INTERNATIONAL LOGISTICS CHANNELS 3
T
hree channels are discussed to help under-
stand international marketing and
distribution better.
International
Logistics
Channels
Donald F. Wood
Introduction
Channels are networks and are used to explain the
functioning of marketing arrangements. The transaction
channel handles contracting and trading; and the
distribution channel deals with the physical movement of
product. The channels are separatedfromeach other, i.e.
a firm may locate sales offices in a different set of cities
from where it locates distribution warehouses. However,
the channels are linked to the extent that sales or
payments "trigger" the release of goods to the buyer.
This article adapts and expands this approach in an attempt
to understand better international logistics operations.
We will discuss three channels: the transaction channel,
the distribution channel, and the documentation/
communications channel. We shall also mention the role
of intermediaries who help the channels operate better.
The International Transaction Channel
Choosing the terms of sale within the international
transaction channel involves looking at the distribution
channel and determining when and/or where to transfer
between buyer and seller:
(1) The physical goods
Received June 1990
Revised August and November 1990
(2) Payment for goods
(3) Legal title to the goods
(4) Responsibility for:
● insuring the goods
● paying for transporting the goods
● controlling — or caring for — the goods (in the
case, say, of livestock).
Transfer of these can be expressed in terms of calendar
time or geographic location or on completion of an event.
One must:
● think in terms of both time and location;
● know when and where to assume or relinquish
responsibility and control;
● mesh perfectly with the other party.
A list of different locations or stages for quoting a price
to an overseas buyer could include when:
(1) at seller's dock (known as ex-works);
(2) at seller's dock, packaged for export;
(3) loaded aboard surface carrier that will take it to
port or airport of export;
(4) delivered alongside exporting ship (known as FAS);
(5) crossed ocean and unloaded at port or airport of
import (C & F means cost andfreightcharges to
this point; CIF means cost,freight,and insurance
changes to this point);
(6) passed through customs and other inspections;
(7) delivered to importer's receiving dock.
The parties are sometimes not free to contract the terms
to suit their needs. Often governments "pressure" their
own firms to insist on terms which result in more of the
services associated with moving the products being
performed by firms of that nation. The reason is to
conserve that nation's own currency and improve its
balance of payments position.
Many terms of payment are used. Since there is no
universally accepted international equivalent of our uniform
commercial code, the seller must take precautions to
ensure that the payment is received. Sometimes, making
payment is beyond the control of the buyer; the buyer's
government may ban the outward flow of currency.
The most common payment device used is the irrevocable
letter of credit, an escrow-like agreement between the
buyer's bank and the seller's bank to guarantee payment
provided the seller meets specified terms. Letters of credit
must be perfect; if not the bank may refuse to pay. In 1980
there was a story about a sunspot (a dark spot on the
sun linked to disturbances in the earth's magnetic field)
that may have caused an extra "L" to creep into a telexed
message involving the letter of credit associated with a
shipment of watches. The buyer's bank refused to pay
 4 IJPD &LM20,9
because of the extra L. "Ordinarily,...the buyer
authorizes payment despite such insignificant mistakes.
(A spokesman for the importer said) the watches arrived
too late (i.e. after the Christmas sales period) and were
useless"[1],
From a logistics standpoint, the letter of credit's wording
controls the shipment's movement, specifying ports (and,
sometimes, carriers), departure dates and labelling. If
changes are to be made both the buyer and seller must
agree and the letter of credit must be amended through
the two banks. The risk is that the market value of the
product may have changed since the orginal agreement,
and one party may want to renegotiate the price.
For international shipments, one needs insurance. The
firm providing the insurance influences channel decisions
since it will quote higher premiums for what it believes
are less safe alternatives.
There is one further difference between international and
domestic transaction channels and that deals with relative
fluctuations in currencies of both the buyer's and seller's
nations. These fluctuations are also in the price of the
goods and of most of the logistical services. Today, on
shipments from the US to Japan there is a currency
adjustment surcharge because it takes more US dollars
to purchase the yen to pay port charges in Japan. Rates
for transport are given in terms of currency of both the
exporting and importing nations. In real terms they may
differ and this might influence the terms of sale with
respect to which party "pays" the carrier.
