Bio Lecture Test 4 Exam will be a Cumulative Exam.

This means that the material from the entire semesters lectures will be covered. For this reason, it is a good idea to review your previous lecture exams The following is an outline of the remaining lecture/reading material Chapter 25: Urinary system and Excretion pages 506-515 Land animals a. face the risk of dehydration, b. lose water by evaporation and waste disposal, c. gain water by drinking and eating, and d. conserve water by i. reproductive adaptations, ii. behavior adaptations, iii. waterproof skin, and iv. efficient kidneys. B. 25.5 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: A variety of ways to dispose of nitrogenous wastes has evolved in animals 1. Metabolism produces toxic by-products. 2. Nitrogenous wastes are toxic breakdown products of proteins and nucleic acids. 3. Animals dispose of nitrogenous wastes in different ways. 4. Ammonia (NH3) is a. poisonous, b. too toxic to be stored in the body, c. soluble in water, and d. easily disposed of by aquatic animals. 5. Urea is a. produced in the vertebrate liver by combining ammonia and carbon dioxide, b. less toxic, c. easier to store, and d. highly soluble in water. 6. Uric acid is a. excreted by some land animals (insects, land snails, and many reptiles), b. relatively nontoxic, c. largely insoluble in water, d. excreted as a semisolid paste, conserving water, but e. more energy expensive to produce. C. 25.6 The urinary system plays several major roles in homeostasis 1. The urinary system a. forms and excretes urine and b. regulates water and solutes in body fluids. 2. In humans, the kidneys are the main processing centers of the urinary system. 3. Nephrons a. are the functional units of the kidneys, b. extract a fluid filtrate from the blood, and c. refine the filtrate to produce urine. 4. Urine is a. drained from the kidneys by ureters, b. stored in the urinary bladder, and c. expelled through the urethra. D. 25.7 Overview: The key processes of the urinary system are filtration, reabsorption,
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secretion, and excretion 1. Filtration a. Blood pressure forces water and many small molecules through a capillary wall into the start of the kidney tubule. 2. Reabsorption a. refines the filtrate, b. reclaims valuable solutes (such as glucose, salt, and amino acids) from the filtrate, and c. returns these to the blood. 3. Substances in the blood are transported into the filtrate by the process of secretion. 4. By excretion the final product, urine, is excreted via the ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. E. 25.8 Blood filtrate is refined to urine through reabsorption and secretion 1. Reabsorption in the proximal and distal tubules removes a. nutrients, b. salt, and c. water. 2. pH is regulated by a. reabsorption of HCO3 and b. secretion of H+. 3. High NaCl concentration in the medulla promotes reabsorption of water. F. 25.9 Hormones regulate the urinary system 1. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) regulates the amount of water excreted by the kidneys by a. signaling nephrons to reabsorb water from the filtrate, returning it to the blood, and b. decreasing the amount of water excreted. 2. Diuretics a. inhibit the release of ADH and b. include alcohol and caffeine. G. 25.10 CONNECTION: Kidney dialysis can be lifesaving 1. Kidney failure can result from a. hypertension, b. diabetes, and c. prolonged use of common drugs, including alcohol. 2. A dialysis machine a. removes wastes from the blood and b. maintains its solute concentration. Chapter 28. Nervous System pages 564-585; 587-601 Nerve Signals and Their Transmission
A. 28.3 Nerve function depends on charge differences across neuron membranes 1. At rest, a neurons plasma membrane has potential energythe membrane potential, in which a. just inside the cell is slightly negative and b. just outside the cell is slightly positive. 2. The resting potential is the voltage across the plasma membrane of a resting neuron. 3. The resting potential exists because of differences in ion concentration of the fluids inside and outside the neuron. a. Inside the neuron i. K+ is high and ii. Na+ is low. b. Outside the neuron i. K+ is low and
