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Few periods ofhistory have known such dramatic and thechurch preserved andadapted classical forms for profound change asthelateRoman world. Thevery itsownpurposes. Anewvigorous, more abstract style essence of theolder, classical civilization wasbeing came to prevail inportraits and luxury goods foremchallenged, andwouldeventually perish. Likethe perors and atistocrats aswellasin artforthechurch: modern world, thelateRoman world wasmultitacial illustrations of Biblical stories, iconsof Christ, the andmultireligious. It wascompounded by extremes Virgin, andsaints, andsumptuous vessels forits litof thought, from themost dire pessimism to themost urgy. Bythesixth century, adistinctly Christian ideal fervent hope.It waswracked by ctisesin politics, dominated thearts of theMediterranean world. society, andreligion. Under anextraordinary succes- Thiscomplex andfascinating period is thesubject sionof emperors, from thethird to theseventh cen- of an exhibition to openat the Museum in midtury, theempire wastransformed from agreat power, November. Four hundred andfiftyobjects from over withits center at Rome, to a much reduced butstill 100 collections hereandoverseas will be brought dominant state witha newcapital atConstantinople.together in a dynamic arrangement thatwillprovide Devastating warsweakened its economy, andlands newinsights andnewpublic appreciation for Late wererelinquished forever as invaders advanced on Antique andEarly Christian art.Thecreative force theempire's borders. In 410Rome, once thegreatest behind Ageof Spirituality hasbeen Kurt Weitzmann, cityin theWestern world, wassacked bytheGoths. Professor Emeritus, Princeton University, andConThese shattering events werefelt by common man sultative Curator, Department of Medieval Artand andatistocrat alike, and,threatened by tremendous TheCloisters, whowrotethe introduction to this hardships, people bythethousands, turning from the Bulletin. Thecoordinator wasMargaret Frazer, CuraoldOlympian gods,sought comfort in mystery reli- tor,Department of Medieval Art,whoadapted these gions that offered hope of salvation. textsfrom a forthcoming catalogue of theexhibition. Against this background of change anduntest, Shewasably assisted bySandra Morgan andStephen Christianity emerged triumphant. It had ahumanistic Zwitn. Theshow wasmade possible bya grant from quality notfound in other faiths, andmany Romans theNational Endowment fortheHumanities, matched found solace in its tightly knitbrothethood. Despite bya grant from TheAndrew W.Mellon Foundation. intermittent persecution, Christians onlyincreased Further assistance was received fromthe Robert their numbers. Andin thefourth century, Emperor Wood Johnson Jr.Chatitable Trust. Under theArts Constantine, making oneof themostaudacious deci- andArtifacts Indemnity Act,indemnity wasgranted sions in history, granted Christianity hisofficial sanc- bytheFederal Council on theArtsandtheHumantion. A newera had begun. ities. Wearemost grateful to theCouncil's Executive Theadvent ofChristianity witnessed thedecline of Secretary, Lanni Lattin, andto herassistant, Nancy theclassical ideal of Greek andRoman art,although Lucia.
ThomasHoving Director

The Metropolitan Museum of ArtBulletin Autumn1977 VolumeXXXV,Number 2 Published quarterly. Copyright (r) 1977by The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Fifth Avenueand 82 Street,New York,N.Y. 10028.Second dass postagepaid at New York,N.Y. and additional entryoices. Subscriptions $11.50 a year.Singlecopies$2.95. Sent free to Museum members. Fourweeks'notice required for changeof address. Backissues available on microlSlm fromUniversity MicroElms, 313 N. First Street,Ann Arbor,Michigan. VolumesI-XXXVIII (1905-1942)available as a clothbound reprintset or as individual yearlyvolumesfrom ArnoPress,330 Madison Avenue,New York,N.Y. 10017,or fromthe Museum, Box 255, GracieStation,New York,N.Y. 10028.Photographsof Museum objects,unlessotherwisenoted,areby the Metropolitan Museum's Photograph Studio.Editorin Chiefof the Bulletin: JoanK. Holt; Editor:ShariLewis;Associate Editor:Sara HunterHudson.ArtDirector: Stuart Silver On the cover: Gennadios, detail of a gold glass (number41). Photograph: WilliamF. Pons. Frontispiece: Saint Theodore,detail of a textile (number73). Backcover:detailof the AntiochChalice(number81). Photograph: WilliamF. Pons
1

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Conandartamong of culture Christianization and Therapid to therising classical fromthedying Thetransition fourth the of half second the in led, successors process, stantine's a complex was culture Christian triumphant finally theAposJulian bytheemperor toacounterreaction thetwocoexisted century, inwhich centuries, overseveral extending asthe families senatorial bysuch of tatein theGreek Eastand owedmuch Christianity witheachother. andcompeted 32) in the Latin (number its Jewish Nicomachi andthe Symmachi to the factthatit outgrew success its ultimate In thearts temples. thepagan reopened cul- West,allof whom theclassical from elements many adopted and beginnings of a pure by the revival passed thismovement wasaccompanied twocenturies Almost ture it hadsetoutto dethrone. trends abstract themore against styleas a reaction aversion, classical theirlingering overcame beforethe Christians 1). (figure of Constantine in the Arch artsseen,for example, totherepresentational heritage, Jewish intheir tooted artin a movement alsointoChristian spread thisin- Thisrevival surmounted attimes had themselves theJews though emthefirst after Renaissance theTheodosian tousetheformal oftentermed began 53,54) and ( seenumbers hibition ruletheEastern-Western whose under of thatname, of the peror themessage artto propagate of classical vocabulary in 395. tookplace Empire of theRoman notonly division fathers church In theendtheGreek newreligion. of of thefirstgenerations attitude theiconoclastic reversed arts to thehightherepresentational butelevated Christians, S tis a me- itself:"Theimage est level,thatof the Sctipture ear,"saidthe justwhatwordsareto a listening morial, in his treatise Johnof Damascus theologian eighth-century onholyimages. fromthe coexisted cultures andChristian Theclassical by encompassed theperiod centuriesto theseventh third art, classical theexhibitionbut,at theendof thisperiod, hadrunits course, wasconcerned, matter as fat as subject witha burstof exhadtriumphed imagery andChristian during encroachments many Despite productivity. uberant maintained Empire Roman thesupernational centuries, these often coherence, cultural and economic, political, far-reaching It wasstill safeformerchants power. its actual transcending to the other, fromoneendof theMediterranean to travel legionnaires onwhich of roads network flung andthewidely These was still intact. traveled missionaries andChristian thatspread Figure1. Constantine production anartistic possible made conditions detailoftheTriumphal largess, distributing Rome.315 worldandwas,likeGreek ArchofConstantine, Mediterranean overthe entire theWest. and wellintheEast equally understood Latin, and I, the empirewas underJustinian In the sixth century, was pointsin history turning One of the mostcrucial at the once moreandfor the last time thoughonly briefly reMaxentius overthe emperor victory Constantine's In this rulerthe artsfound grandeur. in 312.Oneof Constantine's storedto its previous Bridge of theMilvian Battle of in 313,which one of their greatestpatrons.With the construction wastheEdictof Milan actsas emperor Erst for 2), he set the higheststandards and HagiaSophia(ISgure of Christianity for the practice tolerance established arts that went and all the decorative great churcharchitecture Erst The art. Christian ofmonumental thebirth marked been Justinhas criticized Much building. unique this into sponsored were elsewhere and Jerusalem, inRome, basilicas schools philosophical celebrated the of in 529, closing, ian's Thisbuilding successors. andhisimmediate byConstantine of some century, fourth late in the still where, Athens, of and ageof frescoes in turn,led to a flourishing program, rhetand philosophy studied fathers church Cappadocian the comhieratic individual with walls, church to cover mosaics culture of oric.But this actiondid not meanthat the classical for the ediScation stories of Biblical or series positions entirely:in the sixth andeven the seventh momentous was suppressed Thenext alike. illiterate and thedevout literate in 324-330, centuries,silverworkwas producedwith subjects from of thecapital, transfer wasConstantine's event style.Whenthe in an elegantclassical mythology, ), which, classical Byzantium (formerly toConstantinople Rome from Persiato the lost Enally I (610-641) Heraclius emperor outsoon in 1204, occupation thecrusaders' until notinvaded a temporary entered Empire Byzantine the 639, in Arabs the arts. concerning matters in asthearbiter Rome ranked 2

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popularity derived fromtheirpromise of salvation of the soul,resurrection, anda better life in the otherworld. It wasmainly thiseschatological aspect thatmade thesecults strong competitors withChristianity. Especially popular was thecultof Orpheus, whowithhismusic soothed thewild passions evenof animals (number 31) andwho was at times associated withChrist himself (number 66). Having originated in Thrace, Orpheus's birthplace, thecultspread throughout the empire. Other mystery cultsoriginated in theEast: from Egypt came thepopular cultof Isis(number 33), whose ritual provided certain features forChristianity; from Persia came thepowerful cult ofMithras (number 30), which, shortly before thetimeof Constantine, hadaspired, andalmost succeeded, to become theoWicial statereligion; andfromAsiaMinor came thecultof Cybele, theMagna Mater ("Great Mother" ). Figure 2. Interiorview of HagiaSophia,Istanbal(ConstantinoChristianity, having established itself asa temporal power, ple). Constructed 532-537,andlater soon developed a well-organized bureaucracy, became a statewithin thestate,andadopted ceremonial pomp from court. Thistrend wasstrongly decline, andwith it a flourishing reflected in the period in the artswas theimperial century simple representations illustrated eclipsed. Theonslaught of Islam marked theendof anera. arts.In thethird stories, eithernarratively or symbolically, Whilecentralized but in imperial governments hadmade first Biblical Rome andthenConstantinople century theparaphernalia of imperial leading centers in thearts, thefourth power was intothepictorial othercitieshadtheitshare language. of artistic Christ no longer sat activity. Thegreat introduced on a chair, metropolises butlikean emperor Alexandria and Antioch on a jewelcontinued to play likea teacher major throne. toles in the arts,not onlybecause Theinfusion intosome scenes of liturgical theyremained studded or dogmatic wealthy overtones led to thecreation commercial centers, butbecause, of hieratic along comwithRome, they assumed inwhich theborrowings greatecclesiastical from poweras patriarchates.positions imperial iconography Onlylaterwereadded Withanunsurpassed Constantinople (in 381) andJetu- areonlytooobvious. richness of imsalem (in 451). Allfivepatriarchates church fullyrealized werecreative the extraordinary centers ages,the Christian of Christian art. effectiveness of pictorial language. Against thishistorical YetChristianity background thebattle wasnot thefirstto invent of ideologies Biblical art. tookplace. When Christianity began to spread, of Judaism, it profited It was afterall the offspring fromwhichit from thedisaffection of large sections of thepopulation theOldTestament for adopted andmany of its moral precepts. thestate-supported Olympian religion. Yet,thepagan clear cults Butwhathasbecome onlyfairly recently is thatat a were notabruptly abandoned withtheEdict of Milan. period, asdocumented While certain bythethird-century synagogue major temples were nolonger erected orcultstatues created, atDura ontheEuphrates, theJews possessed anapparently many temples werestillstanding, ready to be reopened, at wellestablished representational art,bynomeans primitive; thetimeof Julian's revolt. Ontheother hand, it is a reflec- elaborate and quite sophisticated scenic representations based tionof thechange incultural climate thatbyabout thefifth on illustrations fromvarious books of the OldTestament century theOlympian Zeus byPhidias, having been brought cover oneof thesynagogue walls(Egure 3 ). to Constantinople, wasnot displayed in a temple but,like Butno matter how different the tenetsof the various a collector's item,in the palace of Lausos. Whileby the religions, theformal vocabulary by which artists expressed fourth century in thegreat citiesthe strengthened Church themselves pictorially wasthe same everywhere. Theconhad begun to suppress overt pagan worship, in more remote quests of Alexander hadbrought abouta standardization rural districts, especially theEgyptian andSyrian provinces, of theartistic language thatoriginated in Hellenistic Greece pagan cultssurvived somewhat longer. Where representa- andspread thoughout theNear East, and, under theRoman tions ofpagan gods and heroes didsurvive inConstantinople emperors, throughout thewhole of theLatin AX7est aswell. aslateasthesixth and seventh centuries, they were nolonger It wasan anthropocentric artin whichthe human figure objects of veneration butartobjects owned bya humanisti- could be represented in every possible poseandemotion. cally oriented intelligentsia. ThisGreco-Roman styleis felt evenat the periphery of Even before Christianity hadbecome a power, skeptics of theempire, as,forexample, in Dura. Art,liketheKoinetheOlympian pantheon hadfound spititual satisfaction and the formof the Greeklanguage spoken throughout the consolation in the teachings of the major philosophical Greco-Roman area wasunderstood in all centers of the schools the Platonic, the Stoic,the Epicurean, and the Mediterranean world. Peripatetic. Theitartistic aspitations weresatisfied chiefly To bring order to theheterogeneous material of theexby statues andpaintings of the founders of theseschools, hibition,we have dividedit into Sve realms,starting, for representations thatlater became themodels forextremely severalreasons, with the imperial. In these turbulent cenpopulat portraits of thefoutEvangelists. turiesthe monarchy was the moststableinstitution, tooted Themasses were attracted bythemystery religions, whose in the goldenage of Augustus and continuing, at least in

The Empire at the Death of Theodosius, 395 The Empire at the Death of Justinian, 565

