COMPUTER METHODS IN APPLIED MECHANICS AND ENGINEERING 79 (1990) 173-202 NORTH-HOLLAND

FINITE DEFORMATION CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS AND A TIME INTEGRATION PROCEDURE FOR ISOTROPIC, HYPERELASTIC-VISCOPLASTIC SOLIDS G u s t a v o W E B E R * a n d Lallit A N A N D Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, U.S.A. Received 2 September 1988 Constitute equations for finite deformation, isotropic, elastic-viscoplastic solids are formulated. The concept of a multiplicative decomposition of the deformation gradient into an elastic and a plastic part is used. The constitutive equation for stress is a hyperelastic relation in terms of the logarithmic elastic strain. Since the material is assumed to be isotropic in every local configuration determined by the plastic part of deformation gradient, the internal variables are necessarily scalars. We use a single scalar as an internal variable to represent the isotropic resistance to plastic flow offered by the internal state of the material. The constitutive equation for stress is often expressed in a rate form, and for metals it is common to approximate this rate equation, under the assumption of infinitesimal elastic strains, to arrive at a hypoelastic equation for the stress. Here, we do not express the stress constitutive equation in a rate form, nor do we make this approximative assumption. For the total form of the stress equation we present a new implicit procedure for updating the stress and other relevant variables. Also, the principle of virtual work is linearized to obtain a consistent, closed-from elasto-viscoplastic tangent operator (the 'Jacobian') for use in solving for global balance of linear ~aomentum in implicit, two-point, deformation driven finite element algorithms. The time integration algorithm is implemented in the finite element program ABAQUS. To check the accuracy and stability of the algorithm, some representative problems involving large, pure elastic and combined elastic-plastic deformations are solved.

I. l~roduction
T h e first o b j e c t i v e o f this p a p e r is to briefly review an isotropic elastic-viscoplastic constitutive m o d e l for finite d e f o r m a t i o n s of polycrystalline metals. W e shall limit o u r a t t e n t i o n to materials which are initially isotropic and r e m a i n so. A l t h o u g h this will restrict the use of t h e constitutive e q u a t i o n s to d e f o r m a t i o n levels w h e r e significant polyerystal texturing has not b e e n d e v e l o p e d , we e m p h a s i z e that t h e r e are still a n u m b e r o f o p e n questions concerning the f u n d a m e n t a l s o f the t h e o r y a n d its i m p l e m e n t a t i o n in c o m p u t a t i o n a l p r o g r a m s , e v e n for isotropic solids. T h e constitutive m o d e l is e x c e r p t e d f r o m [1]. We confine o u r a t t e n t i o n h e r e to the purely m e c h a n i c a l aspects o f the theory. T h e inclusion o f t h e r m a l effects into the general f o r m o f the * Now at the Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853-7501, U.S.A. 0045-7825/90/$3.50 1990, Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. (North-Holland)

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G. Weber, L. Anand, Finite deformation constitutive equations

theory is straightforward and has been considered previously by Anand. In this work, Anand used the multiplicative decomposition of the deformation gradient into an elastic and a plastic part, and the stress response in his work was properly formulated as a total relation between an elastic ~train measure and its elastic work-conjugate stress measure However, to make connection with the widely used current elastic-plastic models, he used the approximation of infinitesimal elastic strains (for metals) and the assumption of isotropy to show that the rate form of the hyperelastic relation for stress reduces to a hypoelastic equation in which the Jaumann derivative of the stress is related to the elastic stretching. This showed (see also [2]) the connection between a theory based on the multiplicative decomposition of the deformation gradient into an elastic and a plastic part, together with a hyperelastic constitutive equation for the stress, and the widely used (see, e.g., [3, 4]) constitutive models based on an additive decomposition of the stretching tensor into elastic and plastic parts, in which the elastic stretching is related to the Jaumann derivative of the stress in an ad hoe manner. Although the hypoelastic form of the constitutive equation for stress is a good approximation for metals under situations where elastic strains remain small, as has long been recognized and recently emphasized by a number of authors (see [5-7]), in the absence of piastic flow hypoelastic equations for stress lead to dissipation. Here, for this reason, and also since even metals can undergo large elastic dilational changes under high pressures, such as occur in high velocity impact or in explosion phenomena, we retain the total hyperelastic relation for the stress. That is we will consider an elastic-plastic constitutive model with a finite elastic range. The plastic part of the constitutive model is based on the following physical ideas: Plastic deformation due to dislocation motion is inherently rate-dependent. u The instantaneous response of a material is determined by its current state. The current state (which is produced by the entire past history of deformation undergone by the material) may be assumed to be representable by a small number of macroscopic internal variables and their evolution to be representable by rate equations. In general, the appropriate internal variables and their rate evolution equations are not easily idcntifiable. Here, to obtain a first-order constitutive model for finite deformations, we employ a scalar as an internal variable to represent the isotropic resistance to plastic flow offered by the internal state of the material. We denote this internal variable by ~ (for state), take it to have the dimensions of stress, and call it the deformation resistance. It represents an averaged isotropic resistance to macroscopic plastic flow offered by the underlying 'isotropic' strengthening mechanisms such as dislocation density, solid solution strengthening, subgrain and grain size effects, etc. The assumption that only a single scalar may be used to characterize the internal structural characteristics of a material is of course a gross simplification. Nevertheless, in the spirit of the 'isotropic hardening' assumption of the classical rate-independent plasticity theory, we pursue the consequences of this simple assumption in this paper. The second, and primary purpose of this paper is to report on a new, stable, fully implicit procedure for integrating the constitutive equations across a generic time step. The plan of this paper is as follows. After introducing our notation in Section 2, we review our constitutive model in Section 3. In Section 4 we detail our consistent and stable time integration algorithm, and in this section we also give the constitutive contribution to the consistent Jacobian matrir, for a global Newton type equilibrium iteration scheme. In Section 5 we briefly discuss certain aspects of the implementation of our constitutive equations and i.r~tegration algorithm in a

G. Weber, L. Anand, Finite deformation constitutive equations

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finite element program, we present a few examples which verify the accuracy of our time integration procedure and we also illustrate some important aspects of our constitutive model. We conclude the paper in Section 6, with some closing remarks.

2. Notation

Mostly we shall use notation which is standard in m o d e m continuum mechanics (Cf., e.g.,

[8]):
P, material point of a body in a reference configiration G 0 at time 0, motion; x place occupied by p at time t, configuration of the body at t, reference map, deformation gradient, velocity, spatial description of velocity, stretching, spin, Cauchy stress, Cauchy stress deviator, body forced per unit volume, place occupied by p at time 7 > t, configuration of the body at time r, incremental displacement at time ~-, first Piola-Kirchhoff stress at time z, reference body force at time z.

x : ~ ( p , t), ~3t = i ( ~o, t ), p = ~(x, t), F(x,t)--~pi(p,t),

det F > 0 ,

.~(p, t) ~- ~ .~(p, t),

v- ~(~(x, t), t),

D(x, t) - sym L = (L + L t), W(x, t) ----skw L = (L - L t ) ,

L(x, t ) - ~x v(x, t), velocity gradient,

r(x, t),
T' = T - ~(tr T)I, b(x, t),

= z(p, ~), ~T = i(~0, ~),

u , ( p , ~) - g - x ,

P(p, r) - {det F ( p , ~')}T(~(p, t), t){/'(p, t)}-t, bo(P, z) =- {det F ( p , ~')}b((p, z), z),

The reference configuration G 0 is assumed to be stress-free. For brevity, and whenever there is no danger of confusion, we will omit the arguments (x, t), (p, z) etc., for the various field quantities listed above.