Other factors result in more complicated international sales
arrangements or routeings. "Grey" markets are for goods
made in nation A and orginally shipped to contract
distributors in nation B. However, the distributor in nation
B may decide either to ship the goods back to nation A
for sale or ship to a third nation, in either event cutting
into the markets of regular distributors. The US and other
nations have controls banning the export of specific
products to certain nations, or quotas that limit imports
from certain nations. These controls are circumvented by
having the goods sold (and shipped) via circuitous
channels.
The International Distribution Channel
Many of the steps in the international distribution channel
steps are complicated and costly. "William C. Copacina
(manager of Arthur D. Little's logistics and manufacturing
group) estimates that international logistics costs range
from 25-35 per cent of a product's sales value. This is
opposed to 8-10 per cent for domestic shipment"[2, p.
101].
Protective packing is an early step. When goods move
internationally, additional problems can be caused by
condensation, the rigours of an ocean voyage or having
to lie outside, exposed for long periods of time while
awaiting inspections. Large exporters employ experienced
personnel for packing their export shipments, or private
packers travel to the exporter's loading dock or to a cargo
consolidation point. Or there may be an additional node
or loop in the channel since the cargo may move to their
shops for packaging. Some export packers have rail tracks
through their building and the exporter sends them the
cargo using a switch engine; the packer packs and labels
the cargo and ships it to the port terminal for export.
Goods must be labelled
so that they can be handled
in the distribution
channel
Goods, or their packing, must be labelled so that they
can be handled in the distribution channel and also be
presented for retail sale in the country of import. This
involves use of other languages and metric measurements.
Sometimes there are labelling requirements in addition
to those imposed by the importing nation. Goods sold in
Quebec must be labelled in French, and this is a Provincial
requirement; it has nothing to do with having goods
imported into Canada. Sometimes goods are labelled as
"for export" products, to discourage their grey market
sales, as mentioned above. Once goods are labelled, they
are less interchangeable in the inventory.
Pre-shipment inspections are imposed by about 25 Third
World nations which are short of hard currency, and have
problems with illegal flights of currency. In 1965, the
African republic of Zaire felt that some importers:
...eager to get money out of a country with a treacherous
currency exchange, would over-invoice and end up collecting
more than the value of what was being sold. Or, to avoid heavy
import duties, an importer might under-invoice the cost of the
goods. (The seller would then transfer excess funds to the
buyer's account in another country.)[3, p. 12].
A number of nations now use the pre-inspection service
and US exporters complain: "You'd better add $500 to
your quote and five weeks more lead time if you're
shipping to a country that employs a pre-inspection
service"[3, p. 11].
Choice of Transport Mode and Route
When shipping to Canada or Mexico, one has as wide a
choice of modes as exist for domestic movements. To
reach other markets, one uses sea or air. Aside from
physical considerations, such as perishability or time
sensitivity, value per unit of weight is the usual
determinant for use of air freight. For example, of the US

exports to Japan in 1985, 55 per cent of those worth more
than $16 per kilogram moved by air compared with only
3 per cent of those worth between $1 and $2 per
kilogram[4]. Air freight reduces the length of time one's
money is invested in inventory. There are various levels
of air service, ocean service, or combined air/ocean
service that provide a range of delivery times. Once the
transport type is selected, this influences the route, carrier
and type of packaging.
Because of the long length of time that products are
moving in the international distribution channel it is
conceivable that priorities change while the goods are en
route. This can be accommodated. Burroughs receives
materials from the Far East. As containers are loaded in
Asia, information is sent electronically to the US regarding
the contents of each. Comparison is then made of
forthcoming needs and a priority list is established.
Incoming containers are pre-cleared with Customs and
containers sorted and shipped according to the new
priority Burroughs has assigned. Four-day truck, two-day
air, or overnight Federal Express are assigned to move
goods across the US.
Choice also depends on the importance of the shipper
and the size of shipment. If one deals in shipload lots,
the ship will come to the port of one's choice. Or, one
could charter a cargo plane. For most transactions,
however, one goes to the port or airport that the carrier
serves. Some ocean vessel services will call at a port "on
inducement", meaning that they will stop at a non-
scheduled port to take on or discharge a shipment above
a certain size.
There are many other concerns in selecting the port of
export. For example, in 1986 Union Carbide anticipated
a longshoremen's strike. So the company routed cargo
through non-ILA (a longshoremen's union) ports "to
establish a pattern of use and acceptability with the
intention of precluding carrier's consideration of Union
Carbide's business as strike diverted". Also they signed
a service contract with a carrier which stated if there was
a strike the ship would call at specific non-ILA ports[5].