A.D.300-700 The LateRomanEmpire,

Ages.Of turies Church. the entireMiddle of theChristian through Empire, establishment theXrm the Eastern after in brought Zeus he survivedmainly though of Christianity position, adoption losthismajor course,the emperors' of the god Sarapis, sym- Egypt because with Christian arts. of hisidentification in thevisual reflected thatwere changes must and the lowerworld. insignia, andhis revelty Dionysos thetraditional Although to or replaced bolswereadded the emkantharos, that the vine, cleat the made it was Christians, tothe statemonuments repulsive been in official have symbols. Christian (num- andvintage of Christ important in thename scenesbecame hisvictories hadachieved peror enjoyed likewise love, as universal displayed of publicly the goddess was portrait Aphrodite, emperor's The ber 6). thepatron 45), asdidAsklepios, in thetound, great (number of a statue populatity stillin theform forawhile before, inhistole especially Apollo, be in two- of physicians would 22), and depiction (number themoststriking buteventually the of inspitation, Aspersonifications artsincreas- asleader of themuses. Imperial mosaic. especially media, dimensional acandbecame of paganism by the emperor- muses the bonds sponsored transcended theceremonies inglystressed Herakles theheroes, Among imagery. (number ceptable in Christian 9 ), actsof warfare (number processions whether as favor24) emerged (number in the (number 25) andAchilles performances 17), orvatious 11), thehunt(number and of virtue as symbols theywerevenerated to its itesbecause language pictorial using 14) thereby (number circus andChristians for pagans appeal strong having inhisconscious- fortitude, Moreover, aspropaganda. advantage fullest ideorepresentations wereothermythological him- alike. There identiISed at times theemperor Christian, nessof being of happy scenes to theChristians: in logically unobjectionable appears, Heraclius Egures: Biblical self withrenowned of intothedecoration introduced life,forexample, 58). Since bucolic (number plates on theCyprus asDavid disguise, to sugandelsewhere, andsarcophagi catacombs representa- Christian bythecourt, werecommissioned thebestartists of all kindsPersoniIScations afterlife. andotherofficials gestthe paradisic consuls, empresses, tionsof emperors, or nymphs, 27) (number gods river 26), (number cities the in rendered and quality highest of the those wereamong isoothers whentheyappeat andmany months, or gemcarvings seasons, of media fromglyptics, vatiety greatest to a either withcertainty be asctibed 6 ). lated,oftencannot 2 ), to ivory(number (number 1), to bronze (number milieu. ora Christian por- pagan anddatable of dated thepercentage since Furthermore, abandoned, godswasSnally of thepagan worship monuments, When theseimperial highamong traitsis relatively where, books, mainly intomedia, retreated imagery rich devel- their of stylistic basisfor the study a sound theyprovide of the the curiosity theycouldsatisfy items, as collectors' opment. of poems epic illustrated Through intellectual. selecChristian the demonstrates classical, the realm, Thesecond and of Euripides 37), dramas andVergil(number cen- Homer for several godsandheroes tiveuse of theOlympian 4

in unmatched a repertory of fullestuse of them,developing andthelike,a wealth handbooks mythological Menander, culture. TheHoly ancient by anyother andvatiety Christians. richness waspassed onto theearly imagery mythological embarked life,andartists to Christian wascentral iconog- Sctipture a fixed helped toestablish of miniatures Thecopying cycles. Themethod picture withextensive onits illustration raphy. hadbeendeveloped cycles picture down itselfwasnotnew:such was alsohanded sciences of classical Knowledge like classics of thegreat fortheillustration before encyclo- centuries of thebook.In lateantiquity through themedium fully and, aswe nowknow, andEuripides, byHomer un- those on a scale andcopied werecomposed pedic compendia art. in Jewish treatises developed illustration existed that scientific It is typical OldTestament Greece. known inclassical existed a second however, there to thenarrative, medical, In addition handbook; technical, likea surveyor's whether wasabbreviated, ofasingle scene thecontent whereby likeanherbal mode, orbotanical, on midwifery; likea handbook This itsrecognizability. just enough topreserve leaving asliter- often and artfully aslavishly illustrated were frequently paintings art-catacomb applied to funerary mostly a wide mode, pictures exerted 34, 40). These arytexts(numbers but "symbolic," hasbeenwidelytermed 35) and andsarcophagi (number such astextiles onother media, influence scenes canalsohave complete correct, since thisis notquite floor mosaics. connotations. thepropa- symbolic serving language asis thepictorial Aspowerful art,notonly tooted in classical is deeply Biblical imagery The not all artis tiedto ideologies. gation of ideologies, thepointof viewof stylebutalso,to a considerable in every from forconsumers artproduced includes seculat realm artist the Christian possible Wherever of content. portrait, evenwhenra- degree, or painted walkof life.A sculpted with a whole scene figure or,if hecould, a classical the re- adapted reveal doesnot necessatily power, diating spititual a striking example: of Christ is The figure few or no changes. it. The commissioned who of theperson ligious ailiations context froma bucolic theformis taken carrier arethesame aseveryone as a lamb wears orjewelty a person garments as a symbols. andthe ideafroma representation withspeciSc of Philanthropy; them heor sheentiches else's, unless more teacher of anobject as arephilosophers splendor by disciples or decorative Thepreciousness he is surrounded with be associated power. (number beitlg he may purchasing on theowner's 67); as a divine oftenthannot depends of the Heliosor Orpheus a patron of daily life,where 66); andhe sits on a jewel(number Alsoin representations scenes environment, studded 68). Many portrayed inhisnatural (number hadhimself likeanemperor arts often throne on parallels arebased classimi- fromtheOldandNewTestaments Thefeudal aresociological. distinctions themain of Adam on man's land- fromclassical the Creation thehunt of a rich mythology: although of thecourt, tated thestyle that ofhisemperor. creation depicted than vineonthe belesslavishly under thegourd owner may Jonah byPrometheus; them- sleeping class liked tO have andDavidon middle 55); Samson of theprofessional (number Members Endymion stor- Herakles a winemerchant occupations: at their soforth. selves portrayed 58); and (number erecting a anarchitect hisproduct, or selling artbegan to unfold, ing,shipping, hieratic century a more Inthefourth ivories, andtextiles instruments. mosaics, withhismedical oraphysician ascanstillbe seenin frescoes, building, wasmo- (numbers realm intheexhibition of a Jewish Theinclusion today of theicon littleremains very 69,70), while in 1932of thesynagogue (number bythediscovery tivated primatily thehieramedia transmitting 72), oneof themajor de- ticmode. frescoes covered withelaborate whose walls are of Dura, media wassogreat upon other influence Theicon's scenes fromvatious thatonemayspeak of narrative picting a richrepertory compositions art,where of an"iconic" of areentiched 3 ). The importance (figure the Old Testament books of A focal elements. anddogmatic by liturgical to pointof creativity werethefirst thattheJews it proves thefind is twofold: often heretheartist since wastheapse, andthatChristian tried on a vastscale Biblical stories represent liturgieschatological, inonecomposition tosummatize Jewish antecedents. cal,anddogmatic on such depended Bible illustrations eleorhistorical aswellas topographical wascon- ments, realm, Christian art,ourEfth stage, In its initial andthelike. donor figures, astitulat saints, such the as thecross, by suchsymbols its beliefs tentto express character of Chrisritualistic theincreasingly Moreover, But tianartwasgreatly leaf,andothers. the palm fish,the dove,the anchor, of the by thetransformation enhanced toutilize implements began century, Christianity thethird and precious objects. whenJ inabout of theliturgy intoelaborate the Theposition purposes, it made artsfordidactic therepresentational bythecultstatue temple occupied in thepagan were thechiefimplements on which wastaken bythealtar 81) (number likethechalice vessels, displayed: thesacred book withitsjewel(number 79), theGospel and thepaten later,the reliand,somewhat covers, andpearl-studded artists Christian likethese 85). Onobjects quaries (number be lesscorrect Nothing could skills. lavished theirgreatest of as hasso oftenbeendone,"objects thanto labelthem, decorative art." sculpture wasdying monumental centuries, During these inthethird century, atleast there existed, out,and, although realm like the Cleveland in the Christian a few statues of their association (number 55) theodium Jonah Egures of art,whichhad this branch idolsbrought Figure3. The Exodus,detail of a frescowith Biblicalrepresen- with pagan Syria. 245-256 at DuraEuropus, antiquity, to a halt. tations fromthesynagogue tole in classical played sucha leading
5

armygenerals as well as by churches, whoseacquisitions of implements likeprecious chalices andpatensin silver( numbers78, 81 ) hadhighpriority.
6

What survived longest were thestatues of emperors and emNever before hadivory beensowidely used in theartsas presses (number 5 ). Relief sculpture waslessobjectionable inthefifth and sixth centuries. Thecontrast between itspreandflourished through thefourth andEfthcenturies in the viousutilitarian use,predominantly for furniture andaptriumphal columns andotherstatemonuments of imperial plique, andits newelevated position is particularly striking. artaswellasinChristian art, especially onsarcophagi (num- Imperial and consular diptychs (numbers 6, 8 ) suddenly beber56). came a means forthemanifestation of stateauthority. The As a two-dimensional art,fresco painting wasmore notonlyimitated will- Christians imperial diptychs (number 68) ingly adopted bytheChristians; thevastinterior forpyxides surfaces of butusedivory (numbers 60, 77, 80), elaborate thebasilicas of OldSaint caskets, and other Peter's orSaint liturgical Paul's objects. Therich werea wel- reliquary repercome scenes outletforfrescoes, displayed on them covering thewallswithextensive toryof OldandNewTestament anewthattheChristians tookevery Oldand opportuNewTestament cycles fortheedification of thefaith- demonstrates knowledge of theBiblical stories. ful.Mosaics competed in their splendor withfrescoes. While nitytospread in theclassical period themosaic Theartof glyptics predominantly served to reached its greatest perfection in the coverfloors(number and 36), it wasnowgivenmorepromi- Hellenistic Augustan ages, butcameos ofgreat perfection nenceon walls;like frescoes, mosaics stillcarved depicted inthefourth Biblical were century, likethesardonyx with abattle scene (number stories. 12). Christian artists also strove fora levelof competence in thisimperial The mostspectacular craft, butafter the rise of anymedium was thatof high century theartwent intoeclipse. miniature painting. No great artistic skillwasbestowed on fifth theillustration of papyrus rolls,asvaluable Other astheywerein media, likebronze andterracotta, usedchiefly for the invention of storytelling cycles. Afterthe introduction ordinary household utensils areto someextent transformaof the durable parchment and the establishment, silverwork intocheaper by the tionsof ambitious materials. For fourth century, objects of thecodex used in theChristian astheprincipal service, form likelamps forbooks, some orcenminiature bronze painting casters achieved copied thehighest thefigurative artistic quality. decoration of modThe sers, mostluxurious (number manuscripts 83). werewritten in goldandsilver elsinsilver on purple andevenon gold-stained parchment (number Another medium, at leastsomeexamples of whichare 63). TheBible andespecially than justtableware, theGospel is glass. bookon thealtar more Traditionally emphasizing became focalpoints forthedevelopment shapes, texture, of anenormously graceful andcolor, in thefourth andfifth rlc :] lmagery. centuries glass workers stressed twospecial types fortherich Onemedium of figurative thatcompeted artsimultaneously withthebookfor a central display in thepagan andthe position realms: cut glass,with its sharp-edged in theChristian ritewaspanel painting in theform Christian straight and goldglass, withitsfluent of icons.In spiteof somestartling design of golden figures, recent findsat Mount lines; on a blueground (numbers 15, 17, 41, 67). Once Sinai, theiconis stillelusive because of large-scale destruc- usually theimpression is thatspecial effort tion of holy images wasmade tobring during the Iconoclastic controversy more, subjects to the closeattention (726-843 of the beholder, ). Yetthefactthatthey could threaten thefounda- signiScant when hewasdrinking outof a bowl. tionsof theempire highlights their importance. Icons focus even media, and perhaps on theimages themost of Christ, unlikely theVirgin, andthesaints (number Thelastof themajor transcended thelimitations 72), andthegreat of ornamental feasts, art,is texwhoserepresentations areoften to have tile.Good fortune haspreserved inthedrysands of Egypt overlaid an withliturgical anddogmatic overtones. wealth of material fromthisperiod. Precious metals, Among especially the goldandsilver, heldpositions enormous textiles area great number withDionysian subof importance in all ancient cultures. The roleplayed by Egurative representing thegodeither alone, withAriadne, oras goldis difficult to judge because so much of it wasmelted jects, of a thiasos (theDionysian down. Yetit is signiScant revelry ) ( number 21). Texthat intheEfth and sixth centuries part usmuch about thepopularity of theDionysos cult large goldmedallions (number 10) wereimportant in the tilesteach Among a variety of mythological subjects, dissemination of imperial propaganda. Allthemore astonish- in lateantiquity. Egures andscenes appear frequently (number 38) ing is the vastamount of silverthathasbeenpreserved. bucolic and even serially ( number 39). Within theChristian realm While inclassical antiquity silver served mainly ashandsome storyenjoyed particular popularity, surely beandoftenelegant tableservice, in the LateAntique-Early the Joseph of its association withEgypt. Butthehighest purpose Christian period it wasoftenusedsolely fordisplay. Thisis cause when atextile is turned intoaholy image, likethe theperiod ofimpressive, huge silver plates showing such sub- is achieved Virgin Enthroned (number 69). jects astheemperor in majesty giving gifts,ordeities of the Cleveland In every medium discussed, pagan andChristian subjects IsisorCybele cults, orthelifeofAchilles ineither onemonusideby side.In somecases mental it canbe proven (number 24) or several andin smallnarrative scenes. A occur it is highly likely thatthesame workshops cycle of David produced scenes is evendistributed overa whole setof others forany customer, regardless ofhisreligious plates(number affilia58). Thehuge hoards of LateAntique and artobjects Christians started tobury their dead in sarcophEarly Christian silver found in allprovinces of theRoman tion.When Empire depended areproofthatluxurious onsculptors trained fordiffersilver objects werewidely agi,theyobviously This explains, forexample, distributed, theidentity apparently of style owned by wealthy landholders and entpurposes.
* .

of the Constantinian reliefson the Archof Constantine (Egure1 ) withthatof many sarcophagi ( number 56 ) . Thesimilarityof style in suchluxurymanuscripts as the Vergitius