3. Constitutive equations

The simplest, and most commonly used phenomenological model for infinitesimal elasticplastic deformations is the classical J2 flow theory with isotropic hardening. The set of constitutive equations for isotropic elastic-viscoplastic solids considered here, is essentially a generalization of this widely used theory to model finite elastic and plastic deformations, and rate-dependence of plastic flow. This set of constitutive equations consists of:

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G. Weber, L. Anand, Finite deformation constitutive equations

The constitutive equation for stress: = .ff[~]. Here

/~e _ In V e (2)

(1)

is a logarithmic elastic strain measure; ~--- 2/~,, + (K - ~ / z ) l l

(3)

is ,*he fourth order isotropic elasticity tensor, with /x and K elastic shear and bulk moduli, respectively, .9 the fourth order, symmetric identity tensor and 1 the second order identity tensor; and _--R~t{(det Ue)T}R e

(4)

is the stress measure which is elastic work conjugate to the logarithmic strain measure E* defined in (2). Also, T is the symmetric Cauchy stress tensor, and in (2) and (4), U e and R e are the elastic right stretch and elastic rotation tensors, respectively, in the polar decomposition of an elastic deformation gradient F *. The elastic deformation gradient is defined in terms of the total deformation gradient F and a plastic deformation gradient F p, with det F p --- 1, by F e -F F p-1 ,

det F e > O.

(5)

The plastic deformation gradient is in turn given by the flow rule prescribed below. The evolution equation for ff P; the flow rule: ~P =/-~P/~P, with ~.rP ~_ skw P = 0 and b p --sym P = tiP(T, if) = vr~ ~PN, where /V = ~ (g)
(9)

(6) (7)

(T 76)

is the direction of plastic flow, 6--~'/~' is an equivalent tensile stress, and the constitutive function ~P=f(#,g) with ~<g.
~P

(10) is an equivalent tensile plastic strain rate prescribed by

(11)

The scalar ~ is an internal variable which represents the isotropic resistance to plastic flow

G. Weber, L. Anand, Finite deformation constitutive equations

177

offered by the internal state of the material. We take it to be defined on the relaxed configuration, to have the dimensions of stress, and we call it the deformation resistance. As mentioned previously, it represents an averaged isotropic resistance to macroscopic plastic flow offered by the underlying 'isotropic' strengthening mechanisms such as dislocation density, solid solution strengthening, subgrain and grain size effects, etc. The restriction tr < s embodies the fact that metal plasticity by dislocation glide is thermally activated and that the applied stress is less than the deformation resistance (see, e.g., [9]). The deformation resistance g evolves according to its evolution equation given below. Evolution equation for the deformation resistance ~: ~-= g ( ~ , s ) = h ~ p - f , where h =/~(t~, g) f = ~(#) is a hardening function, and (13) (14) is a static recovery function. (12)

To complete this rate-dependent constitutive model for a particular material the material properties/functions that need to be specified are the elastic shear and bulk moduli,/~ and r, respectively; the flow function f in (11) for the equivalent tensile plastic strain rate; and the initial value, and evolution function g in (12) for the deformation resistance. Even for a particular material it is not expected that the same special forms for f and g will be appropriate f o r all values of strain-rates and temperatures. Indeed, different particular forms for these functions will in general be necessary for different regimes of strain-rate and temperature. These forms should reflect the dominant features of the underlying microstructural mechanisms which govern the material response in the regime under consideration. For high temperature deformation of metals at moderate strain rates, specific forms for the flow function f and the evolution equation g, have been given recently by Brown et al. [10]. Note that in the rate-dependent model there is no switching parameter which turns plastic flow off or on; plastic flow is assumed to occur at all non-zero values of stress. Further, the equivalent plastic strain rate, which is typically determined by the consistency condition in rate-independent models, needs to be prescribed by a constitutive function. Since there is no yield condition to be satisfied in this rate-dependent model, there is also no consistency condition which needs to be satisfied in this model. The overall mathematical structure of this rate-dependent model is simple because the plastic flow rule is a smooth function, although the particular form of the constitutive function for ~P may be mathematically very stiff in certain regions of plastic flow, requiring special care in formulating numerical algorithms. Since the precise formulation of finite deformation constitutive equations for elastic-plastic solids is still under intense discussion in the literature, we note that our constitutive equations have the following major characteristics: 1. The flow rule uniquely determines the plastic deformation gradient 1 FP, and this uniquely associates a local configuration for each material neighborhood which is intermediate We have put an overbar over F p to distinguishthis definitionof the plastic deformation gradient from the definition of a similar quantity used by Lee [11], his co-workersand others, discussedlater in the text.

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between the position x of a material neighborhood in the loaded configuration and the position p of the same material neighborhood in the reference configuration. This local configuration is taken to represent the effects of only plastic (or inelastic) deformation, completely uncoupled from elastic deformation; it is stress-free. We call it the local relaxed configuration. We note that the collection of local relaxed configurations associated with the material particles of a body do not necessarily constitute a compatible global configuration of the body. 2. Let Q be a time-dependent rotation in a change in observer (rigid body motion scperposed on the loaded configuration). Then, F and T transform as (see, e.g. [8])

Qr;

r--, QrQ'.

A central assumption 2 of the model is that ffP remains unaffected by a change in observer:

Pp

P,.
U e

Then, using (5) and the tral~sformation rule for F, the transformation rules for F e, are
F~--> Q F ~ ,
ue--> U e ,
-e

and R e

Re--> QR e ,

while the logarithmic strain measure E , its elastic work conjugate stress measure T and the deformation resistance g remain invariant under a change in observer:

As is clear from these transformation rules, the response of the isotropic elastic viscoplastic solid defined by the constitutive equations, is independent of the observer. 3. We use the Hencky or logarithmic measure of elastic strain and its elastic work conjugate 3 measure of stress for formulating the hyperelastic constitutive equation for stress. It has been shown by Anand [18, 19] that for isotropic elastic solids the hyperelastic, linear stress-strain relation 4 (1) is an excellent generalization of the classical Hooke's law for infinitesimal isotropic elasticity to 'moderately large' elastic strains involving principal stretches in the range 0.7 to 1.3. In this equation/.~ and ~ are the classical elastic constants which may be determined from experimental data at infinitesimal strains. All moderate strain nonlinearities are incorporated in the logarithmic strain measure. Anand has demonstrated that 2Naghdi and co-workers (see e.g., [12-14] propose to impose the additional invariance requirement (Fe, ffP)--~(FQ, QtF p) where Q is an arbitrary time-dependent rotation. We do not impose this restrictive requirement here because we consider such a requirement more a statement regarding material symmetry rather than one regarding a change in observer. Also see [15], and the discussion of [15] by Casey [16] for ongoing discussions of this issue. 3For a detailed discussion of work conjugate stress-strain measures see [17]. 4With the superscripts e dropped.