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ii. Na+ is high. B. 28.4 A nerve signal begins as a change in the membrane potential 1. A stimulus is any factor that causes a nerve signal to be generated. A stimulus a. alters the permeability of a portion of the membrane, b. allows ions to pass through, and c. changes the membranes voltage. 2. A nerve signal, called an action potential, is a. a change in the membrane voltage, b. from the resting potential, c. to a maximum level, and d. back to the resting potential. C. 28.5 The action potential propagates itself along the axon 1. Action potentials are a. self-propagated in a one-way chain reaction along a neuron and b. all-or-none events. 2. The frequency of action potentials (but not their strength) changes with the strength of the stimulus. D. 28.6 Neurons communicate at synapses 1. Synapses are junctions where signals are transmitted between a. two neurons or b. between neurons and effector cells. 2. Electrical signals pass between cells at electrical synapses. 3. At chemical synapses a. the ending (presynaptic) cell secretes a chemical signal, a neurotransmitter, b. the neurotransmitter crosses the synaptic cleft, and c. the neurotransmitter binds to a specific receptor on the surface of the receiving (postsynaptic) cell. E. 28.7 Chemical synapses enable complex information to be processed 1. Some neurotransmitters a. excite a receiving cell, and b. others inhibit a receiving cells activity by decreasing its ability to develop action potentials. 2. A receiving neurons membrane may receive signals a. that are both excitatory and inhibitory and b. from many different sending neurons. 3. The summation of excitation and inhibition determines if a neuron will transmit a nerve signal. F. 28.8 A variety of small molecules function as neurotransmitters 1. Many small, nitrogen-containing molecules are neurotransmitters. a. Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter i. in the brain and ii. at synapses between motor neurons and muscle cells. b. Biogenic amines i. are important neurotransmitters in the CNS and ii. include serotonin and dopamine, which affect sleep, mood, and attention. c. Many neuropeptides i. consist of relatively short chains of amino acids important in the CNS and ii. include endorphins, decreasing our perception of pain. d. Nitric oxide i. is a dissolved gas and ii. triggers erections during sexual arousal in men. G. 28.9 CONNECTION: Many drugs act at chemical synapses
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1. Many psychoactive drugs a. act at synapses and b. affect neurotransmitter action. 2. Caffeine counters the effect of inhibitory neurotransmitters. 3. Nicotine acts as a stimulant by binding to acetylcholine receptors. 4. Alcohol is a depressant. C. 28.16 CONNECTION: Injuries and brain operations provide insight into brain function 1. Brain injuries and surgeries reveal brain functions. a. Phineas Gage had a 13-pound steel rod pierce his skull, which resulted in negative changes to his personality. b. Stimulation of the cerebral cortex during surgeries caused patients to recall sensations and memories. c. Cutting the corpus callosum revealed information about brain lateralization. D. 28.17 CONNECTION: fMRI scans can provide insight into brain structure and function 1. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is a. a scanning and imaging technology used to study brain functions, b. used on conscious patients, c. monitors changes in blood oxygen usage in the brain, and d. correlates to regions of intense brain function. E. 28.18 Several parts of the brain regulate sleep and arousal 1. Sleep and arousal involve activity by the a. hypothalamus, b. medulla oblongata, c. pons, and d. neurons of the reticular formation. 2. Sleep a. is essential for survival, b. is an active state, and c. may be involved in consolidating learning and memory. F. 28.19 The limbic system is involved in emotions, memory, and learning 1. The limbic system is a. a functional group of integrating centers in the i. cerebral cortex, ii. thalamus, iii. hypothalamus, and b. involved in i. emotions such as nurturing infants and bonding emotionally to other people, ii. memory, and iii. learning. G. 28.20 CONNECTION: Changes in brain physiology can produce neurological disorders 1. Many neurological disorders can be linked to changes in brain physiology, including a. schizophrenia, b. major depression, c. Alzheimers disease, and d. Parkinsons disease. 2. Schizophrenia is a. a severe mental disturbance and b. characterized by psychotic episodes in which patients lose the ability to distinguish reality. 3. Depression
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a. Two broad forms of depressive illness have been identified: i. major depression and ii. bipolar disorder, manic-depressive disorder. b. Treatments may include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), which increase the amount of time serotonin is available to stimulate certain neurons in the brain. 4. Alzheimers disease is a. characterized by confusion, memory loss, and personality changes and b. difficult to diagnosis. 5. Parkinsons disease is a. a motor disorder and b. characterized by i. difficulty in initiating movements, ii. slowness of movement, and iii. rigidity.