Vaticanus, which containsVergil'sGeorgics and Aeneid, impactof barbarian invasionsor the influence of folklore, andtheQuedVinburg ItaVa butwasmotivated witha fragment by the desireto achieve fromtheBooksof a higher degree of
Kingscanhardly be explained otherthanby the assumption thattheyweremadein the sameRoman scriptorium. Here, too, severalfourth-andfifth-century workshops specialized in the production of gold-glassdrinkingbowls depicting scenesfromthe life of Achilles,charioteers, Old andNew Testament scenesor Jewishsymbols(numbers 15, 53, 67) In Palestine glassflaskswith appropriate symbols were apparently sold at holy places,venerated by eitherChristians or Jews. The atmosphere of toleranceimpliedby the workshop practices is confirmed by commonburialchambers where members of one familybelonging to different religions had depicted subjects fromdif3erent religious repertories sideby side. Threeremarkable caseshavecometo light within the lastdecades: a burial chamber underSaintPeter's, whichhas a mosaic with Helioson a quadriga in the apexof its ceiling andaJonah sceneon its walls;thecatacomb in theViaLatina wherea variety of subjects fromancient mythology, including some laborsof Herakles,Sll some chambers, while others show a great numberof Old Testamentand a few New Testament scenes;anda tombchamber in Alexandria, where a scene of daily life with oxen turninga water wheel is placedalongside a hermset in a sacred grove,a lambcarrier who maywell be the Good Shepherd, andJonahunderthe gourdvine. The clearestexample,however,of the interminglingof pagan and Christianculture is the Projecta casket (number45), a bridalcasketupon which a noble Christian ladyis represented next to the toiletof Aphrodite. Withinthis ecumenical style, whichtowardsthe end of this periodwas broken up by the barbarian invasions in the West and the rise of Islamin the East, therenevertheless existedconsiderable variations due to geography and time. TheGreco-Roman style,predominant in imperial Rome? was not only sllaredby Constantinople but preserved in this capital morestrongly thanin anypartof the empire into the sixth and seventhcenturies(number58 ), nurtured by the imperialcourt and humanistic intellectuals. On the other hand,the greatmetropolises Alexandria and Antioch,still clingingto classical tradition as late as the thirdandfourth centuries began to succumbto the native styles of their hinterlands-CopticEgypt in the case of Alexandria and Palmyrene Syriain the case of Antioch.Moreover, in the West, outsidethe imperial residences of Rome,Milan,and Ravenna, and especially outside Italy, in the provinces of Gaul,Spain,Britain, andthe Germanic territories, the classicalheritage weakened rapidly andwas inSltrated by what is calledC4Migration of Nations"art. Yet this turning away from the classicaltradition was not a lineardevelopment. Imperial commissions in provincial citiessuchas Jerusalem, wheretheyabounded, artistic revivals andotherfactors producedobjects in whichthe classical heritage wasoftenmuch betterpreserved thanin otherworksof art produced contemporaneously in the sameregions. Seen froma widerperspective, the generaltrendof stylisticdevelopment was fromnaturalism to abstraction, from sculptural to two-dimensional arts for the sake of dematerialization and spiritualization, and from spatialsettingsto geometric order.Suchabstraction was not due solelyto the spirituality thancouldbe attained by naturalistic expression. Abstraction was not used exclusivelyin works of lower quality;through its use,a greatartistcouldachieve thehighest refinement and sophistication. Naturalistic-classical and abstract modes of expression couldbe applied simultaneously, even withinthe sameworkof art.The best example of this combination is the apsemosaicof SaintCatherine's Monasteryat MountSinaifounded by Justinian ( Egure 4 ), which depicts theTransEguration of ChristChrist's faceis rendered in abstract lines, his body is flat and dematerialized, while thefacesof Moses,Elijah, andthe threeapostles Peter,John, and Jamesare very lively and emotionaland their bodies quitecorporeal andvital. Thehighlysensitiveartisthasemployed the abstract form for the divinity and more naturalistic forms for human Egures.Clearlythe artist consideredneither of the two modessuperior to the other;theyareusedfor different purposes. These two modes are the foundation of the great vatietyof stylesfoundin the artof the MiddleAges,where at times the naturalistic-classical and at times the abstract elements prevailed.

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Figure4. Detailof apsemosaic with theTransfiguration of Christ Saznt Catherine's Monastery, MountSinai.548-565 Note. In the tencts datesof emperors' reignsaregiven within parentheses aftertheir names

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Imperial

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an wasprimarily realm Theartof theimperial by whichthe andcelebration artof persuasion authortheir translated andhisofficials emperor for all to see.Ubiquitous terms ity intovisual of his anddepictions of the emperor portraits suchas trimonuments actson public official a his rule throughout asserted arches umphal inthewest Spain from stretched that vastempire in the northto in the east,England to Syria thatencompassed in thesouth a domain Egypt objects, thesmallest Even peoples. different many at theright, enlarged shown likethefinecameo 10), bore (number goldmedallion or a splendid of the realm. to subjects message the imperial at wereconcentrated monuments Mostimperial Rome particularly of government, the centers acwastheir So impressive andConstantinople. monuments, and buildings huge of cumulation routes, processional squares, andpublic statues today even that games, forpublic arenas large and as capitals of such thecharacter affect cities these NewDelhi. and Washington of theruling andmembers theemperor Since of the the resources classhadat theirdisposal imperial wealth, personal aswellasgreat empire Themostprecious artis richandostentatious. gold,ivory,andgems were materialssilver, and bronze, marble, objects; usedforsmall-scale andarsculpture wereusedforlarger porphyry arisand Theemperor embellishment. chitectural livedin colorfully sumptuously, dressed tocracy the andvillas,andemployed palaces decorated all from whowereattracted artists, mostskillful cities. to thecapital overtheempire imof itspatrons, status theexalted Toreflect on Thereliefs ceremonial. artwasstiffly perial him show forexample, of Constantine, theArch theacclamareceiving and acts official performing en1). He is rigidly tionof his people(figure above elevated physically and spiritually throned, depict on the arch reliefs Other his attendants. in battleandexcelling conquering Constantine The andcourage. of hisvirtue proof in thehunt, Some, his obligations. shared officials emperor's ceremonial principally performed like consuls, in the of games asthesponsoring such functions, wasa 8 ). Thepostof consul (seenumber circus pastand,likemany Republican relicof Rome's of thelanded bymembers wasSlled offices, other theemshared who military, the and aristocracy

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peror's pride andresourcefulness in thehunt. When emperors became Christian, traditional imperial images wererecast in Christian terms. Justinian (527-565),for example, hadhimself portrayed on anivory diptych (number 6) as a traditional Roman conqueror, butabove hishead, overseeing hisvictory, is thelSgure ofChrist blessing. In the mosaics of SanVitalein Ravenna, Justinian andhis wife, Theodora, appear in a symbolic procession honoring thededication of thechurch. Although thecontext is purely Christian, thecouple's bearing is strictly imperial: they arelarger in scale andmore richly dressed than theirretinue, andtheyarethe onlylSgures not overlapped byothers. In its all-encompassing role,theartof theimperial realm forms animpressive and appropriate opening to an exhibition of LateAntique and Early Christian art. 1. Thischalcedony gemis carved withthebusts of two rulers, probably Maximianus Herculeus (286-310)andhis son Maxentius (306-312). Theyruled, although Maxentius wasnever officiallyrecognized, during the period of the Tetrarchy, a system devised bytheemperor Diocletian (284-305)to overcome the governmental chaos of thethird century. Diocletian divided the empire intofoursections, eachgoverned by an emperor, or tetrarch. Thetwo senior emperors were called Augusti andthetwojunior, Caesars. Therulers were thought ofasunited intheir rule, aconcept clearly stated bythepairs of embracing emperors in twoporphyry sculptures from Constantinople onthefasade of Saint Mark's inVenice.Onthiscameo theemperors areshown in a close-knit composition thatemphasizes their solidarity. Maximianus, thesenior Augustus at the left,is distinguished by hislarger sizeandindependent gaze. Thecameo is setasa pendant in a lateRoman, butnotcontemporary, goldmount andhungwithchains terminating in smoothly cut beryl,emerald, andclear-glass drops. The quality of the carving, enhanced by the gem's subtle coloration, fromcreamy whiteto bright orange, is exceptional. Such images ofdivine majestywere oneof themostimportant bequests of theimperial realm to theemerging artof a new age. Width ofgem: 4.3cm.( 1 11/16in.). Rome, 306-310. Dumbarton Oaks Collection, Washington,D.C., 47.14

I (306-337), sonof emperor, Constantine 2. TheSrstChristian ) andHelena,was bornat I ( 293-3()6 the tetrarch Constantius wherethe bronze headat Nis, in Yugoslavia, Naissus, modern Augustus by the Roman the left was found.He was acclaimed milia seriesof brilliant in 306 and,through armyin England victories, gainedcontrolof the westernpart taryandpolitical of the of the empirein 312. In 324 he becamesole emperor Roman world. With startlingeyes the pupils and itises are gold-and is among themost around theears,thisportrait traces of gilding to proclaim madefor publicdisplay impressive of Constantine part of a throughout the empire.Originally his sovereignty feacharacteristic statue,theheadshowssomeof Constantine's jaw,largenose, the square tures,knownfromotherportraits: renmoreabstractly in general andcaplike hair.It is, however, the atNaissus during dered, pointing to theworkof a localartist diConstantine's gaze underlines late 320s. The unwavering Height24 cm. ( 9 7/16 in.) . National vinelyinspired authority. Museum, Belgrade

head, of the bronze to the schematic conception 3. In contrast amethyst intaglio( above,left) of Constantius the magnilScent andrichlymodson, is carefully II (337-361), Constantine's is strongin the squarejaw, eled. While familyresemblance brows,these eyesunderprominent "Roman" nose,andstaring treatment of the cheeks, by the expressive features aresoftened only mouth,andloosecurlsat the napeof the neck.Although typical of hasthe monumentality 13/8 incheshigh,thisportrait dynasty. Constantinoof the Constantinian imperial sculpture Kulturbesitz, Museen,Preussischer ple, about360. Staatliche Misc.30931 Berlin, Antikenabteilung, ( 375) of theemperor Gratian head( above, right 4. Themarble Augustus at the age of nine, blendsthe au383), appointed in keeping with his clasthorityof his officewith a sensitivity Once undertheEnest poetof the age,Ausonius. sicaleducation modin its delicately this portrait, partof a bust or statuette, thatof Aelia surface andsmallscale,anticipates eled polished 5 ). Height14 cm. (51/2in.). Constantinople, Flacilla (number Geneva. Photo:O. Widmer OrtizCollection, about375.George
ll

S. The art of the Theodosian ) muted period( abollt 380-450 sometimes the boldly abstract, art rudeformsof Constantinian mod2 ) witha softly (seenumber treatmcnt cled, almostsensuous Thisbeauandsurface. of volume marblcstatuettcof Aelia tiil Is exwifcof llleodosius Flacilla, in thc thcnewharmony emplifies elegantly draperies classicizing herbodyandthe around wrapped of the depiction full,yetidealized, its sensitivDespite faceandhair. a lessfaithisprobably ity,theface thanthatof Constanful portrait gem( number tiusII onthecarlier arched under gaze, 3 ). Thedistant the spiritualforeshadows brows, portraits Christian of later ization 68-73). The neck(see numbers of andtheinlays laceandearrings stonesthatonce glassor colored musthave thestatuette decorated dimension-a addeda strange that intensienrichment physical material between fiedthecontrast qualities and the abstract reality 78 cm. ( 303/4 of theface.Height 380o390. in.). Constantinople, Paris, Nationalew Bibliotheque 13 desMEdailles, Cabinet

at the plaque 6The magnificent wasmost halfof a diptych, right, ( 527likely madefor Justinian as appears 565). The emperor of the earth,personiconqueror the beneath fied by the woman one andof the barbarians, horse, the emperor's of whomtouches The as a signof submission. lance athisleftprobablfr Victory winged oru reath, a crown onceptesented carlikethatheldby thestatuette Below,repreriedbsrthesoldier. Euro nations, ofcaptive sentatives offertribute. peanandOriental, is blessing a bustof Christ Above, sucChristian byangels, supported Victories. to theclassical cessors Justinian The ivorvcelebrates andhistriof thefaith asdefender umphantreign under Christ's mila specific than rather guidance itary conquest.Its masterfull of a conis thework relief carved dingmote Bycrou artist. summate than panel thecentral into figures he contain, it couldcomfortablv witha bursting theivorv endowed itS exultant thatsupports energy Height34.1 cm. (13 statement. Musee 7/16 in.). Constantinople. OA9063 Paris, duLouvret

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7. Sculpted portraits of officials linedthe streets andforums oflateRoman cities likeEphesos ontheeast coast of the Mediterranean, wherethe marble headbelowwasfound. Whiletoday large painted signsannounce thegovernor responsible for thecreation of a newhighway, in the third quarter of thefifth century thisportrait ofEutropios, a memberof thestreet-building commission of Ephesos, wasplaced onaninsctibed wallconsole asa more attractive and impressiverecord of his civiccontribution. Thetreatment of the head,nowbroken fromthe shoulders, withits elongated faceandstrongly stylized hait,eyes,andbeard, creates an expressive likeness, capturing the spititual life of theman rather than merely mitroring hisphysical self.Height 32cm. (125/8 in.). Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, Antikensammlung, I 880

8. According to its insctiptions, thisdiptych leafcelebrates the appointment in 513 of Clementinus as consul in Constantinople. Enthroned, he supervises theceremony of sparsio, thedistribution of money andprizes during thecircus games athisinauguration. Below, inthearena, servants pour the riches fromsacks. Medallions of Emperor Anastasius (491-518 ) and ofhiswife,Atiadne, flank thecross atthetop of thepanel; similat portraits mayhavebeenplaced in the consul's box at the circus. Personifications of Romeand Constantinople stand behind thenewconsul's throne assymbolsof hisputative authority. Thecluttered composition and hieratic display of richly adorned {igures is characteristic of many contemporary consulat diptychs. Ivory, height 39 cm. (153/8 in.). Constantinople. Merseyside County Museums, Liverpool, M 10036

and social bylaws asseverely regimented 9. Inasociety ceremony Antique world, customs as thatof theLate their Emperors performed important. wasextremely deways thatwere in strictly traditional official duties objects as andon private picted on statemonuments well. represents theapothediptych Thisleafof anivory imemperor. In early of a Roman osis,ordeification, followed death wasusually theemperor's perial times, his apotheosis. ceremony celebrating by an elaborate when wasmade in thefifthcentury, Since thisivory statereligion andno emwastheofficial Christianity intended it wasprobably have been deified, peror would tradition. pagan memorial to anextinct as a nostalgic is taken to theburnof theemperor Here, theeHigy Behind byfourelephants. ona cart drawn ingground is a youth atop ofwhich is afuneral pyre, theelephants in the which were caged Thetwoeagles, in a quadriga. the symbolize when it wassetaflame, pyteand released is thesoulof theemperor Above, ascending emperor. of geniito joina group carried aloftby twowinged is borancestors. Heaven his deiSed figures, perhaps Libra band, bypart of thezodiacal dered on theright is a bustof Helios, andin thecorner through Pisces; is at thetopof thepanel thesungod.Themonogram 32), an (see number perhaps thatof the Symmachi the to keepalive pagan family thatsought aristocratic spatial Theambiguous andcustoms. ancient religion indicate withheavy faces and stout Egures relationships date.Height27.7 cm. (107/8 in.). the Efth-century 57,10Museum, London, TheBritish Probably Rome. 13,1 15

