council (1985) Oii in the sea. ltipuls. fates and effects. National Academy Press, Washington D.C. Peigne, G. (1984) Skimmers. No.R84.903.E CEORE, Brest, France. Publication

Quinquis J.J. (1986) Beach c1eaning equipment. Second Inte.rnational Symposium on Regional Cooperation on OiI SpillPrevention and Combating. CEDRE. Brest, ~rance' ROCC (1986) Guide for authorities responsible for oii spill combating in the Mediterranean. Regional OiI Combating Centre for the Mediterranean Sea, Manael Island, Malta ROPME (I987) Codes of practice for the ase of oii spill dispersants in the ROPME sea area. ROPME, Kuwait Shell (1974) Oii spill control manual US Depanment of Commerce National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (1983) Assessing the social costs of oii spills _ The A mDeO Cadi, Case Study Yang E.J., R.C. Oower, M. Menefee (1984) The ase of economic analysis in valuing natural resource damage. Environmental Law Institute, Washington O.C .

216