In 1990 there was an issue of overweight containers and
shippers preferred ports where adjoining highway weight
limits were not rigorously enforced.
Sometimes the choice of port is influenced by the desire
to consolidate cargo from several ports. At Seven Islands,
Quebec, near the mouth of the St Lawrence River, Great
Lakes self-unloaders can load coal directly into ocean
vessels. In one instance a Japanese customer loaded the
base of his ship with coal at Hampton Roads. At the same
time, Great Lakes self-unloaders loaded with Devco coal
at Sydney, Nova Scotia and at Lake Erie ports with
Appalachian coal.
The two self-unloaders then rendezvous with the partially
loaded ocean vessel at Seven Islands. Using the self-
INTERNATIONAL LOGISTICS CHANNELS 5
unloaders' conveyor belt systems, the Canadian and
American coal is blended as it is being discharged into the
ocean vessel so as to meet the specifications of the Japanese
steel mills[6, p. 68].
Blending of products is sometimes used to work around
an importing nations's tariff specifications.
There are influences on the choice of port or airport of
import. There must be Customs inspections services
available. Several years ago, during a trade disagreement
with Japan, France insisted that all Japanese electronics
products be funnelled through an obscure French customs
post, which delayed the movement until after the
Christmas market had passed. In late 1989, Customs
inspectors in Southern California were overloaded with
work, and some cargoes diverted to other ports in order
to avoid the bottlenecks. If one is moving hazardous cargo
there are many additional restrictions of routeing (as well
as other international requirements for labelling,
documentation and placarding).
An initial consideration when using ocean liners is whether
the shipper has signed a "conference" agreement. In
market areas where shipping conferences (combination
of vessel lines) are active, shippers sign "loyalty"
contracts with the conference, agreeing to give them all
of their business and, in return, receiving a 10-15 per cent
discount off published rates. For US exporters, loyalty
contracts were once more significant; today, "service"
contracts between shippers and ocean conferences relate
discounts to volume. In either event, existence of a
conference contract influences choice of carrier.
All international carriers
fly the flag of the nation
in which they are
registered
However, there are options that make it possible for the
shipper to escape from the obligation to use the conference
in situations where non-conference vessel operators are
offering much lower rates. Both of these involve the
transactions channel. The first would be that, if either the
exporter or the importer (but not both) had a contract
with the conference, an option would be to select terms
of sales so that the party responsible for ocean transport
was the one without the contractual obligation to use the
conference. The second option is to work through a
"dummy" firm that does not have an obligation to use
the conference.
All international carriersflytheflagof the nation in which
they are registered. In the case of international aviation,
nations — through the use of bilateral agreements —
6 IJPD & LM 20,9
control the number of carriers, routes and operations
between each other. Ocean commerce is freer as a vessel
flying any flag can call at almost any port in the world.
(A current exception is the Arab boycott of Israel: a vessel
cannot call both at ports of Israel and some Arab nations.)
The term "cargo preference" is used to describe those
rules and treaties that limit the choices shippers have in
choosing the flag of the carrier they use. When major grain
sales are negotiated with the Soviet Union, a common
clause is that one-third is to move on US-flag vessels, one-
third on Russian-flag vessels and one-third on any vessel.
In the US, cargo preference is usually interpreted to mean
that 50 per cent of shipments of products supported in
one way or another by federal funds have to move on US
ships. Starting in 1989, 75 per cent of "Food for Peace"
crops and grain sold under the Agriculture Department's
export promotion programme were to be shipped on US-
flag vessels. In 1988, Korea tried to enforce regulations
calling for carriage of 100 per cent of its steel exports on
Korean-flag vessels. The US objected, and Korea lowered
the limit to 70 per cent[7].
The geographic location
of nodes can be explained
in terms of low labour
costs
Early in the 1980s, a worldwide code for sharing liner
traffic was adopted, known as the "40/40/20 rule". It
states that, as a principle, ocean liner traffic between
nations A and B shall be carried in the following
proportions: 40 per cent on vessels flying nation A's flag,
40 per cent on vessels flying nation B's flag and 20 per
cent on vessels flying any nation's flag. In the early days
of the rule, nations using it found their rates went up since
they did not have the tonnage to carry that much traffic,
and little was done to implement the code. However, in
late 1988, it was reported that:
Nigerian officials want to use their right to carry 40 per cent
not actually tofillNigerian ships but to sell thatrightto other
carriers. They would, in effect, put their Liner Code share
on the open market for bidding by shipping companies[8].