10. In 583 and602,Emperor Maurice (582-602) assumed theconsulship at Constantinople, and,in celebration, hadgoldmedallions struck to giveto hisofficials. Four of theseandsmaller coins of his reign, aswellasthose of several earlier emperors, make upthegirdle above, which wasfound in Cyprus (see numbers 52, 58). On the front of themedallions Maurice is shown in imperial regalia, andon theback in military dress standing in a quadriga. Together, themedallions and coins weigh nearly onepound. Such giftswere meant for onlya very important official, whothen hadthem mounted to display theimperial favor he enjoyed. Length 66 cm.(251/2 in.). Probably 583.Metropolitan Museum, Giftof J. Pierpont Morgan, 17.190.147 11.Emperors, whether pagan orChristian, commemorated their military conquests on statemonuments andon smaller objects likethe woodsculpture at theright, which shows Roman soldiers, carrying a standard withChrist's monogram (barely visible attheleft), freeing acityunder barbarian siege. Barbarians, some onhorseback, are being driven offorkilled; their leaders arehung from forked stakes infront of thecitywalls. Although a contemporary battle is depicted here, an allusion to Joshua's rescue of Gibeon (Joshua 10) mayalsobe intended, as Christian emperors oftensawtheirownheroic deeds in OldTestament terms (seenumber 58). Adding to thescene's excitementarethe frank portrayal andgeneral overloading of imagery, which, along withthestyle of thefigures and theitdifference inscale, indicate alatefourthorearly fifth-century date. Height 45cm.( 173/4 in.). Egypt, probably Ashmunein. Staatliche Museen, Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin, Fruhchristlich-Byzantinische Sammlung, 4782. Photograph: Jorg Anders 12.Opposite, a fragment of a splendid sardonyx cameo, of about 325350,shows awarrior, wearing adiadem, riding over fallen barbarians. It is exquisitely carved to make themost ef3ective useof thedifferent colored strata of the stone. In thetradition of earlier Roman gems decorated withimperial triumphal imagery, it may commemorate the victories of Constantine oroneof hissons. Theclassical subject and warrior's dress recall portraits of Alexander theGreat. Height 15cm. ( 57/8 in.). National Museum, Belgrade

16

17

13-15. Gamesand entertainments forthepublic, sponsored by theemperor andhisoSicials, werestaged in thecircuses of Rome andConstantinople. Theviolent contests andanimalhunts("venationes") appealed to the masses pentup in the great cities. Chariot races werealsoparticularly popular, andthefactions supporting the four teams the reds, blues,greens, andwhites evenbecame powerful political forces. The ivoryplaqueon this page, made in Rome in theErst halfof the fifthcentury, depicts anelk huntin anarena observed bythree men, probablyhighoSicials. Thecentral figure pours a libation from a shallow bowl, a pagan ritual to appease thegodsat thestart ofaperformance. Thecurved arena is shown in a flattened bird'seyeview, buttheanimals and hunters, seenfrom theside,aresuperimposed in registers, a mixture of perspectives withalong history inRoman art. One hunter spears anelkwhile others lean outof thedoors ready to provide distraction, likeparticipants inamodern bullfight. The agonyof the dying animals contrasts dramatically with thebusinesslike attitude of thehunters andthe withdrawn gazeof the patrons. Below,a smallgoldglassof the second halfof thefourth century portrays a triumphant charioteer named Vincentius and his horseInvictus ("Unconquerable" ). ThereddecorationonVincentius's tunic andonhis horse's trappings identiSes himasbelonging to theredfaction. Thebronze horseat the left was probably one of four that drewa model chariot. It mayhavebeena commemorative sculpture to a victorious charioteer ora copy of anemperor'sceremonial quadriga ( see number 10). In stylethehorse, with its stocky bodyandstylized mane, resembles Justinian's mount on the ivory plaque (number 6 ). Plaque:height29.4 cm. ( 115/8 in.). Merseyside County Museums, Liverpool, M 10042. Glass: diameter 6.4cm.(21/2 in.). Toledo Museum of Art,Giftof Edward Drummond Libbey,67.11.Horse: height13.7cm.
(5 7/16 in.). ProbablyConstantinople.GeorgeOrtizCollection, Geneva.Photograph: O. Widmer
19

enwasenthusiastically ot hunting 16, 17. Thesport of the family andthenobility inbytheimperial gaged world, justas it hadbeenby monarchs lateRoman intimes in theNeatEast.It required sinceancient vittues necessary thesame skill,andcourage, genuity, scenesentiched Hunting to wagewat successfully. arches triumphal of artfrom works andprivate public struggle to man's (where theyreferred andsarcophagi it) to luxurious of conquering hishope and withdeath likethese. objects anddomestic furniture copwithsilver, inlaid vase,originally Thebronze scenesof hunting shows a spectrum per,andniello, on footflushing lionsandhunters speating horsemen effect is enhanced Thedecorative from theforest. game of thedanger unaware such aslions details bytranquil thatactasfillers from trees hanging hunting horns and inlay technique Therich vignettes. thelivelier between and centuries and fourth in thethird populat wasvery Age Bronze back to theLate dating along tradition had dagger of bronze where a pair tombs atMycenae, royal was withlionhuntsin goldandsilver inlaid blades found. its glorifies plate at theright Thescene on theglass It is insctibed: inthehunt. and success courage owner's may youlive [longlwith man, fortunate "Alexander, onhorseand Richly dressed friends." family and your a boar, whiletwo stagsflee attacks back,Alexander is of thescene importance Thesymbolic to theright. of the animals by the tightcompression heightened scale of thegroom, thesmall space and intothecirculat AlexAlthough theboar. thedogtoattack whoreleases anarishewasprobably is notknown, identity ander's thestyleof thehead, century; of themid-third tocrat hair, face,close-cropped shaped withits triangularly thatof other drawn eyes,resembles andsensitively class. portraits of theruling contemporary exthisartist in which of goldglass, Thetechnique was skill.Thedesign extraordinary demanded celled, to a greenish on a sheetof goldfoil applied incised by white,red, andthenwasenlivened glassroundel, roundel, glass paint. A second brown and russet green, overthefirst.Rarely rim,wasfused withtheplate's rims intact. withtheir plates survive dogold-glass Italy, 26.2cm.( 105/16 in.). Probably Vase: height Museen, Staatliche century. halfof thefourth second Berlin,Antikenabteilung, Kulturbesitz, Preussischer IngridGeske.Plate:diameter 30244.Photograph: The century. 25.7 cm. (101/8in.). Italy,mid-third C. Leonard of Art, Purchase, Museum Cleveland 69.68 Jr.,Bequest, Hanna,

20

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C1455iC4/Realm
As the self-appointed heirsof classical Greekculture, theRomans equated Greek godswiththeirown,chose Greek models in literature,and employedGreek sciencein their technological achievements. In their art, they adapted both subject matterandstyle from the classical repertory, oftenproducing careful copies or free interpretations of Greeksculpture and painting. Of central importance was the human figure, renderedwith an idealized naturalism. Illusionistic painting andthe cleargrammar of architectural orders also determined the basicformof Romanartisticproduction. After the secondcentury A.D., the Romandependence on Greekmodelsprogressively gaveway to otherinfluences. Political,economic, and intellectual upheaval provoked a spiritof expressionism seen in official portraiture (number 7 ), andthe influxof mysteryreligions fromthe EastandEgyptinto the heart of the empirebrought an increased use of symbolto replace natural depiction, as in the limestone reliefof the Persian godMithras (number 30 ) thatwas found in Rome.In thefourth andfifthcenturies, passionately nostalgic ef3orts to keeptheoldorder aliveafterChristianity hadtriumphed produced exquisite pagan objects such as the ivory diptychof Asklepiosand Hygieia (number 22 ) or the silverdish at the left. Afterthe Efthcentury, the representation of pagan godsforcult purposes was abandoned, but the depiction of mythological subjects, especially theexploits of heroes(number 23) andpersoniScations (number 26), continued to decorate luxury objects. Illustrations of epics( number37 ) andof scientiSc texts ( number 34 ) as well as bucolicthemes(numbers 38, 39) alsoremained popular.Theypreserved the imageof classical culture for latergenerations. 18. The resplendent silverlanx at the left a large shallowdishwhichmayhaveserveda ritualistic purpose-is one of the masterpieces of the last phaseof pagan art.Foundin 1734 on the banksof the Tynein northern England, it presents an assembly of classical deitieson the islandof Delos, the birthplace of the twins ArtemisandApollo,who standat the far left and far right. Seatednext to Apollo is the twins' mother,Leto, and standing beside her is Ortygeia, Leto'ssister,who is a personiScation of Delos. The armed,gesturing goddessAthena,also venerated on the isIand,completesthe group.The hound,fallen stag,andgriHin at the footof thecomposition aresymbolsof thetwins.Theconscious classicism of thegraceful Sguresis so intensein this work that it is often relatedto the strenuous effortsof the emperor Julian the Apostate(360-363) to revitalize paganism. The lanxmayhavebeenmadeat Ephesos in honorof his visit in 363 to Delos, wherehe offereda sacriSce to Apollo.Width48.3 cm. ( 19 in.). His Grace the Duke of Northumberland, K. G., Alnwick Castle, Newcastleupon..yne
r X

23

19-21.Dionysos, godof wineandfertility, wasworshiped in ecstaticrevelsthat,according to Greekmyths,culminatedin animaland sometimes even humansacriSces. Sincehe was the god of the grapeharvest andwine was a basiccommodity in the Roman world,his cultpersisted intothesixthcentury in otherwise Christianized areas like Egypt, wheretheseobjects weremade. The splendid textileoppositeis a fragment of a large third-to fourth-century hanging depicting Dionysosand his companions, herea satyrandmaenad with haloes,a signof distinction in paganart,participating in the cultic revel.Thevibrant colors,decorative architectural setting, andgraceful yet mannered figures testifyto the weaver's skillandto therichness andmonumentality of lateRoman wallhangings. Ariadne, whomDionysosmarried afterTheseusabandonedher on Naxos,appears on the sixth-century ivory below.TwoErotesholda marriage wreath overherhead, while a maenad andPan (right) peer frombehindher

legs. The piece, which preserves the shapeof the elephant'stusk, was probably madeto decorate furniture. The styleof its highreliefandthe tightSt of the smaller figuresbehindAriadneresemble those featureson the ivoryof Justinian ( number 6 ). On the fifth-to sixth-century textilebelow,Dionysos, in a leopardskin, and Pan, with his shepherd's crook, walkagainst a background cluttered with cultobjects, including a wineskin, a kantharos, andmusical instruments. The impassive facesandstiffposescontrast sharply with the classicizing styleof the earlier hanging. The vigorous presentation of the deitiesand the culticparaphernalia, however, showa stillactiveappreciation of thecult. Opposite: wool andlinentapestry, height138 cm. (54 3/8in.). TheCleveland Museum of Art,J.H.WadeFund, 75.6. Below,left: height42 cm. (161/2in.). Museede Cluny,Paris,CL 455. Photograph: HirmerFotoarchiv. Below,right:height36.8cm. ( 141/2 in.) . Museum of Fine Arts,Boston,Charles PotterKlingFund,53.18

24

22. Thebeautiful ivorydiptych belowwasprobably made in Italyin theearly fifthcentury. It depictstwomarble cultstatues of Asklepios, thegod of medicine, andHygieia, goddess of health, that pethaps stood in thetemple of Asklepios in Rome. Asklepios leans on a club,around which is twined abearded snake. A young boyin a hooded garment, thespititTelesphoros, stands beside him.Hygieia, leaning ona tripod, offers aneggto a snake, pethaps symbolizing hertoleasa fertility goddess. AnEros looks upather. Both statues areflanked bycolumns supporting cultobjects. Theclassicistic style,particularly theloosely draped, gracefully posed figures, reveals theconscious imitation of earlier models that is characteristic of other pagan ivories of theperiod (see number 32). Height31.4 cm. (123/8in.). Merseyside County Museums, Liverpool, M10004

in waspopulat 23. TheGreekmythof Bellerophon textile, times.On this fifth-century EarlyChristian he kills,with the hanging, whichis partof a larger Chithe monster aid of the wingedhorsePegasus, compositeof lion, goat, and maera,a terrifying the portrayed, the actionis clearly snake.Although is andlandscape of the Egures spatialrelationship by NiloticsubThe sceneis surrounded confused. with Ssh, jects-Erotes, or cupids,intermingled plants,and waterfowl that are untelatedto the on as decoration Presented story of Bellerophon. myth classical of deeds heroic objects,the secular the MiddleAges as adwere enjoyedthroughout religious freedfromanyovertpagan stories, venture dogma. with Christian thatwouldconflict conterlt Patis,Gu duLouvre, Musee Woolandlinen.Egypt. Chuzeville Maurice 1230.Photograph:

27

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24, 25. LateAntique andEarly Christian society extolled courage andfortitude in thehuntandin circus combats, andtherefore it wasonly natural thatthebold deeds of twovery popular Greek heroes, Achilles andHerakles, weregreatly admired. The impressively largefourth-century plateat theleft,found in theRhone near Avignon, combines several episodes from theTrojan War.Seated in the center is Achilles. At the left, Patroklos leads Briseisfrom Achilles's tent(Iliad 1: 326-356 ), a scene found inPompeian painting, while Achilles talks to Odysseus, whocame withtheembassy of Phoenix andAjax (Iliad 9: 162657). Thesubjects of the otherepisodes canonlybe inferred sincetheyarerepresented by single elements excerpted from fuller depictions, a blatantly unclassical approach to thisclassical subject. A similarly selective combination of events is found in EarlyChristian illustrations of the Bible andis typical of theperiod (number 56). Themajestic scale, subtly modeled figures, richdisplay of armor, andthe decorative moldings make theplate a truly magnificent testimony tothetaste and wealth of thelate Roman world. Thefourth-century bronze plaque at the rightshowsHerakles, the Stoicheropar excellence, clubbing oneof thefiveheads of thehydra of Lerna during thesecond of his twelve labors. Theintricate coiling of themonster's body is echoed in thehero's raised arms and right legand intherippling contour of hislion-skin cloak. Theexcitementof thestruggle is heightened by the colorful inlay of copper andtwoshades of silver. Plate: diameter 70 cm.(271/2 in.). Bibliotheque Nationale, Patis, Cabinet des Medailles, 2875.Plaque: height18.8cm. (73/8 in.). Perhaps Egypt. The Art Museum, Princeton University, 71-35