Chapter 26. Endocrine System 517-531 I. Introduction

A. In lions, the hormone testosterone promotes the development and maintenance of male traits including 1. growth and maintenance of the mane and 2. increased height and weight.

II. The Nature of Chemical Regulation

A. 26.1 Chemical signals coordinate body functions 1. The endocrine system a. consists of all hormone-secreting cells and b. works with the nervous system in regulating body activities. 2. The nervous system also a. communicates, b. regulates, and c. uses electrical signals via nerve cells. 3. Comparing the endocrine and nervous systems a. the nervous system reacts faster. b. the responses of the endocrine system last longer. 4. Hormones are a. chemical signals, b. produced by endocrine glands, c. usually carried in the blood, and d. responsible for specific changes in target cells. 5. Hormones may also be released from specialized nerve cells called neurosecretory cells. B. 26.2 Hormones affect target cells using two main signaling mechanisms 1. Two major classes of molecules function as hormones in vertebrates. a. The first class includes hydrophilic (water-soluble), amino-acid-derived hormones. Among these are i. proteins, ii. peptides, and iii. amines. b. The second class of hormones are steroid hormones, which include small, hydrophobic molecules made from cholesterol. 2. Hormone signaling involves three key events:
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a. reception, b. signal transduction, and c. response. 3. An amino-acid-derived hormone a. binds to plasma-membrane receptors on target cells and b. initiates a signal transduction pathway. 4. A steroid hormone can a. diffuse through plasma membranes, b. bind to a receptor protein in the cytoplasm or nucleus, and c. form a hormone-receptor complex that carries out the transduction of the hormonal signal.

III. The Vertebrate Endocrine System

A. 26.3 Overview: The vertebrate endocrine system consists of more than a dozen major glands 1. Some endocrine glands (such as the thyroid) primarily secrete hormones into the blood. 2. Other glands (such as the pancreas) have a. endocrine and b. nonendocrine functions. 3. Other organs (such as the stomach) are primarily nonendocrine but have some cells that secrete hormones. 4. The following figure shows the locations of the major endocrine glands. 5. The following table summarizes the main hormones produced by the major endocrine glands and indicates how they a. function and b. are controlled. 6. Two endocrine glands are not discussed further. a. The pineal gland i. is pea-sized, located near the center of the brain, and ii. secretes melatonin, a hormone that links environmental light conditions with biological rhythms. b. The thymus gland i. lies above the heart, under the breastbone, and ii. secretes a peptide that stimulates the development of T cells. B. 26.4 The hypothalamus, which is closely tied to the pituitary, connects the nervous and endocrine systems 1. The hypothalamus a. blurs the distinction between endocrine and nervous systems, b. receives input from nerves about the internal conditions of the body and the external environment, c. responds by sending out appropriate nervous or endocrine signals, and d. uses the pituitary gland to exert master control over the endocrine system. 2. The pituitary gland consists of two parts. a. The posterior pituitary i. is composed of nervous tissue, ii. is an extension of the hypothalamus, and iii. stores and secretes oxytocin and ADH, which are made in the hypothalamus. 3. The anterior pituitary a. synthesizes and secretes hormones that control the activity of other glands and b. is controlled by two types of hormones released from the hypothalamus: i. releasing hormones stimulate the anterior pituitary, and ii. inhibiting hormones inhibit the anterior pituitary. 4. Pituitary secretions include a. growth hormone (GH) that promotes protein synthesis and the use of body fat for energy metabolism, b. endorphins that function as natural painkillers, and
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c. TRH (TSH-releasing hormone) that stimulates the thyroid (another endocrine gland) to release thyroxine.