G. Weber, L. Anand, Finite deformation constitutive equations

179

the predictions from this simple linear relation involving a non-linear strain measure and its work conjugate stress mea~,re are in excellent agreement with a wide variety of experiments which include static compressibility experiments on metals under high pressures, large deformation uniaxial tension of compressible polyurethane foam rubbers, and the incompressible version of this relation (which involves only the shear modulus/z) is in good agreement with simple tension and compression, pure shear, torsion and combined extension-torsion of vulcanized natural rubbers. Further, from amongst a variety of widely used strain measures, he showed that it was the logarithmic strain measure which best generalizes the strain energy function for classical infinitesimal isotropic elasticity to moderate elastic strains. The use of this strain measure a n d its work conjugate stress of formulating constitutive equations for elastic-plastic mated, ls was first suggested by Rice [20]. 4. Note that in the plastic part of these constitutive equations (a) We have specified the flow rule directly in terms of L p, the plastic velocity gradient in the relaxed configuration, and taken it to be governed by the variables (T, #) which are also defined on the relaxed configuration. (b) Since the elastic-viscoplashc solid is taken to be isotropic in every relaxed configuration, the plastic spin W p is taken to vanish. (c) We have departed from the classical theories and have not assumed the existence of any yield conditions and attendant loading criteria. Further~ the model belongs t o the so-called class of 'unified constitutive equations' in which 'plasticity' and 'creep' are unified, in that they are described by the same set of flow and evolutionary equations. (d) The response functions for/~,P and ~/-have been assumed not to depend on :F, which means that we assume that there is no instantaneous plasticity. (e) The restriction det F p = 1 embodies our assumption that plastic deformation in metals is essentially incompressible.

5. Equation (5) may be rearranged to yield the following multiplicative decomposition for
F: F =F~P p . This multiplicative decomposition of the deformation gradient was first proposed by Lee and Liu [21]. However, we note that Lee, Onat and their co-workers (see [11, 22-24]) and more recently Parks and his co-workers 5 (see [25-27]) also use a multiplicative oecomposition of the deformation gradient into an elastic and a plastic part, however, their definition of 'elastic' and 'plastic' deformation gradients differ from the definitions adopted here. To make this difference clear, we denote t h e quantity called the plastic deformation gradient by these authors, F p, as opposed to our F p. These authors first consider an 'elastic destressing event' from the loaded configuration, call the deformation gradient associated with this elastic destressing F e, and then to make the product decompositio:a of F into an elastic and a plastic part uniq~e, they impose the constraint F -= V ~- vet; that is, they assume that the elastic s The work of these authors is directed at modelingthe finite deformationelastic-plasticdeformationbehavior of amorphouspolymersbelow the glass transition temperature.

~,0

G. Weber, L. A n a n d , Finite deformation constitutive equations

destressing is performed without any rotation. The plastic deformation gradient in their theory is then defined by F p =-FV e-1. They call the configuration determined by this F p the 'favored unstressed configuration'. In this decomposition of F, V e and F p transform under a change in observer according to
ve--->QVeQ t
and

FP--->QF p .

it is important to note that Agah-Tehrani et al. [24] consider that, " . . . the deformation gradient F p expresses pure plastic deformation uncoupled from dastic deformation". In passing we note that if we assume that the left stretch tensor V e in the theory of this group of authors is the same as the left stretch tensor corresponding to the elastic deformation gradient defined in (5), then it is possible to make the connection that
F p ~__R e p p .

Thus, what is called pure plastic deformation by these authors differs from what we call pure plastic deformation by the rotation R e. From this relation between the two plastic deformation gradients we obtain the following relations between the two plastic stretchings and spins: D p = e e / ) p e et and W p = / l e R ' + RI~'PR ~t . This group of authors is unsettled as to how to specify the evolution of what they call the pure plastic deformation gradient. With L p - / ~ P F p-~= D P + W p, it turns out that the assumed symmetry of F ~ imposes the constraint

v e ( w - W p) + ( W - WP)V e

Ve(D + D p) - (D + DP)V e .

Thus, in their formulation, under an imposed L - / b F -1 = D + W, if a constitutive equation for D p is given, then the constraint equation above dictates what W p needs to be in order to maintain the assumed symmetry of F ~. Further, while Parks and co-workers give a constitutive equation for D p, Lee, Onat and co-workers specify a constitutive equation for a variable they denote by b p and define by
Ce/) p +/)PC e = 2VeDPV e , with

C ~ = V ~2 .

We note that their whole mathematical construction is based on the assumption F e = V e = Vet. \Ve emphasize, that we do not adopt this kinematical restriction on the multiplicative decomposition of F into an elastic and plastic part, or the attendant mathematical framework, which, because of the complicated coupling between the 'elastic' and 'plastic' quantities, makes it very cumbersome for numerical implementations. In our work, we have taken the viewpoint that once a constitutive equation for the evolution of a plastic deformation gradient is specified and F e is defined as in (5), the multiplicative decomposition of F is automatically unique (see also [6]). In any event, for isotropic materials (to which we have restricted our

G. Weber, L. Anand, Finite deformation constitutive equatiot~

181

attention in this paper) the orientation of the relaxed configuration is immaterial, and the mathematical framework adopted here leads to a straight-forward numerical time-integration procedure, which we ~b::~vi~'~c hi what follows.

4. Computational aspects
In typical 'implicit' finite clement procedures which use nonlinear constitutive models, the discretized principle of virtual work, which enforces equilibrium and boundary conditions in a weak sense, generates an estimated incremental displacement field which is used to calct:!ate the integration point values of the stress T and other field variables at the end of a time increment. If these stresses do not satisfy the principle of virtual work at the end of the increment, then the estimate of the incremental displacement field is revised and new ends of increment stresses are calculated; iteration continues until the principle of virtual work is satisfied to within acceptable tolerances. Accordingly, we assume (i) that we are given F(t) and the list of variables

l(t) = ( T(t), FP(t), ~-(t)},

(15)

at time t, with the Cauchy stress T(t), corresponding to T(t), satisfying equilibrium; and (ii) that we are also given the deformation gradient F(r) at time ~"= t + At. With these givens, we take the computational problems to be 1. A stable, accurate and efficient computation of the triplet 10% 2. The computation of a consistent Jacobian matrix to be used in a Newton type iterative method for revising the estimated displacements such that the updated stresses better satisfy the principle of virtual work at the end of the increment. As emphasized by Hughes [4], these are the main problems of computational plasticity, with item 1 being the central problem, because Jacobian matrices are used only in the search for displacement fields that lead to satisfaction of the principle of virtual work, but in the end have no effect on the accuracy of the solution. Indeed, in 'explicit' finite element procedures, which are widely used in large scale inelastic analysis, Jacobian matrices are not required, and item 1 is the only function required of a 'constitutive equation subroutine'.