29

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cults pagan to twoother related twoworks 32,33.These ivory splendid The in style. different not be more could thatwascreated attheleftis oneleafof a diptych plaque pagan andpowerful rich of twoenormously formembers andNicomafamilies the Symmachi senatorial Roman The of Christianity. theencroachment chi whoresisted a to commemorate commissioned wereprobably plaques among Outstanding thetwoclans. thatunited marriage 340(about Symmachus wasQ. Aurelius members their Flavito Nicomachus marriage 402), whosedaughter's aprefect Symmachus, celebrated. behere in401may anus hisspeechwas,through aconsul, and of thecityof Rome a resocorrespondence, hisvoluminous es andespecially of the defender unsuccessful yet ultimately lute,subtle, oldorder. bya boyholdattended a priestess, shows Theplaque Ere on overa small incense wine,scattering ingfruitand to by the alluded of Dionysos, in honor perhaps analtar bythe invoked andZeus, hair, in theSgures' ivywound in the is revealed character oak tree.Its retrospective motif, border style,its palmette figure quietclassicistic Roman In earlier of the inscription. andthe lettering on draped been have would of thealtat thefestoon work, betraytwosides, covers buthereit incorrectly oneface, date. latefourth-century ingtheplaque's the at a feastcelebrating whorecline Theparticipants pyxisat theright(below)are Isison theivory goddess in Working tradition. less self-conscious fromanother, the artistof the pyxis a Egyptin the sixthcentury, world and Roman in theGreek boxused cylindrical small purposesshunned andreligious of seculat fora variety signifito focuson thesymbolic in order illusion spatial ashonorbe identiSed Thefeastmay of theevent. cance goddess Egyptian andcompassionate ingIsis, the great bythepersoniEmpire, theRoman throughout worshiped otherside on the pyxis's of the Nile reclining Scation imagery Nilotic bytheusual ). Heis accompanied (above (seenumbers andseaanimals lotuses, Erotes, of playful noses, as thefaceswithprominent traits 27, 29). Such curls of tight in a series organized lips,andthehair thick likethat ivories, of sixth-century on a number arefound 78). (number Menas ofSaint Victoria 29cm.( 115/8 in.). Rome. leaf:height Diptych 8.5 height Pyxis: 212-1865. London, Museum, Albert and NassauSammlung Wiesbaden, cm. (33/8 in.). Museum 7865 Altertumer, ischer

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34, EarlyscientiSc treatises, writtenon papyrus scrolls, wereoftenillustrated with diagrammatic drawings. With the invention, in the late Stst century, of the more easilyhandled codex,thebookformwe knowtoday,andits subsequent widespread use, illustrations became morelavishandsometimes eventookprecedence overthe text. Manyearlyilluminated bookswith scientiSc texts havebeen lost, but later manusctipts provide accurate copies. Thepicture above is froma ninth-century book, probably made in northern France in thecircle of theCarolingian emperor Louisthe Pious, that is a copy of-a fourth-or Efth-century versionof the Phaenomena of Aratus of Soloi( a poetof the fourthto thirdcentury B.C.) . Theso-called "Aratea" was a populatastronomical treatise givingthe locations andconfigurations of the stars.Thisfull pageof Aquatius showsthe ancient concept of the eleventh constellation,the WaterBearer, who poursa showerof starsfroma vesselheldoverhis shoulder. Therichcolorsandthe sweeping movement makethismanuscript one of the mosthandsome of any age.Height22.5 cm. (87/8 in.). 99 fols. Universiteitsbibliotheek, Leiden, Voss.Lat.qu.79, fol.48v 35. Fish,like astrological signs,held a particular fascination for the peopleof the ancient world.Marvelous illustrations of manyseacreatures arefoundon the walls of Hellenistic tombsanddecorate Roman worksfromfloormosaics to glassbowls. In the third-century textile at the right, different varietiesof Ssh appearto be swimming in clearshallowwater,an effectheightened by the shadows they cast. Therealism, however, is illusory. TheSshwerenotdrawn fromnature butfromthe weaver'smodelbook, whichultimately drew upon a scientiScstudyor perhaps even an illustrated cookbook. Wool andlinen,height138 cm. (541/4in.). Egypt. MuseeHistorique desTissus,Lyons,908.I.116

38

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The masks werestored in thetheater. in which such in thelateRo- a cabinet were very populat 36.Illustrations of thetheater of theactor, who isechoed bythat contemplative attitude in theHouse of the poet's mosaic below, found man world. Thefloor however, does not forhisrole. Thescene, tobeprepating of thethird cen- seems is a fineexample Masks at Sousse in Tunisia, of theater, with butis a tableau anactual performance black, and orange depict green, white, tury. llibrating withcontrasting Although the ofpoet, actor, and masks. components intorelief thecentral itsessential background throws lozenges, thestriking from Pomthat of Euripides in a portrait poseresembles attheright is the poet's poet. The figure standing scene ofanactor and hewears is thetype of beard are notidealized; Heleans against peii,hisfeatures mask of comedy. actor, whoholds thegrinning century. of thefirst halfof thethird onRoman portraits shown; beneath found stand, incompletely a stand, pethaps a writing shown intheguise of thehouse, therefore betheowner forthestorage Hemay called acapsa, which wasused it is acircular case pethaps patronofhisappreciation, and inhonor on a ofaplaywright theplays of thepoet,whoappears of scrolls, presumably National 215cm.(843/4 in.). Musee Height crossed, and hesits age,of thetheater. The poet's legsare platform behind theactor. Richard Margolis Tunis. Photograph: mask rests on duBardo, of a thinker. Atthelefta tragic intheclassic pose

40

of thedraperies and of thedistribution of thefigures 37.Theilluminated page from a manuscript of theworks of the thepattern thepage. Therelative importance ofthefigures isexpressed Latin poetVergil illustrates a critical episode in his epicthe over terms: DidoandAeneas arethelargest andmost Aeneid. Dido,queen of Carthage, andAeneas embrace in a in abstract caveafterhaving sought shelter froma rainandhailstorm brightly colored; thehorses are unnaturally small. Theschematic of thefigures, thecave, andtheother landscape elebrought about bythegoddess Juno tothrow thelovers together. rendering Their horses aretethered to a treeattheleft,and twosoldiers, ments allcontribute to thesimple andordered presentation of onesensibly using his shield as anumbrella, areseated in the thescene. Themanuscript, which alsocontains Vergil's Eclogues and surrounding woods. is oneof twofifth-century copies of thisvery popular The unclassical, delightfully expressive styleof the illus- Georgics, tration betrays thehand of a provincial artist, whoilluminatedwork that have survived from theEarly Christian period. Width partof thisexpensively produced manuscript. Thedecorative 32.3cm.( 123/4 in. ). Biblioteca Apostolica, Vatican City,cod. effect hehasachieved bytheuseof vibrant color is enhanced by lat.3867, fol.108r

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38,39.Bucolic poetry, which extols thepleas- of a series; fourothers areknown. More sothanthepanel uresof rural at theleft,thetexlife,wasaninvention of theso- phisticated phisticated city dwellers of the Hellenistic tileshows a typeof scene described inbucolic era.The quietpastoral existence evoked in literature. In a common Roman diningarliterature from Theocritus to Vergil appealedrangement, three shepherds recline ona semiespecially to the intelligentsia of theRoman circular bolster andexchange stories, while world,who,like Plinythe Younger in the theirfoodis prepared below.At the lower first century A.D.,sought refuge from thepo- Ieft,a shepherd skins a carcass he hasstrung litical and social asit is stilldone pressures of themetropolis inGreece in upina tree, today. country a dogeagerly retreats. Their loveofanidyllic awaits scraps from refuge Inthecenter, is reflected in a large number of objects Like thepanel in all thetable. opposite, theroundel media. Thetextile attheleft,woven inEgypt, wasprobably sewnto a tunic. Treasured by shows a shepherd suchadornments milking a goat, withherkid theirowners, could be deat her side.Hanging fromthe grape and resewn arbor tached onto newclothes. Although overhead in Egypt, is a winecontainer thisroundel, which, because of its judging found byits shape andscroll relationship withConstantinopolitan handles, is a kantharos.stylistic Thecharming scene is bordered bya frieze of andSyrian work, may have beenproduced in birds andvines. Thestylized portrayal of the theeastern Mediterranean. Sgures, asseenin therudimentary pattern of Left:height 33.7cm. (131/4 in.). TheSt. goat's hair,indicates a fifthto sixth-century Louis ArtMuseum, 48. 1939.Below: width date. 12.1cm. (43/4in.). TheBrooklyn Museum, Thesomewhat earlier roundel below is one Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund, 44. 143a

43

40. Such wasthepopularity of bucolic scenes thattheywereevenintroduced intounrelated scientiSc treatises to embellish thetext.Thisglowing tenth-century Byzantine manuscript copies a nowlostLate Antique bookcontaining thetreatises of Nicander of Colophon on poisonous insects andanimals and their antidotes. Nicander lived inIonia, onthewestcoast ofAsia Minor, during thesecond century B.C. Like Aratus (seenumber 34), he popularized scientiISc textsby rendering themintoverse. Thepage below vividly depicts hisaccount of thebirth of snakes from theblood of giants, whoareshown against alight blue sea. Thecomposition isprobably adapted from Roman illustrations of theGreek myth of the battle of gods and giants, where thegiants areshown assnake-legged monsters. Onthepage attheright, thecentral ISgure is a shepherd burning anantler on analtar to drive away snakes, seenfleeing to the right. Theinfluence of bucolic themes is apparent intheuseof shepherds in thisand other illustrations in themanuscript andin theidyllic landscapes in which theyareoftenset.Parchment, height 16 cm. (61/2 in.). Constantinople, Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, cod.suppl. gr.247,fols.47vand 48v

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SecelrRealm
in the classical tradition ) is portrayed worksmadefor private (andon the cover The secular realmcomprises by He is identiSed halfof the thirdcentury. thatenhanced of the second Ranging frommosaics use andenjoyment. in the most accomplished as "Gennadios the floorof a rich man'shouse to the silverplate that the inscription art."Exquisitely drawnon goldleaf, andas deldrawn musical withsubjects graced his table,theyareornamented engraving, this sapphire-blue Sshing, thepreparations icate as a EneRenaissance largely fromdailylife harvests, of portraiture on a small medallion is a masterpiece glass of the for a marriage. Manyof thesecrossthe boundaties glass otherof thesejewel-like Gennadios andseveral the sty- scale. on thesepagesreflect otherrealms: the portraits to Alexandria on the basis havebeenattributed the silverplate portraits portraiture; listic traditions of imperial The rimof the Ssherman (num- of the Greekdialectof theirinsctiptions. 43 ) antd thebronze fromAugst( number perhaps as a pendant. formounting, ber44 ) arecloselyalliedwith bucolicthemes;Projecta's glassis beveled of rank, bustof a woman marble At therightis a superb scenewitha mythcasket( number 45 ) blendsa domestic portrait of a husband partof a double ologicalone; and the jeweltyworn by privatecitizens whichwasprobably art. But more with abstract patternsor imperial, andwife, a type often foundin funerary mightbe conceived someof thelady's thisbustcaptures de- thanjusta memorial, imagery. The common classical, Jewish,or Christian her shewears andvittuousspouse, on the follow- gentlespitit:a modest worksillustrated nominator for the seculat in theEfthandsixth in a stylepopulat ingpagesis the highsocialclassandwealthof theirown- hairtightlycoiffed woman,she carries a scrollemas a cultivated ers, although moremodestworksmadefor less affluent centuries; carving of theeyes, of herlearning. Thesensitive materials blematic Thepossession of precious citizens alsosurvive. datethe surface, of the ruling mouth,andchin,andthe Snelypolished amount was the privilege in anyappreciable plate and bustto the latefifthor earlysixthcentury. their magniScent classes,and they displayed Goldglass:diameter 3.9 cm. ( 15/8in.) . Metropolitan jewelryin theirhousesandat festivalsfor all to admire. of the upper Museum,FletcherFund, 26.258. Bust: height 53 cm. was largelythe domain 41, 42. Portraiture Museum, TheCloisin.) . AsiaMinor. Metropolitan classessince usuallythey alone were able to affordit. ( 207/8 Collection, 66.25 ters Graced with the beautyof Apollo,the youngmanbelow

46

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43. The sumptuous silver-gilt andniello plate above is decorated withsubjects that, like bucolic images, evokethe goodlife amidst idealized nature. Hunting scenes of boar, hares, bears, andstags alternate with geometric patterns around the rim,anda seascape fillsthecentral medallion (opposite). A palace with its outbuildings, including a smallrotunda at the upper left thatmaybe a bath,is enclosed by walls withcorner towers anda domed entrance. It faces a seateeming witha great variety of matine lifeand Erotes fishing from gaily ornamented boats, a felicitous blending of scientiSc andNiloticsubjects. The plate was foundrecently in Switzerland with otherequally splendid dishes anda cache ofcoins that dates thehoard to theErst half of thefourth century. Theplates were probably prominently displayed intheir owner's villamuchas one wouldproudly exhibit a valuable teaservice today. Diameter: 58 cm. (227/8in.). Probably Rome. Romermuseum, Augst,1962.2.Photograph: E. Schulz 44. Thecharming bronze at the rightdepictsa fisherman carrying his emptynet over hisshoulder and what may bea roughhewntillerin his left hand. He stands in front of a bollard, a postformooring lines, fromwhicharchtwo loopsshaped like ISngers, a curious butcommon motif. The bollard andloopsmayhaveacted as rope guides on a smallship,but the statuette showslittlewear.Thestrutbetween the Esherman's shoulder andthebollard is the typeof support usedto strengthen marble statues, likethoseof Jonah (number 55), but not needed on sturdier bronzes. This sculpture, therefore, maybe a copyof a nowlostmarble work and may have served only a decorative function. The Egure's caplike hair,full face,andsimple but realistically draped clothing indicate thatit wasmade in thelatefourth or early Efth century, perhaps in Italy,whereit was found. Height 17.8cm.(7 in.). MetropolitanMuseum, Rogers Fund, 63.206
48

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eventin aristocratic was an important 45, 46. Marriage unitingprominent often world, life in the late Roman and Symmachi, Nicomachi pagan families suchas the (number diptych ivory beautiful the who commissioned were that unions social or political forming and 32) A work of the secondhalf of the lavishlycelebrated. cassilverandsilver-gilt the magniIScent fourthcentury, on the ket above,foundin 1793 with a largetreasure unionof the Christian Hill in Rome,honored Esquiline shown Secundus, andTurcius Projecta a womannamed on thelid ( illustrated medallion in thewreathed together thecouple exhorts the inscription at the left) . Although very is portrayed muchas a Projecta to "livein Christ," On thefrontof thecasket been. bridewouldhave pagan doeson thelid. hertoilet,justasAphrodite sheprepares

on the four in arcades standing handmaidens, Projecta's andutensilsas the sides,offerher the sameunguents the Although TritonsandNereidsbringto Aphrodite. to on hershell,is intended seated voluptuously goddess, graceandbeauty,the bride,with Projecta's epitomize hair, braided plumpSgure,fashionably her pleasantly woman robes,looksjustlike an aristocratic andjeweled of hertime. On the backof the lid is a scenethathasbeeninterguestsor beingacwedding receiving pretedas Projecta the bath.Among to a Roman by herservants companied by her enbrought weddingpresents, perhaps articles, a ewer,andtwocaskets. area lampstand, tourage fromEgyptat lampstand,or candlestick, Thebronze asit is decorated made fora bride, therightwaspossibly

casket.Aphrodite, with the samesubjectas Projecta's or cosperfume who formsthe stem,maybe applying hereyes,as was a comkohl to darken metics,perhaps on the seamonsters riding Nereids in Egypt. moncustom Thestyleof this hertoiletarticles. carry feetof thestand alHere,Aphrodite, is quitedifferent. however, bronze, goddess. nudefromthewaistup,is not a sensual though is wrapped on thecasket, looseandflowing Hermantle, tightly and primlyaroundher; her hair is severely in other imagesof Aphrodite She resembles crimped. andsixthcenturies. artof theISfth Coptic Casket:width 55 cm. (215/8 in.). The BritishMuheight50.2 cm. Lamp stand: 66,12-29,1. seum,London, Kansas Museum, in.) . TheNelsonGallery-Atkins ( 19 3/4 Fund, 58.8 City,Nelson