IV. Hormones and Homeostatis

A. 26.5 The thyroid regulates development and metabolism 1. The thyroid gland is located in the neck, just under the larynx (voice box). 2. The thyroid gland produces two similar hormones, a. thyroxine (T4) and b. triiodothyronine (T3). 3. These hormones regulate many aspects of a. metabolism, b. reproduction, and c. development. 4. Thyroid imbalance can cause disease. a. Hyperthyroidism i. results from too much T4 and T3 in the blood, ii. leads to high blood pressure, loss of weight, overheating, and irritability, and iii. produces Graves disease. b. Hypothyroidism i. results from too little T4 and T3 in the blood and ii. leads to low blood pressure, being overweight, and often feeling cold and lethargic. 5. Iodine deficiency can produce a goiter, an enlargement of the thyroid. In this condition, a. the thyroid gland cannot synthesize adequate amounts of T 4 and T3, and b. the thyroid gland enlarges. B. 26.6 Hormones from the thyroid and parathyroid glands maintain calcium homeostasis 1. Blood calcium level is regulated by antagonistic hormones each working to oppose the actions of the other hormone: a. calcitonin, from the thyroid, lowers the calcium level in the blood, and b. parathyroid hormone (PTH), from the parathyroid glands, raises the calcium level in the blood. C. 26.7 Pancreatic hormones regulate blood glucose levels 1. The pancreas secretes two hormones that control blood glucose: a. insulin signals cells to use and store glucose, and b. glucagon causes cells to release stored glucose into the blood. D. 26.8 CONNECTION: Diabetes is a common endocrine disorder 1. Diabetes mellitus a. affects about 8% of the U.S. population and b. results from a i. lack of insulin or ii. failure of cells to respond to insulin. 2. There are three types of diabetes mellitus. a. Type 1 (insulin-dependent) is i. an autoimmune disease ii. caused by the destruction of insulin-producing cells. b. Type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) is i. caused by a reduced response to insulin, ii. associated with being overweight and underactive, and iii. the cause of more than 90% of diabetes. c. Gestational diabetes i. can affect any pregnant woman and
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ii. lead to dangerously large babies, which can complicate delivery. E. 26.9 The adrenal glands mobilize responses to stress 1. The endocrine system includes two adrenal glands, sitting on top of each kidney. 2. Each adrenal gland is made of two glands fused together, the a. adrenal medulla and b. adrenal cortex. 3. Both glands secrete hormones that enable the body to respond to stress. 4. Nerve signals from the hypothalamus stimulate the adrenal medulla to secrete a. epinephrine (adrenaline) and b. norepinephrine (noradrenaline). 5. These hormones quickly trigger the fight-or-flight responses, which are short-term responses to stress. 6. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the pituitary causes the adrenal cortex to secrete a. glucocorticoids and b. mineralocorticoids. 7. The effects of these hormones cause long-term responses to stress. F. 26.10 The gonads secrete sex hormones 1. Steroid sex hormones a. affect growth, b. affect development, and c. regulate reproductive cycles and sexual behavior. 2. Sex hormones include a. estrogens, which maintain the female reproductive system and promote the development of female characteristics, b. progestins, such as progesterone, which prepare and maintain the uterus to support a developing embryo, and c. androgens, such as testosterone, which stimulate the development and maintenance of the male reproductive system. 3. The synthesis of sex hormones by the gonads is regulated by the a. hypothalamus and b. pituitary. G. 26.11 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: A single hormone can perform a variety of functions in different animals 1. The peptide hormone prolactin (PRL) in humans stimulates mammary glands to grow and produce milk during late pregnancy. 2. Suckling by a newborn stimulates further release of PRL. 3. High PRL during nursing inhibits ovulation. 4. PRL has many roles unrelated to childbirth, suggesting that PRL is an ancient hormone diversified through evolution. a. In some nonhuman mammals, PRL stimulates nest building. b. In birds, PRL regulates fat metabolism and reproduction. c. In amphibians, PRL stimulates movement to water. d. In fish that migrate between salt and fresh water, PRL helps regulate salt and water balance.

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Chapter 27 Male Reproductive System, pages 534-545, 560-561 and Female Reproductive System, pages 534-545, 560-561 I. Introduction
A. Fertility drugs 1. increase the number of eggs that are ovulated and 2. have allowed thousands of infertile couples to have babies. B. Ten percent of women taking fertility drugs become pregnant with more than one embryo. C. Newborns from multiple births are 1. more likely to be premature, 2. more likely to have lower birth weights, and 3. less likely to survive.

II. Asexual and Sexual Reproduction

A. 27.1 Asexual reproduction results in the generation of genetically identical offspring 1. Asexual reproduction a. is the creation of genetically identical offspring by one parent, b. is a very rapid form of reproduction, and c. can proceed via i. budding, ii. fission, or iii. fragmentation/regeneration. B. 27.2 Sexual reproduction results in the generation of genetically unique offspring 1. Sexual reproduction a. is the creation of offspring by fertilization and b. joins two haploid sex cells or gametes to form a diploid (2n) zygote. 2. The male gamete, the sperm, a. is relatively small and b. moves by means of a flagellum. 3. The female gamete, the egg, a. is a much larger cell and b. is not self-propelled. 4. Some organisms, such as sea anemones, can reproduce both a. asexually and b. sexually. 5. Some animals exhibit hermaphroditism in which an individual has both female and male reproductive systems. 6. Hermaphroditism makes it easier to find a mate for animals that are solitary or less mobile. 7. Hermaphrodites may a. exchange gametes with other individuals or b. fertilize their own eggs. 8. External fertilization a. occurs when eggs and sperm are discharged near each other and b. is used by many fish and amphibian species. 9. Internal fertilization a. occurs when sperm is deposited in or near the female reproductive tract and b. is used by some fish and amphibian species and nearly all terrestrial animals.

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III.