Here is an example of flag preference being enforced
through airport user fees:
Air carrier monopoly is the greatest problem flower
importers face, according to Christine Martindale, Esprit-
Miami's president. For a long time, the Columbians wouldn't
grant landingrightsto US airlines unless they paid a landing
fee of $10,000. Avianca Airlines, the national air carrier of
Columbia, had a monopoly on carryingflowers.Anytime it
got upset with theflowergrowers, its planes would suddenly
"break down" ten days before Valentine's Day, for example.
At the same time, it would fly a charter plane with half the
capacity of a jumbo aircraft. And that cost...twice as much
per kilo weight... To counter the Avianca monopoly,
Martindale imported flowers on smaller airlines owned or
leased by Columbians living in Miami; they could avoid the
landing fee because they were Columbians[9].
Manufacturing Site Location
This is a complicated topic when thinking of movements
through international channels. While the same principles
apply as do domestically, the problem has more
dimensions. Note it is also related to routeing; sites for
distribution channel activities are selected because they
are on trade routes. Sometimes an issue is boundaries
of labour union jurisdiction.
Most readers are familiar with foreign trade zones, often
known as "free ports" which are sites where materials
are stored that have not yet cleared Customs. We think
of them as usually located next to a seaport or airport.
They are used for storage, to delay paying Customs duties,
light assembly, and labelling. To the smallfirmusing them,
they definitely are an additional stop along the distribution
channel. However, for larger firms, it is possible to have
a foreign trade zone established at an inland site, so the
location should not be considered as unique.
A large number of facilities can be found just south of the
US-Mexican border. These are maquiladora plants owned
by US, Japanese, West German and other interests but
employing Mexicans at about one dollar per hour. The
Japanese firm Hitachi "employs 500 workers in Tijuana
to make wooden cabinets for the televisions assembled
by its 300 workers in Anaheim... Nineteen per cent of
the 42,235 maquiladora employees in Tijuana work at
Japanese-owned factories"[10]. There are now container
trains running between Mexico and the US, and "between
600 and 700 trucks a day cross the bridges for maquiladora
operations in El Paso alone"[11]. What is described here
is not unique to the US-Mexican border. The geographic
location of nodes in many channels can be explained in
terms of low labour costs.
Documentation flows are
as much a part of the main
logistical flow as flows
of product
There are other reasons for choosing sites or nodes:
Marco Polo Associates of San Francisco, which has built
a million-dollar scarf business buying raw silk in China,
weaving it in Korea, pattern-printing it in Italy, stitching

it in France and marketing it in the United States, Eastern
Europe and elsewhere. A key to (the firm's) suc­
cess...was setting up a complicated import-export plan
that routed a scarf through as many as four countries before
it was marketed — as opposed to the more traditional route
of directly from a single producer country to a single
consumer country[12]. The manufacturer felt that there
were marketing advantages from being able to state that
these were French scarves made from Chinese silk.
The Documentation/Communications Channel
Gray and Davies used the expression "international
logistics" to mean "a system in which documentation flows
are as much a part of the main logistical flow as flows of
product"[13]. Usually about ten documents are required
for an export shipment; the number can run to over 100.
Assembling all the documents is a major logistical exercise
in itself. Nearly all of the documents must be ready at
the port of export; all are required at the point of import.
One could develop documentation channels for any product
and this channel would have linkages with both the
transactions and distribution channels.
Some ocean carriers allow
cargo to be booked
by computer
In US foreign trade the average cost of processing a single
set of documents for a shipment of goods in 1982 was
$395[14].
The direct cost per consignment, due to documentation for
an exporter not employing one or more of the various
systems available to aid the management of export
administration, can be estimated by using the formula:
current retail price index x 0.23[15].
From these examples, we can see that documentation is
a major cost item. Interestingly, some of the overnight
express services handling international shipments now
advertise that they will assume many of the shipper's
documentation burdens.
Communications are obviously more complex, although
EDI is being used for buyer-seller, and shipper-forwarder-
carrier linkages. Some ocean carriers allow cargo to be
booked by computer. Sea-Land allows shippers direct
access to its computer network. The customer can bypass
a Sea-Land customer service representative and, by using
a telephone hook-up, personal computer and Sea-Land-
provided software, can:
● perform cargo tracking;
● learn shipment status;
INTERNATIONAL LOGISTICS CHANNELS 7
● ask vessel schedules;
● book space;
● make queries about information on specific bills of
lading;
● "telex" queries to other Sea-Land offices; and
● learn cargo availability (imports)[16].