51

was andunguents, bottlesforperfume containing 47. Thesilvercaseabove, 45 ) andmostlikelywas madefor casket(number foundwith Projecta's with alternating of eightmuses withtheSgures It is decorated herwedding. are-from vignettesof birds,vases,andflowers.Seenin this illustration club and with a Heraklean museof tragedy, left to right- Melpomene, museof with her globe;andCalliope, museof astronomy, mask;Urania, on the woman,seatedin a medallion epic poetry,with a scroll.Another as a muse, not dressed Although Projecta. crownof the lid, mayrepresent withErato,the ninth,museof lyricandlove poetry. shemaybe associated a scroll. carries proudof her learning, Projecta, casket, wedding On her The Height30 cm. (113/4 in.). Rome,secondhalfof the fourthcentury. 66, 12-29,2 London, Museum, British fromone vase at the rightis carved late fourth-century 48. The splendid in highrelief,set off with grapevines pieceof agate.The sidesarecovered thanusemoredecorative walls.Twohandles, by thevase'sthintranslucent no doubtunderthe headsof Pan (right), who rejoices ful, aregrinning master21). This flamboyant wine (see number of Dionysos's influence PeterPaul to the painter oncebelonged gemcarving pieceof LateAntique Rubens.Height 19 cm. (71/2in.). The WaltersArt Gallery,Baltimore, 42.562
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AntikenabteilBerlin, Kulturbesitz, attheleftwasmade Preussischer necklace 51.Theimpressive Ingrid Geske 505.Photograph: since ung,30219, fora woman, seventh century in theearly the decoration, by its luxurious ) 52. Judging helpthewearer" insctiption ("Lord theGreek in the in Constantinople below,made gender. bracelet medallion usesthefeminine ontheupper forawoman wasintended seventh century, in Egypt, but,likethe early at Antinoe It wasfound inEgypt, where Itwaspurchased wealth. page,wasprobablyofgreat on the preceding necklaces Confrom pieces of jewelry contemporary hasa per- other themedallion made inConstantinople; number 49, were likethenecklace side.The stantinople, of thatcityon thereverse sonification in the prominent a delight Theyshare usea type of imperial found. forChristian artist adapted openwork. and indelicate of gems acluster display supporting necklace, atorque ceremonial withgoldbeads alternating of pearls thesixth Strings here date from coins, which of imperial (a green plasmas andemerald sapphires of the frame Onthefront seventh centuries. andearly widegold on the braceletXs of quartz) andon variety medallion is theAnnunciation, pendant mount is setin the Marriageband. of thecentral Stst mitacle, Thesapphire the backis ChristXs surof a flower liketheheart of pearls, of theAn- a circle at Cana (John2:1-11).TheVirgin of the Thehighquality by its petals. chait,holdsthe rounded seated in a wicker nunciation, where evento theinside, extends to the Protoevan- craftsmanship woolwithwhich,according withanopenis overlaid of themount theback 10), a second-century (chapter gelium of James is formed of theband vineandthemiddle shewove work textof thelifeoftheVirgin, apocryphal 8.3 Diameter pieces. of bow-shaped The by a series ofJetusalem. intheTemple acurtain tohang Museum, Giftof J. in.). Metropolitan from her left. cm.(31/4 Gabriel approaches archangel 17.190.1671 Morgan, Museen, Pierpont in.). Staatliche Length 35.2cm.( 137/8

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number of works ornamented withJewishreligious subjects havesurvived from theRoman period. Mostaresymbols of theJewish faith andits history, asarethose ontheobjects shown here. 53. Made in Rome in thefourth century) theglassat theleft, its gold-leaf images highlighted by colored paint, depicts a domed Torah shrine ( theArkof theLaw ), itsdoors opentoreveal sixTorah scrolls onshelves; twolionsrepresenting thekings of Judah, holding twomore scrolls between their paws;andbelow, on eachside,a seven-branched menorah, its arms holding sevenburning lamps. Surrounding the menorahs areother liturgical objects: in thecenter is a lulab, clustered branches of palm, myrtle, and willow; flanking it arat theright- anethrog, orcitron, andat theleft a shofar} or ram's horn; andin thelowercorners aretwo oil jars. The Greek inscription written in Latin letters at thetopof thisgoldglass, oncepart of a exhorts theowner to "drink mayyoulive [long], Elares." Diameter 10 cm. (37/8 in.). TheIsrael Museum, Jerusalem} Gift of Jakob Michael, New York,in memory of hiswife,Erna Sondheimer-Michael, 66.36.14. Photograph: David Harris 54. Jewish artists alsocreated richcycles of figural scenes depicting episodes from theOldTestament. Fewexamples have survived. Themostoutstanding arethefrescoeson thewallsof thesmall third-century synagogue at Dura Europus (figure 3) on the Euphrates. Theseapparently derived froman illustrated Old Testament, sincetheyinclude eventsfound onlyin thecommentaries accompanying the text. Several resemble Early Christian representations, indicating thatJewish illustrated textswereanimportant source forChristian art. Theterracotta lampabove is an example of suchJewish figural art.Abovethe seven wick-openings perhaps referring to a menorah, David(right ) slings stones at Goliath. Theirappearance on a utilitarian andctudely styledobject like thissuggestsa morewidespread useof OldTestament illustration in Jewish artthanhas been generally assumed. Length 13cm.( 51/8 in.). YaleUniversity ArtGallery, New Haven, Giftof Rebecca Darlington Stoddard, 1913.653

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(numShepherd fortheGood adapted shepherd sect bearing Jewish asa minuscule beginnings itsfledgling From 77). 66, ( numbers cults mystery from as well as ), with ber55 spread Christianity century, in thefirst inPalestine compositions Christian influenced subjects Mythological world theMediterranean throughout speed astonishing withits legends 58), andtheOldTestament persecu- (number and Intolerance religion. a universal to become intoChrisabsorbed completely was commentaries and unsuccesswere localized, andusually tion,intermittent ). 59 number see ( cycles tian twowas appeal Christianity's itsprogress. fulinslowing Chrisbase,a distinctively thisheterogeneous From of morality but profound the simple fold: it offered Illustralines. different several along developed art tian promit and boundaries, ethnic by unimpeded Judaism One forms. twointerrelated assumed by a tionsof theBible wasfostered growth Thechurch's isedsalvation. sequenarranged episodes with narration a pictorial was intercommuniconstant the and organization disciplined wasdetext;it probably the Biblical following wasepito- tially, decorps Itsesprzt of itscongregations. cation 59, 62) (numbers illustration for manuscript were veloped and faith whodiedfortheir bythemartyrs, mized aswell (numbers media to other in 313 butwassoonapplied Withthe Edictof Milan as heroes. venerated imsingle formdepicted by theyear400,became 58, 60, 61, 64). Thesecond theway,Christianity, paving essenelements onlythose thatincluded events church portant century, Bythesixth religion. Roman theofficial "abbreviated Called of thesubject. intheRoman tialforrecognition religions allolder suppressed had state and of salvathemes on concentrated they representations," Judaism. except Empire art. baptismal and ) 56 number ( funerary in as tion, world of theartof theRoman TheChristianization a sepform saints and Virgin, the Christ, of Portraits waslittleor no ChrisThere spectacular. wassimilarly and sanctity the emphasized It art. iconic category, arate the since but in thefirsttwocenturies, tianartcreated a deliberate through Egures holy the of otherworldliness accustomed converts pagan were of Christians majority (numform ofphysical dematerialization and century abstraction of theirgods,by thethird testimony to visual perand century, Efth the in Developed 68-73). bers monufew Unfortunately being. into came art Christian to be oneof the artproved in thesixth,iconic usinunder- fected toguide period thisearly from remain ments art.Pilgrimof Christian contributions artists mostsignificant a foundation Butwhat its development. standing withpicobjects Commemorative of the Greco- ageartwasanother. heritage had to buildon the formal ) pro74-77 to theholysites(numbers reference imagery torial inexhaustible theseemingly and tradition Roman wasthe there Finally, dimension. a new,popular vided oftheBible. liturgy. of anenriched thedemands tomeet produced of sources art a variety upon artdrew Christian Nascent luxuriof made reliquaries and lamps, patens, andJewish- Chalices, cultic, Eastern -imperial,mythological, ofthe richness and creativity the epitomize materials ous renas emperor position Constantine's for its images. extent what to show They worship. Christian of imagery is andthere unique, of Christianity hisadoption dered art andpagan onimperial lavished formerly after313. He built theartistry patronage no doubtof his active Christhe of glorification the on concentrated now was on carried and of bishops, synods organized churches, church. throughouttian withprelates correspondence a voluminous statues, of smallmarble group An extraordinary 55. active more even an took successors His empire. the is illusinches, 201/2 13to about from in height re- ranging artists Christian organization. rolein the church's seTheyshow, pages. hereandon thefollowing ico- trated imperial by adapting support to official sponded (p. 62), bytheseamonster swallowed Jonah and quentially, theVirgin, of Christ, portrayals to their nography the under resting castup (at theright),Jonah in styleandsub- Jonah 68, 69). Inspiration (numbers saints below 63, p. ( praying Jonah ), above 63, ( p. vine liketheram- gourd images, religious pagan alsofrom jectcame

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illustrate episodes fromthelife of Christ: at theleft fromtop to bottom-the Massacre of the Innocents;the Baptism of Christ, in whichthe riverextendsto the top of the frame;andthe Marriage at Cana.At the right Christmiraculously cures the woman withtheissueof blood( Mark 5:25-34); the paralytic (Mark2: 1-12), who carries his bed; and the man possessedof demons(Luke 8: 26-33), standing behind theherdof swineintowhichChrist hascaused thedemons to enter.Theplaques, unlike the sarcophagus, presenteach event in its own frame,whichis decorated with classical moldings. Someepisodes aremoreelaborately anddramaticallypresented thanothers.In the Massacre of the Innocents, for example, babiesare hurledto the ground beforeHerod'seyes while the mothers cry out in despair. Theirupraised armsandanguished facesareadapted fromclassical depictions of griefstricken Trojan women. Although lesselegant in stylethanthecontemporary ivoryPassion plaques (number 61 ), theseshow h the samecompactly proportioned figuresand the A lucidcompositions of thoseandotherRoman work S of the firstdecades of thefifthcentury. .l- Sarcophagus: width200 cm.( 783/4in.) . 315-325. 4 Monumenti Musei e GalleriePontificie,Vatican City,MuseoPio Ctistiano, Lat. 161. Plaque,left: height20 cm. (77/8 in.). 410-420. Staatliche Museen,Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin,Fruhchrist:W lich-Byzantinische Sammlung, 2719. Plaque,right: if height 19.5 cm. (73/4 in.). 410-420. Musee du t&) Louvre, Patis,OA7876,7877,7878
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58. Amongthe most splendid worksfromthe reignof the emperorHeraclius(610-641), these two silver platesarepartof a set of ninewith scenes fromthe Old Testament life of KingDavid.Theplateat theright,the largest andmostimportant of thenine,combines several episodes related to David's slaying of the Philistine warriorGoliath(1 Samuel17:40-54).At the top Goliath cursesDavidin the Valleyof Elah,whereDavidtook the stonesfor his slingfroma brook,personified by the rivergodbetweenthe two Sgures. In thecenter Goliath lungesat David,who,muscles taut,prepares to castthe shotthatwill stunhis adversary Istaelitesoldiers ( left) observe thecombat, whilePhilistines (right) prepare to flee.At the bottom Davidbeheads thefallenGoliath. Theeightotherplates,foureachin two smaller sizes, illustrate ceremonial events,suchas Saularming David for his battle,thatare depicted as imperial courtfunctions,andlessformal episodes in landscape settings, like the onebelowof Davidslaying thelionthatsetuponhis flock( 1 Samuel 17:34-39) . Davidattacks the lionfrom behind a composition adaptedfrom classicalrepresentations of Herakles slaying theNemean lion. The plates'ambitious subject,centering on David's victory, findsa remarkable parallel in Heraclius's warto freethe HolyLandfromthe Sasanians. A contemporary source recordsthat in 627 the emperorchallenged Razatis, the enemygeneral, to hand-to-hand combatto determine the outcome of the war.Heraclius won and latercaptured Jerusalem andrestored it to Christian rule. Thesetof platesmaywellcommemorate hiscampaign. Theplatesweremadein Constantinople during Heraclius'sreign, since they beat imperial controlstamps ( equivalent to modern hallmarks ) withhis portrait asit appeared on coinsfrom613 to about630. Eachplateis formedof a solidpieceof silver,intricately chasedby hand.Despitethe difficulty of this task, the artisthas endowedthe imageswith an extraordinary sense of movement andvolume anda wealthof decorative detail. Right:diameter 49.4 cm.( 191/2 in.) . Below:diameter 14 cm. (51/2in.). Foundin Cyprus. Metropolitan Museum,Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 17.190.396,394

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59. Theseventh-century manuscript at the left, calledthe Ashburnham Pentateuch after oneof itsowners, contains four of thefirst fivebooks of theOldTestament, which comprise thePentateuch. It is written in Latin andillustrated with full-page miniatures that group together events inthelives ofOldTestament figures, here Jacob and Esau (Genesis 27-28 ). Thelively andrichly colored scenes include, at thetopleft,Rebecca overhearing Isaac send Esau to thellield to huntforgame; at the right,Isaacfeeling Jacob's handandneck,whicharewrapped in goatskin to deceive him;and,at the bottomright,Jacob's dream of the ladder. Thenarrative is arranged in three irregular registers witha wealth of architectural andgenre detail, a distinctive feature of themanuscript. Parallels fortheturreted andcolumned buildings in North African mosaics andfor the expressive figures and strong butdark palette inlater Spanish manuscripts suggest thatthePentateuch wasmade inoneof those areas. Height 39.5cm.( 151/2 in.). Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, nouv. acq. lat.2334, fol.25 60. Theadventure-filled life of Joseph waspopular in Early Christian art.The sixth-century ivory pyxis below bears three scenes from thepartly apocryphal Jewish story of Joseph andhis divining cup(Genesis 43-44).Herehis brothers are brought before himafterthe cuphadbeenfound hidden in Benjamin's sackof grain. Joseph's feast forhisbrothers andtheir attack upon Benjamin when thecup wasdiscovered arealsoillustrated. Thevigorous, expressive styleis similar to that of the^ Joseph cycle on theivory bishop's throne in Ravenna. Although theuseof thispyxisis unknown, it may,likeotherChristian pyxides, havecontained the Eucharistic bread, incense, or relics. Height 7.7 cm. (3 1/16 in.). Perhaps Constantinople. TheState Hermitage Museum, Leningrad, w8