Human Reproduction
A. 27.3 Reproductive anatomy of the human female 1. Both sexes in humans have a. a set of gonads where gametes are produced, b. ducts for gamete transport, and c. structures for copulation. 2. Ovaries contain follicles that a. nurture eggs and b. produce sex hormones. 3. An immature egg is ejected from the follicle in a process called ovulation. 4. Oviducts convey eggs to the uterus where a fertilized egg develops. 5. The uterus opens into the vagina through the cervix. 6. The vagina a. receives the penis during sexual intercourse and b. forms the birth canal. B. 27.4 Reproductive anatomy of the human male 1. Testes (singular, testis) produce a. sperm and b. male hormones. 2. The epididymis stores sperm as they develop further. 3. Several glands contribute to semen. These are the a. seminal vesicles, b. prostate gland, and c. bulbourethral glands. 4. During ejaculation a. sperm is expelled from the epididymis, b. the seminal vesicles, prostate, and bulbourethral glands secrete into the urethra, and c. semen is formed and expelled from the penis. 5. Sperm production a. is regulated by a negative feedback system of hormones and b. involves the i. hypothalamus, ii. anterior pituitary, and iii. testes. C. 27.5 The formation of sperm and egg cells requires meiosis 1. Spermatogenesis occurs in seminiferous tubules. a. Primary spermatocytes i. are formed by mitosis and ii. divide by meiosis I to produce secondary spermatocytes. b. Secondary spermatocytes i. divide by meiosis II to produce round spermatids, ii. spermatids differentiate into elongate sperm, and iii. mature sperm are released into seminiferous tubules. 2. Oogenesis begins before birth when a diploid cell in each developing follicle begins meiosis. a. Each month about one primary oocyte resumes meiosis. b. A secondary oocyte arrested at metaphase of meiosis II is ovulated. c. Meiosis of the ovum is completed after fertilization. 3. Oogenesis and spermatogenesis are

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a. alike in that both produce haploid gametes but b. different in that i. oogenesis produces only one mature egg and polar bodies that degenerate and ii. spermatogenesis produces four mature gametes. D. 27.6 Hormones synchronize cyclic changes in the ovary and uterus 1. About every 28 days a. the hypothalamus signals the anterior pituitary to secrete follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), b. which trigger the growth of a follicle and ovulation, the release of an egg. 2. After ovulation, the ovarian follicle becomes the corpus luteum. 3. The corpus luteum secretes estrogen and progesterone, which a. stimulate the endometrium to thicken, b. prepare the uterus for implantation of the embryo, and c. inhibit the hypothalamus, reducing FSH and LH secretion. 4. If the egg is fertilized a. the embryo releases hormones that maintain the uterine lining and b. menstruation does not occur. 5. If the egg is not fertilized a. the drop in LH shuts down the corpus luteum and its hormones, b. menstruation is triggered, and c. the hypothalamus and pituitary stimulate development of a new follicle. E. 27.7 CONNECTION: Sexual activity can transmit disease 1. Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) caused by bacteria can often be cured. 2. Chlamydia a. is the most common bacterial STD, b. often produces no symptoms, and c. can lead to pelvic inflammatory disease and infertility. 3. Viral diseases a. such as genital herpes and HIV, b. can only be controlled. 4. The best way to avoid the spread of STDs is abstinence. 5. Latex condoms provide the best protection against disease transmission for safer sex. F. 27.8 CONNECTION: Contraception can prevent unwanted pregnancy 1. Contraception is the deliberate prevention of pregnancy. a. Several forms of contraception can prevent pregnancy, with varying degrees of success.

IV. Principles of Embryonic Development

A. 27.9 Fertilization results in a zygote and triggers embryonic development 1. Embryonic development begins with fertilization, a. the union of sperm and egg, b. to form a diploid zygote. 2. Sperm are adapted to reach and fertilize an egg. Sperm have a. a streamlined shape, which moves easily through fluids, b. many mitochondria, which provide ATP for tail movements, and c. a head that contains a haploid nucleus and is tipped with an acrosome containing enzymes that help it penetrate the egg. 3. During fertilization, a. sperm squeeze past follicle cells, b. acrosomal enzymes digest the eggs jelly coat,
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B.

C.

D.

E.