Quasi-static boundary-value problem

Assume that the current configuration ~, of a body which is in equilibrium is known, and suppose that the equilibrium stress field T(x, t) together with the other field variables and the relevant material parameters are given. Let D 0 and ,Yo be complementary regular subsurfaces of the boundary O~ 0 of ~'0- Denote the reference body force at time z by b0( p, r), the incremental displacements ut( p, 7) prescribed at points p of D0 by f~t(P, ~), and denote the surface tractions P(p, r)n(p) prescribed on points p of 5e 0 by i(p, ~). (More complicated boundary conditions may be envisioned, but we do not go into that matter here.) Given these data, a sufficiently smooth vector field u,(p, ~') generates kinematical quantities which through the constitutive equations allow us (via appropriate time-integration procedures) to calculate the stess field T( ~, ~') and the other field variables on the configuration ~ ,

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G. Weber, L. Anand,

Finite deformation constitutive equations

at time ~'. If this displacement field ut( p, ~) is such that the stress field T(~, ~') when expressed in terms of the first Piola-Kirchhoff stress P(p, ~) satisfies

o P(P' 7). -~p L

~(p, 'r) d V -

o bo(P, 'r). gT(p, 'r) d V -

~o ~(p, 'r)- 17(p, "r) d A = 0 , (16)

for every sufficiently smooth 'variational' vector field ~(p, ~') (which is not identically zero, and which vanishes on ~0), then it is called a (weak) solution of the mixed problem. In order to obtain such a solution we first need to assume a deformation path between ~ , and ~ , for purposes of discretization of the relevant kinematical quantities, and then to integrate the constitutive equations across a time-step, At = r - t, to obtain T(7) = T(F(7), At; F(t), l(t)). Since plasticity is path-dependent, we must restrict the time increment At and the relative deformation gradient Ft0" ) --- F(z)F(t) -1 to be (in some sense) 'small'.

Time integration procedure

For most of this section it will be more convenient to make the identifications t n --- t and tn+l = z, to indicate the incremental nature of the time-integration procedure. The solution being supposed to have been obtained up to time tn, and that at time tn+ 1 being sought. Further, subscripts 'n' and 'n + 1' on variables will indicate that the variables are evaluated at times t~ and t~ +1, respectively. Assume that F n and In = {T,, F -p~, #~} at time t~ are known, and F,+I and At are given; then the problem is to integrate the evolution equations for FP and g across a time increment g~+l}, then transform T~+I At = tn+ 1 - tn in order to calculate the value ofln+ 1 = {Tn+l, F~+I, -p to T~+I, and thus march forward in time. In what follows, we present a one-step algorithm which is suitable for finite element applications. In our algorithm the evolution equation for the plastic deformation gradient F P is integrated by means of the operator 6
6 Consider a system of ordinary differential equations of the form
,~ = A(y)y ,

and consider a one-step, implicit integration operator defined by

Yn+] = exp { A t A ( y , + ~ ) } y n . (,)

The first order accuracy requirement in At for consistency of this operator is easily verified. From ( * )
At~O

lira Yn+ 1 = Yn

Also, differentiating ( * ) with respect to t. + ~ (= t n + At) gives dy~ + dt~+~ = A ( Y n + ~ ) Y n + O(At), which yields dyn+ ~ dy~ lira = -= A(y~)y~ . a~0 dtn+~ dt~ ~

G. Weber, L. Anand, Finite deformation constitutive equations

-P D .+I}F . Fn+ 1 =- exp{At -p -P

183 (17)

,+1 = D P ( ~ + I , S n + I ) DP

while the isotropic hardening variable is integrated via an Euler backward operator
Yn+l = fin + At g(~n+l, s',+1)

(18)

Then, using (5) and (17), the elastic deformation gradient is given by F : + 1 = F , e exp ( - A t L~P+I}, where
F: - F. (20)

(19)

is a 'trial value' of the elastic deformation gradient. The tensors F~+~, F~. admit the polar decompositions e Re Ue Fn+l = n+l n + l
' F,

e = R ,eU , e

(22)

Using (21) in (i9) and rearranging, we obtain e e 1 exp {At/)P+I} = R : U ,e Rn+xUn+ . Let the bracket function [ . , ] denote the operation
[A, BI - An - BA

(22)

for all second order tensors A and B. Then, due go the isotropic character of the stress-strain equation (1), [2Fn+~, V~+l] = 0 , and because of the isotropic character of the costitutive equation (8) f o r / 3 p [Un+ ~, exp { A t D (Tn+~, g,+l)}] = O. This latter relation implies that the tensor e exp {At On+l Un+~ -p } is symmetric. Hence, because of the uniqueness of the polar decomposition, (22) yields
e Ap

(23)

(24)

R~+I = R,~,
U:+I exp (At/~,P+x} = U ~ .

(25)
(26)

Equation (26)implies that U~, and U,~+t have the same principal directions. Thus, taking tl~e logarithm of both sides of (26) and rearranging, we get

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G. Weber, L. Anand, Finite deformation constitutive equations

--e --e E.+I =E , - AtDPI,

(27)
(28)

where
l~,e ___In U ~, ,

is a 'trial elastic strain'. SubstiWfing (27) in (1) we obtain the stress update
Tnl +

- , _ .o~[At6P+,] T.+,

(29)

where -* -= ~ e [ ~ : ] Tn+l

(30)

is a 'trial stress'. Finally, using (3) and (8)-(11) in (29), and recalling (I8), we arrive at the following pair of equations for updating T and g:
T.+I = T * + I - (X/-6/x At)~P+IN.+I,

(31) (32)

S-n+1 = S\ + At g(O.+,, . + , ) .

In a displacement based finite element method the trial stress ~+ 1 can be calculated directly_ in terms of quantities known at the beginning of the solution process. Thus, to update the T and g using (31) and (32), we need to calculate/V.+I, ~ -'p n+l =f(orn+l,ffn+l) and s.+ 1. It is easily shown that N.+ 1 is given in terms of T*+I by
]Vn+l = - * t --*t = V ~(T* . +'l/o r.+l/llr.+~ll *. . + ~ )

(33) (34)

where
-* V 3 ~*.+l @*' . T *.+1 ' '.+l-= ,

and hence N. +1 is also known at the beginning of the solution process. Equation (33) may be rearranged to read T'.+I -'q.+~T*'+,, where r/.+~ ~ ( ~ . + 1 1 ~ n * + 1 ) . (35)

Next, from the deviatoric part of (31) we obtain

_ _ * - 3/x At ~P o..+1 = o..+1 .+1

(36)

Thus, from (32), (36) and (11), the problem reduces to solving for g.+t and t~.+ 1 from the pair of scalar equations
~ . + 1 - ~ * + l + 3/~ A t f ( ~ . + l , sn+l) = 0,

(37)

S'-n+1 -- ffn -- A l g(6"n+l, ffn+l) .~-O .