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Pasof (Xhrist's 61. Theevents as together sionweregrouped art in Christian series a special Theyrepresented andthought. of the promise fulfillment the and gave of his incarnation to the hope for redemption faithful. These four ivory oncepartof a casket, plaques, Passion theearliest areamong scenes some depict They series. fromwhatmust havebeena cycle. pictorial morecomplete Threescenesare crowded right atthenear intotheplaque ): Pilate washinghis (above handsto absolvehimselfof carrying Christ death; Christ's the crosson the roadto Calthe vary;and Peter denying is he that accusation woman's his Above Christ. of disciple a a cockcrows, on a pillar, head, threedeof Peter's a symbol of epinials.The overlapping to sodes,with Peterseeming to progress Christ's interrupt of the is reminiscent Calvary, saron theearlier -composition mirChrist's depicting cophagus 56). (number acles complaque TheCrucifixion hangJudas binestwo events: Christ, forbetraying inghimself with the andthe Ctucifixion, andJohnat the Mary grieving andLonginus, left of thecross sidewith Christ's whopierced at the right.As far his spear, surviving from ascanbejudged of the scene, representations Christis shown the cruciSed fortheSrst form inhuman here the Crucifixtime.Previously, onlysymbolion wasdepicted hanging ically,with a wreath Christ here Even thecross. from as the Gospels doesnot suffer asthe butis portrayed describe hiseyesopen, Lord, triumphant on, his body superimposed from,the thanhanging rather cross.It was not until four

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hundred years laterthatChristianartists dared to showhim suffering asa man. Thetwo other plaques each showa singleeventfollowing theResurrection: thetwowomen at the tombof the risen Christ, and,below,Christ appearing to his apostles. The first scene is arranged schematically, withsleeping guards flanking theopendoors of the tomb. Above, the women contemplateChrist'sdisappearance. Thereflective mood is reinforcedby the ambiguous spatial relationship of thefour Egures, who are"stacked" on eitherside withoutregard to perspective. All attention is concentrated on the empty tomb. It is anelaborate domed structure with an entrance framed by columns andclosed with doorssculpted with the Raising ofLazarus and amourningwoman. Thetomb doesnot represent theactual burial cave butthe rotunda builtoverthe sitein Jerusalem in thefourth century. The resurrected Christappears to hisapostles in theSnal plaque, standing on a daisand showinghis woundsto the apostle Thomas, who,doubting him, reachesout to touch Christ's side. Three of theother tenapostles present in theGospel storygazewonderingly at Christ. The plaques arebeautifully andelegantly worked in high relief. Although the headsare unnaturally large,the figures arerealistically conceived, with graceful draperies. Theivories are amongthe most accomplishedRoman worksof the Theodosian period (about 380450). Width 9.8cm.(37H8in.). TheBritish Museum, London, 56,6-23, 4-7

71

here, areillustrated twopages of which manuscript, 62. Thisfragmentary TheGreek Matthew. of Saint theGospel from leaves forty-three contains thathasbeen of goldinkon vellum in letters written textis beautifully use.Scenes bylawforimperial reserved color anexpensive purple, stained ) arepainted 14:3-12 (Matthew John theBaptist of Saint thedeath from at Thetwodisciples above. in thedetail shown of thepage at thebottom has ( theroofof which bodyin prison bend overhisdecapitated theright ona head John's hands a servant ), while viewing forbetter removed been the Christ heals attheright Onthepage feast. atHerod's to Salome platter are 20: 30-34).Bothillustrations (Matthew Jericho menfrom twoblind who David, and King Isaiah, Moses, prophets bytheOldTestament flanked asforewereinterpreted which prophecies, withtheir written holdscrolls here.Isaiah(at the rightof the eventsportrayed tellingthe Christian the eyesof the blindshallbe said,"Then scene),for example, healing over useof goldforthetextis carried 35:5).Thelavish (Isaiah opened" thedecoration and robes, Christ's inthehaloes, illustration, intothefigural by aredescribed of theEgures Thedraperies andjewelry. tunic of David's highlighted of blue,red,andyellow, shades in various brushstrokes rapid The shading. brown and beige, bypink, areenlivened bywhite;thefaces pointto its illumination andskillful format, style,luxurious manusctipt's in Syria Antioch city like in a major commission asanimperial production Na29.5cm.(115/8 in.). Bibliotheque Height: thesixthcentury. during 29 1286, fols.10r, grec. cod.suppl. Paris, tionale,

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63. To simplifythe task of cross-refof Christin the four accounts erencing Gospels, Eusebius, a fourth-century drewup a concordbishopof Caesarea, ance called the CanonTables. These at the beginning were usuallyincluded of the Gospels and arrangedunder at the as on the pagefragment arches, left. Paintedwith brightlycoloredfothe richlyorresemble liage,the arches bordersof earlychurchmonamented of an 4 ). The portrait saics (see Egure it is quiterealistic; apostle,in contrast, may be inspiredby the sculptedmehad madefor his dallionsConstantine Themanin Constantinople. mausoleum velusctipt,writtenon a gold-stained madein Constantilum, was probably nople in the seventhcentury.Height Library, 21.4 cm. ( 83/8in.). TheBritish Add.Ms. 5111, fol. 11 London, panelof the diptych 64. On the central andChild leafat therightaretheVirgin The threeMagi,in Eastern in Majesty. offergifts with the assistance costumes, of an angel.Below,the Nativityscene fromthe apocby additions is enlivened suchas ofJames, Protoevangelium typhal in Salome, named of a woman the figure withers whosehand frontof themanger, In the Birth. theVirgin whenshedoubts arerelatedscenes: plaques surrounding at the lowerright,Annais intertupted her barrenby her maidas she laments ness; at the upperright, an angel anconception nouncesAnna'smiraculous of Mary;at the bottom,the Annunciation to Mary(left), the test of her vitof Mary ginityby water,andthejourney At the top, and Josephto Bethlehem. flankangelsbearinga two archangels cross. wreathed bodiesand tubular Theunarticulated, defaces,andthe draperies inexpressive scribed by shallow parallellines rePalesto eighth-century sembleseventhtinianicons. The leaf is similarin its composlan( hleratlc eve-partc1vls1on 6,8 ) . ivories(numbers tion to imperial Top: width 30.8 cm. ( 121/8 in.) . KulturPreussischer Museen, Staatliche Fruhchristlich-ByzantinBerlin, besitz, 2978. Center:height ische Sammlung, 23.3 cm. (91/8in.). The JohnRylands University, Victoria Library, University 6. Right,upperandlower: Manchester, height 10.3 cm. (51/8 in.). The State
HermitageMuseum,Leningrad,w 300, 301. Bottom: width 30.5 cm. ( 12 in. ) . Lent anonymously
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whore- bearded of Christ as theGoodShepherd as a philosopher 65. Theportrayal manseatedat the left, dressed of a andreading froma scroll,and the womanat the right, of a lost sheep,symbolic joicedover the recovery sinner(Luke15:3-7), derivesfroma classical whoappears repentant withhim,mayrepresent to be in a discussion Philan- thecouple personifying shepherds of sheep-bearing of tradition thework.Thedepiction whocommissioned on a deceased disperiod, especially in intellectual andwife engaged Popular in the LateAntique husband thropy. of salvation. pute was an Easterniconographic assimilated theyservedas images tradition monuments, funerary modelsthatit is intofunerary adoptpagan of theWest. did Christians imagery So faithfully sarcophagus Themonumental andof thevigorous as on this late third-century scale of thefigures often difficult, theshepherd crouching in Rome,to identify foundin theViaSalaria endsmakes thisoneof the ramsat therounded stands in the center, most impressive Theshepherd or Christian. as pagan to survivefromthe Romansarcophagi betweentwo treesandothersheepin his flock,next to a second extenIt hasundergone halfof the thirdcentury. arms,who can also be inter- siverestoration. womanwith outstretched Marble, length238 cm. (933/4 in.). 250for 275. Monumenti termsas praying Vatican City, pretedin bothpaganandChristian Pontificie, Musei e Gallerie the salvationof the deceased(see number56). The Museo Lat.181 PioCristiano,

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as the Good 68. Christian of (3hrist 66, 67. Thesureidentification imagery to porartists adapted imperial such as traits largely onaChristian context, On the superb Shepherd depends theVirgin, andsaints. of Christ, thatincludes ivory in theCleveland Museum theJonah group enthroned as thealat theright, Christ, diptych illustrated on page 63. Thisfourth- mighty thesplendid statue guard, Peterand is flanked by hispalace ruler, are protected North Africa Paul. Alirgin and Child ontheleftwing bowl(below, left) from The century redware here seated byangeis. elaborately sculpShepherd withJonah, Themain Egures sitbeneath alsocombines a Good with richlyemof Jonah ted canopies on lion-legged thrones as he appears in a number in contemplation, is broidered catacombs. ButthisGoodShepherd cycles in Roman withsmall personificushions. Thecanopies, at theright, in (num- cations moon, andPhtygian caplikeOrpheus of thesun,attheleft,and dressed in a cape of heaven. The mayrefer to thedome especially in theirspandrels, depicted, ber 31), who was sometimes andhieratic setting, ornate furnishings, of pagan architectural carrying aram inthemanner North African art, diptychs, such as imitate those onconsular Philanthropy. Thisbowlshows composition shepherds representing (number 8 ). as the thatof Clementinus depictions of Christ thatsomeNorthAfrican mode, appear atfirst to bein theclassical Thefigures arederived from Orphic imagery. Good Shepherd There is, howmodeled faces anddraperies. in Early withfirmly wasanother populat theme Christ teaching thefourth-century difference between sources. On ever,a dramatic on pagan Christian artthatwasmodeled on the of Christ on thispage andtheEgures in- portrayals goldglass(below, right),Christ thefourth-century arestrangely insublarge in scale, who,although Paul at ivory, Peter athisright and probably structs theapostle on Christ andtheVirgin donotsitcomfortably bytheinsctip- stantial. saints whoareidentiSed hisleft,and four spiritual theyinhabit a two-dimensional depictions of theirthrones; is based onRoman tions. Thecomposition totheir authority. everything is subordinate where Rome world inthemidst of their students. philosophers seated furniture is diminof the architecture and The solidity and fortheproduction of goldglass, wasa major center andtheaposof decoration, byanoverabundance It is ished have been found in itscatacombs. numerous pieces walls tles andangels,theirlegs and feet lost behindthe were embedded inthecatacomb believed thatthey to Christ and existsolely in their relationship thrones, tomark thegravesites. Ivory, height 29 cm.( 113/8 in.). ConstantiGerman- theVirgin. 18 cm. (7 in.). RomischBowl:diameter Museen, Preussicentury. Staatliche diameter nople,mid-sixth Mainz, 0.39447. Glass: isches Zentralmuseum, Berlin, Fruhchristlich-Byzantinische Kulturbesitz, of PuseyHouse, scher 9.3 cm. (35/8in.). The Governors 564/565 Sammlung, Oxford

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69. Probably madein Egyptin the sixthcentury, this tapestry is a rareexample of the magnificent textiles usedin churches to coverdoorways, to hangfromthe ciborium around thealtar, or,as thisoneprobably was, to decorate the walls.It demonstrates to a greater degreethanthe ivorydiptych in Berlin(number 68 ) an increasingly iconicart.The subject is the gloriScation of the XTirgin as the Theotokos, the Motherof God. Enthroned with the ChristChildand flanked by the guardian archangels Michael andGabriel, ason the left wingof theBerlin diptych, Mary gazesintoanabstract heavenlyspace.Above,Christappears in the starry heavens in a mandorla of lightcarried byangels, ashe is shownin someapsefrescoes at Bawitin Upper Egypt. Portraits of the apostlesare set in a stylizedwreath border(see Sgure4). The imageof the Virginwas probably inspired by suchcontemporary painted icons asthatof theVirgin andangels atMount Sinai. The tapestryis richly colored and handsomely woven,but compared to the earlier diptych fromConstantinople, the figuresare coarser and classical perspective is evenmoreneglected. To someextent,thisis dueto the diS;cult medium andto a less skilledartist, but the dematerialization of the figures alsoreflects a more ferventattemptto revealthe heavenlyrealm. Wooltapestry, height178 cm. ( 703/8 in.) . TheClevelandMuseum of Art,Purchase, Leonard C. Hanna, Jr., Bequest, 67.144 70. The archangel on this ivorydiptych leaf hasbeen identiISed as Michael, shownas theprotector of anemperorwho musthaveappeared on the lost companion wing. He holdsa staffand an orb surmounted by a jeweledcross,an attribute of imperial office,which, judging by the inscription "Receive thesegifts . . . ," he offersto the emperor. Angelsas portrayed in Early Christian artwere derived fromthe wingedVictories who oftenaccompanied emperors in LateAntique art; thisimage maybe basedon thearchangel whoreplaced the traditional Victoryon the coinsof JustinI (518527). Likethe Egures on the Berlindiptych(number 68 ), he clearly belongs to the spiritual world,sincehis relationship to the architecturehe standsat the top of the stairsbut in frontof the arcade is physically impossible. The ivoryis carved with a mastery andreSnement unsurpassed inEarly Christian art.Theyouthful beauty of the full-cheeked archangel, his tunicandpallium, or mantle,clingingto his bodyin supplefolds, andthe elegance of the settingandbeautifully letteredGreek inscription epitomize the splendor of the artistic production of Constantinople in the ISrst halfof the sixth century. Height42.8 cm. ( 16 7/8 in.). TheBritish Museum, London, EC295