F.

c. a sperm binds to egg receptors, d. sperm and egg plasma membranes fuse, e. the sperm nucleus enters the egg cytoplasm, f. the vitelline layer separates and becomes impenetrable, and g. the egg and sperm nuclei fuse. 27.10 Cleavage produces a ball of cells from the zygote 1. Cleavage is a rapid series of cell divisions that produces a. more cells, b. smaller cells, and c. a fluid-filled embryo called a blastula. 27.11 Gastrulation produces a three-layered embryo 1. During gastrulation a. cells migrate to new locations, b. a rudimentary digestive cavity forms, and c. the basic body plan of three layers is established with i. ectoderm outsidebecomes skin and nervous systems, ii. endoderm insidebecomes digestive tract, iii. mesoderm in the middlebecomes muscle and bone. 27.12 Organs start to form after gastrulation 1. Organs develop from the three embryonic layers. a. The stiff notochord forms the main axis of the body and is later replaced by the vertebral column in most chordates. b. The neural tube develops above the notochord and will become the i. brain and ii. spinal cord. 2. As the embryo elongates, paired somites a. form along the sides of the notochord, b. hollow out to form a coelom, and c. eventually contribute to muscles, bone, and other connective tissues. 3. Other systems develop at the same time. 27.13 Multiple processes give form to the developing animal 1. Tissues and organs develop by a. changes in cell shape, b. cell migration, and c. programmed cell death (also called apoptosis). 2. Through induction, adjacent cells and cell layers a. influence each others differentiation b. via chemical signals. 227.14 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Pattern formation during embryonic development is controlled by ancient genes 1. Pattern formation, a. the emergence of the parts of a structure in their correct relative positions, b. involves the response of genes to spatial variations of chemicals in the embryo, and c. results in tissues and organs developing in their proper positions at the correct times. 2. Homeotic genes a. contain common nucleotide sequences (homeoboxes), b. guide pattern formation in embryos, and c. occur in diverse groups such as i. prokaryotes,
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ii. yeast, iii. plants, and iv. animals. 3. Homeotic genes reveal the shared evolutionary history of life.

V. Human Development
A. 27.15 The embryo and placenta take shape during the first month of pregnancy 1. Pregnancy, or gestation, is the carrying of developing young within the female reproductive tract. 2. Human pregnancy a. averages 266 days (38 weeks) from fertilization or b. 40 weeks (9 months) from the start of the last menstrual period. 3. Human development begins with fertilization in the oviduct. 4. Cleavage produces a blastocyst whose a. inner cell mass becomes the embryo and the b. trophoblast, the outer cell layer, which i. attaches to the uterine wall and ii. forms part of the placenta. 5. Gastrulation occurs and organs develop from the three embryonic layers. 6. Four extraembryonic membranes develop. a. The amnion i. surrounds the embryo and ii. forms a fluid-filled amniotic cavity that protects the embryo. b. The yolk sac, i. in reptiles, stores yolk, ii. in humans, does not store yolk but is a source of the first germ cells and blood cells. c. The allantois i. contributes to the umbilical cord, ii. forms part of the urinary bladder, and iii. in reptiles, stores embryonic waste. d. The chorion i. contributes to the placenta and ii. secretes human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG), which prevents menstruation in mammals. 7. The placenta is a a. close association of i. embryonic chorion and ii. mothers blood vessels, and b. site of i. gas exchangefrom mother to embryo, ii. nutrient exchangefrom mother to embryo, and iii. waste exchangefrom embryo to mother. B. 27.16 Human development from conception to birth is divided into three trimesters 1. The first trimester is the period of greatest change. a. The embryo forms, looking like other vertebrate embryos. b. Extraembryonic membranes form. c. All major organ systems are established. d. After 9 weeks after fertilization, the embryo is called a fetus and i. can move its arms and legs and ii. starts to look distinctly human. 2. During the second trimester, a. there is a great increase in the size of the fetus, and
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b. human features are refined. c. At 20 weeks, the fetus i. is about 19 cm long (7.6 in.) ii. weighs about 0.5 kg (1 lb.). 3. The third trimester is also a time of rapid growth. a. The circulatory and respiratory systems mature. b. Muscles thicken and the skeleton hardens. c. The third trimester ends with birth. d. Babies born as early as 24 weeks may survive only with extensive medical care. C. 27.17 Childbirth is induced by hormones and other chemical signals 1. Hormonal changes induce birth. a. Estrogen makes the uterus more sensitive to oxytocin. b. Oxytocin acts with prostaglandins to initiate labor. c. The cervix dilates to about 10 cm. d. The baby is expelled by strong uterine contractions. e. The placenta dislodges and is expelled after the baby. 2. Labor occurs in three stages: a. dilation of the cervix, b. expulsion, delivery of the infant, c. delivery of the placenta.

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