EDI interchanges between Customs and its clients are also
being developed. One recent study, performed for the US
Customs Service, indicated that: "concern over inventory
costs dictated the extent to which importers themselves
depend upon electronic interaction" with Customs[17].
Logistics Intermediaries
Intermediaries, or middlemen, are well-known in channel
literature. They arise "in the process of exchange because
they can improve the efficiency of the process" [18, p. 5].
They abound in foreign trade, with the most widely known
intermediary being the freight forwarder. In a study of US
firms engaged in international sourcing:
Respondents reported that logistics management for well
over half of all foreign-sourced materials and products was
handled outside the corporate logistics function, primarily
because corporate logistics managers were believed to lack
expertise about international logistics operations[19].
Listing and discussing all the international logistics
intermediaries would form another article. Banks and
export packers have already been mentioned. Freight
forwarders and non-vessel-operating common carriers
(NVOCCs) handle many of the exporter's traffic
management and movement practices. Other
intermediaries deal with activities such as currency
hedging, market intelligence and overseas advertising. The
functions of only one form will be described to give an
idea as to the degree of specialisation: the services for
distributing periodicals in other nations. KLM, the Dutch
airline, has a publications distribution service that includes
wrapping, destination sorting, addressing and database
management for magazines. Also handled are the business
reply mail and collections of subscription payments in local
currency. The magazines move across the ocean by air
and are then given to post offices for local delivery[20].
Virgin Atlantic Airways provides a similar service. "Virgin
International Print Distribution is the airline's service for
globally distributing trade and technical magazines,
publications and journals, books, corporate mail and direct
promotional mailings"[21]. Sometimes the wrapping and
labelling is done in the country of destination to save the
weight of wrapping materials going by air.
Friction and Fraud in the Distribution Channel
To this point, the discussion has dealt with the positive
forces and activities which co-ordinate to move products
forward to the buyers. Within channels — whether
8 IJPD & LM 20,9
domestic or international — there are points of friction.
These are often addressed by some combination of adding
inventory as a cushion, lengthening lead times, or
improving communication.
In addition to friction, there is fraud and theft. Outside
parties examine the long links of others' overseas
distribution channels, searching for vulnerable spots where
they might be attacked or robbed. While it is not unknown
in domestic channels, it is worth mentioning for anyone
interested in how international channels function, or
malfunction. Anyone designing a channel must be aware
of these hazards and make certain that the channel is
sufficiently strong.
Terrorism aimed at airlines
is an ongoing problem of
great concern
Terrorism aimed at airlines is an ongoing problem of great
concern. Without belittling the tragedy of losing lives,
there are also disruptions in movement of cargo and mail.
Sometimes terrorists sabotage products, with a 1989
example being cyanide placed into Chilean grapes[22].
Most common hazards are to vessels. Best-known are
the attacks in the Persian Gulf which occurred during the
hostilities between Iran and Iraq. There is still piracy, both
actual and "paper work". In 1985, approximately 20
attacks on merchant vessels occurred in West Africa.
Targets were usually European roll-on/roll-off and container
vessels. The ships were attacked "by gangs of up to 30
men armed with knives, and many with guns" [6, p. 74].
In 1990 there were reported attacks on ships calling at
Ethiopia. "Paper work" piracy involves the use of phoney
cargoes or phoney vessels which "disappear" at sea.
Cargo theft is common.
The Octonia Sun was fitted with a special pipe — known
on board as "the thief" — that connected one of the ship's
cargo lines to a fuel line[23, p. 1]. Some companies...maintain
blacklists of tanker operators they consider disreputable...
The blacklisted operators stay in business by submitting low
bids for their services, attracting clients who factor
anticipated theft into their costs[23, p. 26].
This is a form of designed shrinkage in a logistics system.
Integrating the Channels
We have treated the transaction, distribution and
documentation channels as separate while acknowledging
that they need co-ordination. Computer modelling has
been used to arrange all the flows in some order. PERT
charts were constructed for the export process in the early
1970s[24]. Over the years, commercial software has been
developed to assist those managing international
transactions and shipments; so, in a sense, computers are
integrating the various international logistics channels.