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likely the 71.Onthese ivories thebearded men holding books aremost orator's fourEvangelists. Three of them raise their hands in a Roman which are speaking gesture. Theystand in front of a colonnade, above depicted Christ's conversation withtheSamatitan woman at thewell carrying (John 4: 6-28 ) and theHealing of theParalytic, whois shown take place hisbedandmattress whilea disciple looks on.These scenes that before a masonry wall,perhaps a city's fortiScations, a background from Beroccurs onsome earlier Christian work. Asontheivory diptych forthe lin (number 68), thearchitecture actsas a theatrical backdrop withfolds large Egures. Theevangelists areclothed in tunics andpallia heads, as falling loosely inmannered, graceful patterns. Incontrast, theit of the thecenters of their intellect, areemphasized byprecise definition ivories features andespecially of thehairandbeards. Theuseof these a is stilla puzzle; they may have decorated a bishop's throne orpossibly Gospel bookcover. Height 33.3cm. (131/8 in.). Egypt or Constantinople, sixth century. Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, M10,11-1904 onpanels 72.Fewearly portraits ofChrist, theVirgin, and saints painted of survive, because of theirfragility andthe devastating destruction use images during theIconoclastic period (726-843 ). Evidence of their exists in texts, many of which, ironically, argue against their production Bishop forfear,notalways unjustiSed, thattheyencouraged idolatry. sister, Eusebius, forexample, refused to send Constantia, Constantine's thepainting of Christ thatshehadrequested of him.Such opposition widegrew more fervent astheuseand sometimes abuse oficons became spread in thesucceeding centuries. inThere remain a fewpaintings from thesixth to seventh centuries, works like cluding some splendid icons atMount Sinai and more modest theicon ofSaint Mark theEvangelist attheright. According totradition, Mark wastheErst bishop of Alexandria; heis dressed here in a bishop's closed by tunic andstole,andholds a bookwithpearl-studded covers pose, straps. Although a simple provincial work, Mark's stern frontal orlandwidestaring eyes, andthecomplete lack of architectural details of scape to define earthly space exemplify theultimate spiritualization iconic art.Encaustic onwood, height 32.5cm.( 123/4 in.). Bibliotheque 1129a Nationale, Paris, Cabinet desMedailles, Collection Froehner,

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73.Theodore isoneof themost populat saints of theChristian church. Like Saint George, Theodore, asoldier and martyt, early captured theimaginations ofChristians, andfromthesixthcentury wasusually depicted withdistinctively dark curly hait,longmustache, and pointed beard, asheappears on thetextile at the left (alsoin color on thefrontispiece ). Thisfragment of a large, richly colored hanging wasfound atAkhmim inUpper Egypt, withanother insctibed withTheodore's name. Thesaint is oneof several figures, originally fulllength, thatmay have flanked a central image of Christ ortheVirgin; thehand shown here next tohim is that of another saint. Theodore, whoonce heldthestaff attheleftinhis right hand, isdressed inabeige tunic and cloak withblue and redtrim and stands before a redbackground. With hisstarkly modeled face and unwavering gaze, he is truly theguardian soldier of theChristian faith. Wooltapestry, height 48 cm ( 187/8 in.). Sixth century. Fogg ArtMuseum, Harvard University, Giftof Mrs. John D. Rockefeller, Jr.,1939.112.2 74.Pilgrimages were asmuch a part of thelifeof a devout Christian in theearly church as theywerein Chaucer's England. At theholysitesin Bethlehem and Jetusalem, thecitiesof Christ's bitth,death, andresurrection, Constantine and hissons builtmagnificent churches in which pilgrims could worship. Since theit trip wasoften arduous and expensive, thetravelers wanted to take home mementosof theblessing they hadreceived atthesite.Themost common souvenir was a flask, or ampulla, stamped witha picture of theeventcommemorated at the church and filled withoilfrom thelamps in thesanctuary. Thisleadampulla, insctibed "Oilof thewoodof life from theholysitesof Christ," came from theChurch of theHolySepulcher in Jetusalem. Ononeside is theCtucifixion, symbolized by thebustof Christ above thecross, which is adored by twomen,pethaps pilgrims. Thetwo thieves arectucified on either side.Thereverse, insctibed "Christ is risen," depicts theangel andtwowomen atthetomb, after hisresurrection. Thescene is setin thefourth-century totunda builtoverthetomb; some columns andtheupper stories areshown here. The figures flank a grilled enclosure through which onecansee analtatandlamp, much asa pilgrim might have seenthem in thelatesixth century whentheampulla wasmade. Sopotent werethese images because of theitconnection with theholysite,thatthey were used in illustrations of these events thatwere made fatfrom Jetusalem. Diameter 4.6 cm.( 1 13/16 in.). Dumbarton Oaks Collection, Washington, D.C., 48.18 85

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builtat the to prayin the churches longdistances alsotraveled 75-77.Pilgrims in Rome, Peter to honor weremade objects These andsaints. of apostles gravesites inEgypt. Menas inSyriaand theElder Simeon of Peterat the statuette thebronze in Rome, foundin a catacomb Reportedly Egure. andthick-set haitandbeard by the shortcurly identtEable rightis readily letterrho of theGreek andtopin the shape whosearms a cross Thesaintcarries witness principal roleasChrist's toPeter's refers Thecross monogram. Christ?s form The gesture. in a speaking raised hand hisright asa teacher, He is shown onearth. of late makethis a fineexample drapery andsoftlymodeled posture expressive fi art. Roman Efth-century early fourthand } hardship to livein great at theleft sought theEldershown Simeon Themonk Qa'lat s at modern atopa column -Hespenthis lastyears of Syria. areas in remote silver it. Onthisbeautiful wasbuiltaround a church in 459J hisdeath After Sim'an. snake} is coiledanenormous whtch on hiscolumnaround stands Simeon plaque, 22). Thesubject (number of thecultof Asklepios theinfluence showing perhaps cured thatSimeon witha legend beconnected it may differently; identified hasbeen inscription htshelp.Theplaque's hadsought mate whose of a snake theinfertility The to Godandto you,SaintSimeon.>> [this]in gratitude "I haveoffered reads: folds, it wasfoundThefulldrapery where it tnSyria, commissioned probably donor on thosedepicted resemble to theanatomy, littlerelation having in patterns falling silver. Syrian seventh-century andearly latesixthother of Saint fromthemartyrdom scenes ivorypyxisbelowbears Thesixth-century southwest to AbuMena, pilgrims somany drew Menas popular, Enormously Menas. wasenchurch thathismemorial buried7 he wassupposedly where of Alexandria, which nowlost? reliefn wasa famous initscrypt Nexttohistomb times. three larged Menas to copy. appears belown thescene art including mostof hiscommemorative thatmaysymbolize enclosure in anarched arms withoutstretched in prayer stands by fourpilgrims. flankthe saint,who is approached Two camels his sanctuary. KulturPreussischer Museen, 9.3 cm. (3 11/16 in.). Staatliche height Statue: height30 cm. 1. Plaque: Sammlung, besitz,BerlinFruhchristlich-Byzantinische Chuzeville. Maurice Bj 2180.Photograph: Paris, du Louvre, ln.). Musee ( 113/4 MuseumX TheBritish or Constantinople. in.). Egypt 8 cm. (31/4 l Pyxis:height 79, 12-20,1 '* London, p
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be- exaggerate vessels liturgical Christian of sixth-century of Milan, Thestyleis typical 78,79.WiththeEdict humility. their Emperor, counterparts. of silver pagan there their made as been have may cameas sumptuous thepaten workin Syria; lavish artists. with Syrian by churches capital endowed the in alike or citizen wealthy Constantinople, in and bishop} stamped in with buried were creature pieces heavenly of these Many a winged andfurniture. implements Onthefanis a tetramorphl about fourfaces thatof a man, in Syria, Aleppo, near found onehoard a lion,anox,andaneagle flanked of danger; times of Ezekiel fan. by thevision inspired andliturgical paten animage wheels, thissilver-gilt by flaming 1910included rather ), ( 1:4-28 a symbolic served II (565-578 metal ofJustin stamps of precious fans eontrol ). Such bytheimperial Dated The century. of thesixth Megalos than intheliturgy of thedonors, purpose a practical witha dedication is inscribed thepaten itsmore recall be- engraved of the Apostles: onthisone however, feathers theCommunion peacock It depcts andNonnos. were withrealfeathers, the functional reflecting equipped which, perhaps ancestors, of Christ, aretwoEgures hindanaltar theSacra- used theSacrament. administering from flies deacon and tokeep of apriest practice Eastern 30.9 height fash- Above: unclassical 35 cm.(133/4 in.). Opposite: diameter ina deliberately aredepicted Thefigures ment. Washington, Collection, draperOaks apostles' of theact.The in.). Dumbarton thesanctity cm. (12 1W8 emphasizes ionthat knees, D.C., 24.5,36.23 their around and arms their over bundled ies,awkwardly 88

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of the miracle withChrist's pyxisis decorated 80. Thisivory a 14:13-21), andFishes(Matthew of Loaves Multiplication fortheconsecrated its useas a container thatsuggests subject Christ illustration, Here,in theupper of theEuchatist. bread himby twoof his andtwofishoffered thefiveloaves blesses others andattheright, illustration while, inthelower disciples suicedto feedthemore thefood,which to distribute setforth teach. to heatChrist whocame people fivethousand than asdesctibed landscape, in a deserted shown of being Instead symbolically. is depicted the mitacle in the New Testament, placed are and thedisciples likeabishop, sitsona throne, Christ ina church thatmayimitate background an arcaded against andangulat proportions withtheitstocky Thefigures, terior. of contemporary to thoseon a number aresimilat gestures, The in Egypt. made thatwereprobably ivories sixth--century the static,formal between andthe contrast format circulat to thecomenergy givea special disciples andthelively Christ Gift Museum, 9 cm.(31/2 in.). Metropolitan Height: position. 17.190.34 Morgan, of J.Pierpont

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the from objects liturgical famous is oneof themost Chalice 81.TheAntioch of a it as theproperty marks richdecoration Its remarkably church. early in Syria, at Antioch-on-the-Orontes, probably parish, andthriving wealthy casing silver-gilt of anopenwork Made found. it wasreportedly where near by surrounded of Christ two figures it displays cup, silver overa plain fitted and snails, butterflies, by birds, inhabited scroll vine in a lush seated apostles who hisdisciples, instructs Christ Ononeside,theyouthful animals. other outwithwings aneagle above Christ is enthroned him;on theother, salute to at hisrightrefers whilethelamb of theResurrection, a symbol spread, atJudgLord theresurrected may represent Thescene coming. second Christ's 15:1]), said,"I amthetruevine"[John (Jesus Day.Thevinescroll ment beloaves might ofwhat basket and stands, theeagle onwhich of grapes basket of thechalice. function to theEucharistic ) refer (notshown ofbread surface, to its sculpted wear considerable hassuffered thechalice Although wellshows forthedracover ontheback it is stillimpressiveasthedetail drapand of thefaces style incisive and thestrong, of composition sense matic of workof theSrsthalfof the sixthcentury. characteristic eries,qualities TheCloisMuseum, Metropolitan Syria. in.). Probably 19cm.(71/2 Height: 50.4 Collection, ters

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Chris82-84. Among the mostbeautiful silvervesselsof Early tian craftsmanship is the handsome vase below, simpleand bustsof chastein its contours andwith exquisitely embossed Christ,the Virgin,archangels, and apostles.Here Christis shown withabook,hisrighthand raised inblessing. At hisright posed, is PaulandathisleftPeter.Subtly modeled andelegantly thesefigures exemplify the revival of classical formandtastein the Justinianic period. Thevasewasprobably usedto holdthe sacramental winein anearly Syrian church, sinceit wasfoundat ancient Emesa( modern Homs) . Similarly arresting arethe bustportraits on the silverhexato the gonalcenser(below,right ), dated by its imperial stamps years602-610.Lesselegant thantheEgures on theHomsvase, in a Christ, theVirgin, andapostles gazeoutof theirmedallions

iconic more remote and hieratic way, reflecting theincreasingly Originally susportrayal of holy Egures in theseventh century. withburning inpended by silver chains, thecenser wasISlled It wasfound in cense and swung byadeacon during theliturgy. of theobCyprus in thelatenineteenth century but,likemost jects discovered withit, wasprobably made in Constantinople. is shaped like Theunusual lamp, found in a tomb inAlgeria, a semicircular abasilica, withanarcaded nave, a clerestory, and thealtar. Ten apsewiththebishop's throne in place behind meant to branches in theform of dolphins terminate in rings of Early holdglasscups. Dolphins werea distinctive feature gifts Christian lamps and chandeliers, and among Constantine's in Rome, were to theLateran Basilica, theStstchurch hebuilt as "dolsilver chandeliers whose lamp-holders weredesctibed

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glowing 85. This small silver-giltreliquary madein was perhaps enamels with jewel-like to hold in the earlyeighthcentury Jerusalem of the True Cross,the cross of a fragment Hemother, Constantine's crucifixion. Christ's found the cross, the most lena, reportedly a pilgrimrelics,during of all Christian sacred ageto Jerusalem. depictsthe CruciThe lid of the reliquary fixion. Mournedby the Virgin and John, over Christis aliveon the cross,triumphant the long tunic colobium, death.He wearsthectucifixion in Palestinian thatis characteristic thescene,anddecorating Surrounding images. are portraitsof the sides of the reliquary, Theseinclude andsaints. apostles twenty-eight (above, andEustrathios Mercurios thesoldiers Panteleimon ) andthedoctor rightandmiddle popular (above,left), who were particularly in the East, and a bishopnamedAnastasius animporhere), whoprovides (notillustrated was made. tant clue to where the reliquary as a the bishophas beenidentiSed Although of Antioch,he mayhave been the patriarch of the sacred who was custodian Anastasius andthenpatriarch relicsat theHolySepulcher

in 458. He andalltheothersaints of Jerusalem calin a liturgical areincluded on thereliquary of Saint monastery at thefamous written endar datesfrom thecalendar nearJerusalem; Sabas oldercustoms. but reflects the tenthcentury may,then,havebeen madein The reliquary after the veryheartof the HolyLanddecades about637. theAraboccupation The intensecolorsof the enamels,which green emerald translucent range froma radiant diSand rich reddishpurple an extremely whiteandyelcultcolorto make- to opaque of the crucithe spirituality low, emphasize to theremarkcontrast fixionscene.In curious is the of the enameling able workmanship primitivestyle of the figuresand the incorinscriptions, lettersof theGreek formed rectly andquotethewords thefigures whichidentify thy spokefromthecross:"Behold thatChrist thy son." and"Behold mother" ) is saidto Pope InnocentIV ( 1243-1252 One of his ambashaveownedthisreliquary. theFifthCruduring in theHolyLand sadors it backto himin Italy. sademayhavebrought MuLength10.2 cm. (4 in.). Metropolitan 17.190.715 Morgan, seum,Giftof J. Pierpont

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