(38)

In the context of a constitutive model for elasto-viscoplasticity which used a hypoelastic

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185

equation for the stress, but is otherwise similar to the one considered here, Lust et al. [28] have shown that one arrives at a pair of equations similar to (37) and (38), which need to be solved to update the solution. For their hypoelastic based constitutive model 7 Lush et al. [28] have detailed a robust and efficient iterative method for obtaining the solution for a large class of functions f and g. Their solution method is directly applicable here as Well. The Cauchy stress tensor is obtained by inverting (4)

Tn+l =_idet,7o p e* t, ~n+lJx-lDe-~ ~**,+IA

(39)

where in writing (39) we have used the fact that R~+ 1 = R~ (25). Next, u~ing the identity det (exp A) = exp (tr A ) , for second order tensors (e.g., [8]), the term (det U~+I) can be written as det U,+ 1 = e x p ( t r E -~ .+I), and since t r E e + l = (tr T~+I)/(3K), where K is the elastic bulk modulus, we have det U:+I = exp {(tr ~ . + , ) ) / ( 3 K ) } . Use of (42) in (39) completes the inversion formula for T~+ 1.
R E M A R K I. The integration of the plastic deformation gradient can be performed via an

(40)

(41)

(42)

Euler backward operator yielding a numerical scheme similar (but not identical) to the one presented above. In this case P 1= (1A t D ~ + -P F~+ I) -~F ,p , U:+ 1 = U ~ ( I - A t / ~ P + I ) . (43)

However, the expression for the elastic strain increment becomes = E . + In (1 -- At/)P+I) (44)

which differs from (27). In order to simplify (44), the second term in the last equation can be expanded in series of A t D.+I, ~p giving In (1 - At/~P+~) = - A t Dn+ -p 1 "1" O ( ( A t / ) P + I ) 2) . Substituting (45) in (44), a~rtd neglecting second order terms, we recover (27).
R E M A R K 2. Plastic incompressibility, tr (/)P) = 0, det (/~P) = 1, is represented exactly in this

(45)

integration algorithm. This is trivially vertified by taking the determinant of (17a) and making use of (40). 7 Under the approximative assumption of infinitesimal elastic stretches, the hyperelastic model considered here reduces to their model.

186

G. Weber, L. Anand, Finite deformation constitutive equations

Summary of the time-integration algorithm STEP 1. Calculate the trial elastic deformation gradient
p: = .

STEP 2. Perform the polar decomposition

F~
= R,U

e e ,

STEP 3. Compute the trial elastic strain / ~ . To do this, first compute the spectral decomposition of U,~
3

tT : "~" E
i=1

~(i)-(i) ~

e(i,)

where A~) are the eigenvalues and e~) are the eigenvectors of U , , and then
3
--e E ,

~ ] ( l n a ,~')_~0~
i=1

For later use we note that E $ is well approximated by E , = 2 ( U , - 1)(V: + 1 ) - ' .

me e

(46)

As shown by Weber [29], the rational expansion (lst Pad6 approximation) of the tensor logarithm is an excellent approximation to the true value when the principal stretches of U are in the range 0.7< A~)< 1.3. Since, in a typical finite element step the incremental stretches should in general be 'small', approximation (46) may be used with impunity. See also [4] for a discussion of this approximation to the logarithmic function in the context of a scalar equation.

STEP 4. Calculate the trial stress

r.+, =

STEP 5. Calculate the mean normal pressure corresponding to Tn+ 1

P.I = - ~ t r - Tn+ * 1

STEP 6. Calculate the deviatoric part of Tn+ 1

/~,' = f ,
n+l

+-*
n+l

Pn+l I

STEP 7. Calculate the trial equivalent tensile stress t~*l

O'n+ 1 ~ - - V 2 3~ ~n *+ tl Tn+l

G. Weber, L. Anand, Finite deformation constitutive equations STEP 8. Calculate ~n+X and s-~+1 by solving
~.+, - ~*+, + 3/z At f ( ~ + , , fi.+,) = 0,
f i n + l - - fin - - A t g ( ~ n + l '

187

fin+l) = O.

STEP 9. Update the stress iF

Tn+l - - * t -- Pn+l --* = ~/n+lTn+l I , ---* where 7/n+1= (trn+l/trn+l).

STEP I0. Transform T to T

-* Tn+ l={exp(pn+l/k)} Re~

et. * n+~R,

STEP 11. Update/~P

~* / F n

~ n.it,lt,

Jacobian matrix
Recall that the quasi-static incremental boundary value problem was to find a relative displacement field ut(p, z) such that

f~o~'~, ~ ~ 0 ~'~," ov-(f~o~o,~,~,-~,~, ~, ~ +

= 0,

fo~o~'~, ~' ~'~, ~'

OA)
(47)

for every variational vector field tT(p, z). In order to solve the non-linear set of equations generated from (47) by the finite element discretization, iterative techniques must be used. The most commonly used iterative method is Newton's method. This method requires the linearization of (47) around the last estimate for the solmion u,(p, z). Let d4~ denote a small change in a quantity ~, then the linearized form of (47) is simply f~o dP(p, ~')" ~0 ~(p, ~')dV

- (f~o dbo(p, r). ~,(p, z) dV + fo~o di(p, r)" ~(p, r) dA) =O .

(48,

In order to achieve the quadratic convergence which is characteristic of Newton's method, it is important to evaluate this linearized form accurately. In this paper we concentrate on evaluating only the first term in the linearized expression (48) above; evaluation of the second term depends on the particular body forces and applied surface tractions. Using the definition of the first Piola-Kirchhoff stress P(r) = (det FO'))TO')F(r) -t ,

188 the results (39)

G. Weber, L. Anand, Finite deformation constitutive equations

TO') = (det U e(~'))- IR:IF('r)R~,t and (from (42)) d(det U e())(det U e0"))-I = tr c(~-)[dE ~] / (3k), where 0 /~(r) (49)

are the linearization moduli s, and the identities dF()

--t = __

(dF()F()-I)tF(~. ) - t ,

d(det F()) = (det F(z)) tr (dF()F()-I), we obtain 0 dP('r). -~pp5(p, )dV = (det F(z))[{exp (/~* /K)R ~() q~()[d/~ ~]R~(~') t }

+ {(dR:Rgt)T()- T()(dR:R:t)} - (T(z)(dF(z)F()-~)}

+ {T() tr (dF(z)FO')-l)}{TO')(tr q~0-)[d,~,~]/(3K))}] 0 F('r) -t. ~-~ iT(p, "r) d V . (50)

In order to complete the linearization procedure, it remains to derive the differentials a// t-.e,, t d R , R , and the linearization moduli q~0"). We proceed first with the evaluation of dl~, and dR~,R~,t. In what follows we describe an approximate 9, but eomputationaly economic evaluation of these differential quantities. Differentiating (46) and rearranging terms we get di~g = 4(U: + 1 ) - ' d U : ( U : + 1) -1 . Next, differentiating U$2( = F~,'F~,) and premultiplying by U~, -1, we obtain s Note that these linearization moduli depend on the constitutive equations as well as the time integration procedure used to obtain f(). 9Note that this approximation might affect the rate of convergence of the global iteration scheme but not the accuracy of the algorithm. (51)

G. Weber. L. Anand. Finite deformation constitutive equations

189 (52)

U , l d ( U . 2) = U , -I d U . U .