By way of example, at the Council of Logistics
Management's 1988 meeting, Clayton et al. presented an
example of applying an integrated systems approach to
international transactions[25]. The system described was
for Unisys Corporation, and is probably typical of
sophisticated programmes in use. Once an order is
received it is validated and a decision is made whether
applicable export licenses allow the product to be shipped.
The order is then transmitted either to a factory for
production or to a warehouse for shipment. Commercial
invoices, and duty drawback requests are prepared as are
the documents needed to transfer title to the goods at
the appropriate site or time. Transport routeing is
determined as carrier and customs documents are also
prepared.
The complexities of
international logistics
channels can be viewed as
both a problem and an
opportunity
Despite the advances of computer modelling, it must be
recognised that the distribution channels are still very
complex. Our discussion confirmed the Stern and El-
Ansary statement that:
Explanations of channel structure in terms of economic
variables alone are obviously insufficient, even though such
economic models provide an appropriate starting point for
understanding why specific structures emerge. The
necessity for going beyond economic variables is made
especially clear when one attempts to answer the question
of why uneconomic channel structures persist over time[18,
p. 26].
Conclusions
Three channels have been discussed. The decisions
agreed to in the transaction channel influence, if not
control, the movement of product in the distribution
channel. Documenting international movements is so
complex that it deserves to be considered as a separate
channel. In some instances, the complexities and costs
associated with documentation are greater than those
associated with movement of the physical product.
Because of the complexities of many international
transactions, numerous middlemen or third parties exist,
making their living by helping the users find short-cuts
in time or savings in money. Goods moving through

cumbersome international channels are often targets for
theft and terrorism and special precautions are often
needed.
The complexities of international logistics channels can
be viewed as both a problem and an opportunity. They
add to the cost of any transaction, thereby discouraging
sales or even interest in developing export sales activity.
They offer opportunities to third-party providers to find
and fill niches in the world of trade.
Channels theory could be
applied to describe the
functioning of international
movements of
products a 16. American Shipper, January 1987, p. 20.
This article was written in response to a challenge given
in 1985 that:
"International logistics lacks a theory... Thirty years after
the landmark logistics texts were written, there is still no
textbook available to university instructors on the "Principles
of International Logistics"... The academic process begins
with a theory. The theory is then refined, refuted or
improved by the subsequent efforts of others[2, p. 55].
The purpose of this article was to demonstrate that
channels theory, long-practised in marketing study, could
be applied to describe and understand the functioning of
international movements of products.
References
1. "How a Glitch Can Ensnarl Foreign Trade", The Wall
Street Journal, 4 November 1980.
2. Stevens, C. (Ed.), Logistics: International Issues,
Leaseway Transportation, Cleveland, 1985.
3. Distribution, March 1987.
Donald F. Wood is Professor of Transportation at San Francisco State University, California, USA.
INTERNATIONAL LOGISTICS CHANNELS 9
4. International Commodity-Flow Analysis, Boeing, Seattle,
1986, p. 21.
5. American Shipper, July 1986, p. 14.
6. American Shipper, December, 1986, p. 68.
7. American Shipper, September 1988, p. 32.
8. American Shipper, November 1988, p. 20.
9. "The Risky Business of Transporting Perishable
Commodities", Inbound Logistics, January 1987, p. 29.
10. San Francisco Chronicle, 1 March 1988, p. A8.
11. Distribution, October 1987, p. 58.
12. San Francisco Chronicle, 1 February 1990, pp. C1, C6.
13. Cited in Davies, G.J., "The International Logistics
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& Materials Management, Vol. 17 No. 2, 1987, p. 20.
14. American Shipper, August 1984, p. 16.
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ed., Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 1988.
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20. "From Press to Public", KLM Cargovision,
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Distribution", Global Trade, January 1988, p. 26.
22. Lowe, D., "Crisis Management Marketing for Tampering:
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Terrorism", San Francisco State University School of
Business Journal, Vol. 1, 1990, p. 81.
23. The Wall Street Journal, 13 October 1987.
24. Tatterson, J.W. and Wood, D.F., "PERT, CPM and the
Export Process", OMEGA, The International Journal of
Management Science, Vol. 2 No. 3, 1974, pp. 421-6.
25. Clayton, B.R. et al., "International Transactions, An
Integrated Systems Approach", Proceedings of the Annual
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