+dU,

= 2 U , -~ sym ( F ,et d F .e) .

Introducing the Blot trial strain measure E .B - - U ~ - 1 and expanding U , ~in terms of E .B, we arrive at
v. 1 = l - E ,~ + O ( E , ~ ) . (53)

Substituting (53) in (52), and rearranging terms we obtain the expression OU. = sym [ U . ~sym ( F . t d F . ) ] + O(E.B2). Finally substituting (54) in (51) we obtain
--e dE , = 4 ( U , e + 1) -1 sym [U~-~ sym ( F , t d F ,e) ] ( U ,e + 1) -1 .

(54)

(55)

Also, differentiating F , =
dRe

R.U~ and

using (54) we get (56)

. . , .R.e,t

~ . c l j~, e i~-, e - 1

~-,--,

- R,e sym [ U . ~sym ( F , t d F ,e) ] U ,e - 1 R,e t ,

which is of the same accuracy as the expression for dU~ above.

The linearization m o d u l i r~

From (31) and (49) 0 0 6p(r) + 6p(r) 0/~' 0--~,/V(r)] " T*(r) - (V~/~ At) [ /V(7) ~ 0/~----~, (57)

Using (30), (33) and (34), straightforward calculations give

o #,(,) = ~, (58)

O r?E. O*(T) = V~/14(,),

0 ~(r) = (V~/o*(r))[2~(~ - 1 1 l) - ~ ( r ) g ( r ) ] ,

(59)
(6O)

where M(r) -- ~[/V(r)] = 2/MV(r). Next, linearization of (36) gives dO(r) = dO*(r) - 3/z At d;P('r). (62) (61)

The quantity dO(r) is obtained by linearizing (37) and (38) and solving the resulting pair of equations. This gives

190

G. Weber, L. Anand, Finite deformation constitutive equations

d() = c(z) dc/*(), where with

)-1 c ( ) = {a l + a z b l / b 21 ,

(63)
(64)

0 a 1 - 1 + 3p At ~ f ] , , a2 ~ 3~ At ~ f l , , h 1 --- At ~ gl,,

(65) (66) (67) (68)

0 b2 ----1 - At ~ gl~. Substituting for dc/(r) from (63) into (62), solving for d~P(~ ") and using (59) we obtain O ~p() = V~M() 0g: At{3/x(1 - c()) -1} "

(69)

Finally, substituting (58), (60) and (69) into (57), using (61) and rearranging, we obtain
~(T) = ,~(~') -- 3 g(,./.)-I/~(T ) ~ / ~ ( ' T ) ,

(70) (71) (72) (73)

(74)

where *~0") - 2/~('r)(J - ~1 1) + K1 1, ,5(z) -- ~(,)p~, n() = (a(7) / 5"(~-)),

-

M() ~ .~[N(z)] = 2/.~/V().

(75)

Note that as At--->0, ~--> ,~. When the time step is sufficiently large, the difference between these two moduli can be substantial. Use of the moduli ~ instead of the moduli ~ in the Newton procedure can lead to very slow convergence.
5. Numerical examples

The constitutive equations and time-integration procedures described in this paper have been implemented in the implicit finite element code ABAQUS (Version 4.7) [30], by writing a 'user material' subroutine UMAT. The generality of the other features of ABAQUS, combined with the provision for adding a separate 'user material' subroutine, makes it an extremely useful tool for the development and implementation of new constitutive equations. The subroutine L/MAT is called once for each integration point in the model for every global iteration. Part of the input provided to L/MAT consists of the stress T. -- QHwT.Qnwt

G. Weber, L. Anand, Finite deformation constitutive equations

191

and the user-defined variables ( F-p n , S n ) at the beginning of the increment. The relative rotation Qnw, between the local configuration of a material neighborhood at time t n and that at time tn+ 1, calculated by using the Hughes and Winget algorithm [31], is also suppliedas input. In order to use our time-integration algorithm, we first have to calculate T~ from T~ and Qnw. Next, from A B A Q U S it is possible to obtain the deformation gradients F~ and F~+I at the beginning and the end of an inerementl~ With these inputs, the outputs expected from U M A T consists of the values of the stress Tn+~ and the variables (F ~+~, p s,,+t) at the end of the increment, plus the constitutive contribution to the Jacobian matrix used in the Newton scheme for global equilibrium. In our implementation, for reasons intrinsic to A B A Q U S , it was not possible to incorporate the Jacobian matrix derived in the previous section. Instead, as an approximation, we have used the Jacobian derived by Lush et al. [28] in connection with a constitutive model which differs from our model only in the manner the elasticity of the rnat~;rial is accounted for. In the paper by Lush et al. the elasticity is modelled as hypoelastic iv contrast to hyperelastic, as in done here. Using an 'exact implementation' of the time integration procedure described in this paper, and the 'approximate' Jacobian, we present some examples which illustrate some important features of our constitutive model, and verify tee accuracy and stability of the time-integration procedure.
E.!astic deformations Simple tension In order to illustrate the elastic stress-strain relation, simple tension (compression) of an axisymmetric bar was considered. For this ease, with Tij denoting the components of the Cauchy stress T, with respect to an orthonormal basis {e,I i = 1, 2,3}, we_impose T11 # 0 , /'22 = 7"33= 0. From the constitutive equation (1), the exact solution for the T n component of the stress measure T (which is work-conjugate to the logarithmic strain measure) is simply

f n = E(ln A~),

(76)

where E is the Young's modulus and A1 is the stretch in the direction of tension e 1. The normalized stress ( T n l E ) versus stretch A~ response obtained numerically is shown in Fig. 1. This numerical result coincides with the analytic solution given in (76).
Simple shear For a simple shearing deformation defined by x = p + p2),el,

(77)

with respect to the orthonormal basis {ei}, and with y the amount oi shear, the components of the Cauchy stress T are [32]

~oThis information is not currently routinely supplied as input to UMAT. Instead, ABAQUS supplies a strain increment calculated by using the Hughes and Winget [31] algorithm. Appropriate subroutines that need to be called to obtain .'vn and Fn+~were kindly supplied to us by Dr. H.D. Hibbitt of HKS, Inc.

192
1.O

G. Weber, L. Anand, Finite deformation constitutive equations

ii0.0 Analytical solution ~.~-merical solution

I i t i ~ I . , i t

I,-

~ 0.5

,.f
J ~ ~ ~

, //
! 0,5 , ~ ~ 1,0

o
-0.5 0.5
, t i i i

0,0 2.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

0,0

'y

Fig. 1. Simple tension-compression. stress-strain relation.

Hyperelastic

Fig. 2. Simple shear. Hyperelastic stress-strain relation.

T12 = / x 3 ' 3'~1 + 3'------~ In 1 + Tt~ = 3'1'12,

T22 = - 3'T12 ,

(78)

with all other Tq = O. The normalized stress components (T~2//z) versus the amount of shear 3' obtained numerically are shown in Fig. 2. This numerical result coincides with the analytic solution given in (78).
Test for path-independence of elastic response Following Kojic and Bathe [7], consider a bar of material with a square cross-section of edge length h, subjected to the plane homogeneous cycle of deformation

/ x = p + p ~ [ - ~ /e 2 ,
el+P2 -~ e2 ,
X = p + p 2 -~ el + P2[
~--=. e2 '

0~<~<~1,
,

(79)
,

x:p+p2(

SI- SJ~g-3)]e h ]1,

3~<~ ~<4,

where ~ is a'dimensionless, time like variable. This deformation is schematically depicted in

G. Weber, L. Anand, Finite deformation constit~.tive equations

193

Fig. 3. As ina,.,_'catedthere, the cross-sectior~ of the bar is extended, sheared, compressed and sheared again until the v~,?).nal configuration is recovered. Kojic and Bathe [7] have exaz::'.'.~d the stress response of the hypoelasfic constitutive model
X7 ~7

r = ~[o],

r-

r - wr + rw,

(80)

to this deformation cycle. For this constitutive model these authors have reported that the relevant stress components did not vanish after the cycle of deformation is completed. These stresses become unacceptably large when the elastic stretches are of the order of 30-60%. Hence, they conclude that the use of a hypoelastic constitutive equation for the stress, and thereby also the widely used 'updated Lagrangian Jaumann formulation' for the solution of the weak form for the balance of equilibrium is something to be 'concerned' about in elastic-plastic analyses. However, as is well known, metallic materials under ordinary conditions rarely exhibit elastic stretches larger than 1%. Under these conditions the path-dependent character of the hypoelastic formulation is negligible. Tiffs is also clear from the results of Kojic and Bathe; from their calculations, one readily obtains that the relative errors in the stress components Tll and T~2 for values of (Ui/h) = (S,/h) = 1% are

T~l/trll < 1 % ,

TR12/tr12< 0.01%,

(81)

where tr11, 0"12are the maximum values of Tll and T12 achieved in the cyc!: ,,aQ TI~, T1~2are the values of these stress components at the end of the deformatior~ cv.J~~'~ Errors of this magnitude are negligible in most situations. This is particularly truc whea t~ey are compared with other errors typical of finite element simulations such as element distort~,,-, mesh design, . . ete . Nevertheless, for those . situations where "' asUc " stretches are of the -de~' of several

J
~=

~21
e3 S~

,~

Fig. 3. Cycle of deformationto check for path-independenceof elastic response.

194

G. Weber, L. Anand, Finite deformation constitutive equations

.... 0~4 ~ ' ' ~.2a' ~ . . . . ~ ....

m
I*"

0.2

0.0

0.00

1,00

2.GO

3.00

4,00

Fig. 4. Hyperelastic stress response corresponding to deformation cycle of Fig. 3. Note that the stress component are zero valued at the end of the cycle. percent, such as in metals subjected to high pressures or impact 1oo,~ ,g, it is desirable to model elasticity in an accurate manner, and our constitutive modei and time integration procedure achieves this objective. To illustrate this, we have repeate,~! ~he numerical experiment conducted by Kojic and Bathe, but with our constitutive equation for stress (1). In our experiment we have set (Uy/h) = (S/h) = 0.6, and considered a materi~ with a Poisson's ratio of v = 0.3. The stress components norraalized by the Young's modulus E, (T~j/E), are plotted versus the dimensionless time ~ in Fig. 4. The path independent character of our formulation (constitutive and time-integration) is demonstrated by the fact that the stress vanishes upon completion of the cycle of deformation.

Elastic-plastic deformaSons Thick~walled cylinder subjected to a constant radial displacement rate at its inner wall A thick-w~]led cylinder, as shown schematically in Fig. 5, was subjected to a constant radial displacement rate 0 at the inner wall of the cylinder. This example has been previously considered by Peirce et al. [33] in the context of evaluating the accuracy of a semi-implicit time-integration scheme for ela~to-viscoplastic materials in which the elastic behavior is modeled as hypoe1.astic. For incompressible materials, the 'steady state' solution H, for a flow function (see (11)) i~l'-the power-law form
f = 60(6L~0) 1/m , (82)

with E~ and m material constants, and s = s o =- constant (that is no hardening or recovery) is easily obtained, and has been given by Peirce et a!~ [33]. From their equation (A.3) we have that the stress component T , in a cylindrical coordinate system is given by

tl Which is equivalent to a constitutive mode~ which neglects elastic effects.

G. Weber, L. A n a n d , Finite deformation constitutive equations

195

i
!
i i

!
i
, i

Ilm

Ill

0= [111 111111

i
J M

i
r

.J

! j

Fig. 5. Schematic of a thick-walled cylinder under prescribed velocity conditions at its innel wall.

T, =[{So]~ 2aU'l, m ~-'~jL V,~b2 j

mVrj][1 - (b)2m] .

'

(83)

Here a and b are the radii of the inner and outer walls of the cylinder, r is the radial coordinate and U is a constant expansion rate prescribed at the inner radius r = a. We use this solur~on for evaluating the accuracy of our integration algorithm when plastic deformations are large compared to the elastic deformations. In our numerical solution we take

E/go = 500,

v = 0.499,

~o = 0.002 see -l ,

m = 0.2 .

(84)

The selection of a Poisson ratio close to 0.5 makes the material almost incompressible, and with E/g o = 500, the 'yield s t r a i n ' - - ~ 0 - So/E is only 0.002, and thus elastic strains become negligible compared to viscoplastic strains as deformation progresses and (U/ao) increases to values of 0.02 and beyond. W;,tb these material properties, the finite element model was built using eight noded axisymmctdc elements C A X 8 H from A B A Q U S . This is a hybrid element with ~ndependent pressure and digplacement interpolation functions designed for use with incompressible materials. Ten elements in the radial direction were employed. The mesh is shown in Fig. 5. The displacement is applied at constant normalized rate of (U/ao~o) = 1.0. With p = - T , , i , = a denoting the pressure at the inner wall of the cylinder, we plot the normalized pressure, (p/So) versus the normalized displacement (U/aogo) in Fig. 6. In this

196

G. Weber, L. Anand, Finite deformatio,~ constitutive equations

, , i i I i ; i i

1 . 0 -

f i ~ O ~ 0.5 0
I

0-----0

0--_

el.

/ -!

d
I I I

" Reference solution F.E. solution

0.0 ~ . . a , . 0.0

--J-_

'

0.5 U/aog e

1.0

Fig. 6. Normalized pressure (P/So) versus normalized 'strain' (U/ao~o) for a thick-walled cylinder with prescribed radial velocity U at its inner wall. Small values of (U/ao~o). The finite e?ement solution was obtained by variable time stepping.

calculation a total normalized displacement ('st~ ain') of (U/aoeo) = 10 was considered 12. Also shown in Fig. 6 is the full line corresponding to the analytic rigid viscoplastic solution obtained from (83). The numerical result is in excellent agreement with this analytical solution. In a second analysis, the same model was subjected to the same constant displacement rate of (~l/ao~o) = 1.0, but with a large value of normalized strain (U/ao~o) = 500. The resulting plot of normalized pressure, (p ~So), versus normalized strain (U/ao~o), is shown in Fig. 7. For the reference solution we used (83), as above, but updated the value of the inner radius a, and used the incompressibility condition to update b according to the formula b = ~/(b~ - a 2) + a 2. The agreement of the finite element analysis with large displacement increments AU/a o = 0.1, and the reference selution is excellent. The capability of taking such large steps in the finite element soluti6n is a direct consequence of the robustly stable, implicit time integration procedure developed here.

Upset forging example:

As a simple example of a large deformation metal-forming problem, consider the prototypical problem of isothermal upset forging of a cylindrical billet, Fig. 8. For simplicity, the dies are modeled as rigid, and sticking friction is assure:led to be in effect between the billet and the die faces, when they are in contact. This problem has been previously considered by Lush
12In order for the solution to remain accurate in the region of the 'knee', where the plastic flow experiences a rapid change, the constitutwe equations have to be integrated by taking 'small' time steps. After the solution passes the 'knee' region the flow function regularizes again and large time steps can be taken. An automatic time-stepping procedure to achieve this goal has been previously described by Lush et al. [28].

G. Weber, L. Anand, Finite deformation constitutive equations

---r"---' I ' I ........ , I' "J ....... I

197

........

1.0 0

Reference solution A U / a o = 10%

O.

0.5

0.0

0.0

100.0

200.0

300.0 U / ao[: o

400.0

500.0

Fig. 7. 7Torraalized pressure (p/So) versus normalized 'strain' (U/ao~o) for a thick-walled cylinder with prescribed radial veIocity U at its inner wall. Large values of (Ulaoio). The finite element solution was obtained by taking fixed values of AU/a o = 10%.

/////

far'l//~lille/'~
Die

Axis I I

~ _I
Middle plane

Outer surface

(a)

~ ,~_-
I I i

'

._~- .....% . ,
I

Deform~ mesh

I'''I:''{I'
I k l

i i l I I I , , i J

l l l , I I I I I I I I i
I I I

I l l l } l l l
i i

l
i

I
i

l
i

I ~

II
~ t ji

. ~, . . . . ,. . ., . .,. . ,. . .,. ., ~--, ,Original

(b)

,. -,. -,- .'-'. -,. -m .'- , . -, . -, .-, -.. esh

~ l l l , , i , l , i , l i ........ l l l ~ ........ 1 1 1 ~ L-L-.

Fig, 8. (a) Finite element mesh for an axisymmetric upsetting problem (b) Deformed mesh at a late stage in the upsetting (after [28]).

198

G. ~teL,~r,L. Anand, Finite deformation constitutive equations

Table 1 Material parameters for A! 1100-O at 673 K [I0] Material parameter A m 7o ho a s n /~ r Value 4.75 10 -7 see -1 7.0 0.23348 29.7 MPa 1115.6 MPa 1.3 18.92 MPa 0.07049 20.2 MPa 66.0 MPa

et al. [28], who obtained a numerical solution using a constitutive model which only differs from the model considered here in that the elasticity in their papel is modeled as hypoelastic instead of hyperelastic. The specific constitutive functions used by Lush et al. for the viscoplastic part of the model were the isothermal version of the functions for high temperature deformations proposed recently by Brown et al. [10] for hot-working
f ( ~ , Y) = A { s i n h

(~/g)}"'~,

g(6, ~) = h(#, Y)f(~, ~).

(85)

The function h is defined by

h ( & ~) = holl - (g/g*)l" sign {1 - (~/g*)},

g* = s { ~ / A } " ,

(86)

and the static recovery rate i: in (12) is taken to be zero.

Hypoelastic
z

~a~

"~

q,.

0.

....

5
Die stroke -

10 mm

Fig. 9. Comparison of hyperelastic and hypoelastic based solutions for the ~isymmetric upsetting problem.

G. Weber, L. Anand, Finite deformation constitutive equations

' I ' I ' I ' I ' ! ' [

199

ABAQUS

(Hypoelastic

calculations)

"1

"o4 Zm o
4)

'E
0 0 ' i I 2 t I 4 Die i I 6 i - mm I 8 i I 10 i stroke

12

Fig. 10. Die force versus die stroke for axisymmetricupsetting of an AI 1100 billet at 673 K. This ABAQUS calculation was performed using a hypoelastic formulation.

The values of the viscoplastic material parameters A , ~, m, So, ho, a, s, n, and the elastic moduli #, and K, for 1100-O aluminum at 400C given by Brown et al. are listed in Tzble 1. These material parameters were used by Lush et al. in their upset forging example. Here, we use the same material parameters, and the same finite element mesh, Fig. 8 (see Lush et al. for details), but in our calculations the elasticity is modeled in a hyperelastic form instead of a hypoelastic form. In Fig. 9, the results of the simulation using our hyper-elastic formulation are compared with the results from the hypo-elastic calculation reported by Lush et al. [28], the two resalts are in very close agreement with each other. The agreement with the experimental results reported by these authors, Fig. 10, is also remarkable. This example confirms our assertion that when the elastic stretches are expected to be relatively small ( - 1 % ) , then the hypoelastic based constitutive equations are an excellent approximation to hyperelastic-based models.

6. Concluding remarks
From a physical point of view, it is desirable that the elasticity, in a set of elastic-plastic constitutive equations for metallic materials, be modeled as a hyperelastic relation, and the plasticity as rate dependent. However, it has been common practice in most of the current analytical and numerical work in elasto-plasticity to use a hypoelastic relation to model the elastic response of a material, and to approximate the plasticity (at low homologous temperatures) as rate-independent. In this paper, we have formulated a set of simple constitutive equations for isotropic materials which have the desirable attributes listed above. Further, and more importantly, we have formulated, implemented and evaluated the performance of a fully implicit time integration procedure for our constitutive equations. The major new features of this work are as follows.

200

G. Weber, L. Anand, Finite deformation constitutive equations

1. The constitutive equations for the plastic part of the model are a natural, more physical generalization of the classical J2, rate-independent flow theory. Indeed, special forms of the viscoplastic constitutive functions have been recently shown by Brown et al. [10] to be in good agreement with experiments foi large def3rmations at high temperatures. 2. In the absence of plastic flow the constitituve equations reduce to a hyperelastic relation which has also been previously shown by Anand [18, 19] to be in good agieement with experiments for moderately large elastic deformations. 3. The time integration procedure is a generalization of the classical radial-return algorithm. It is implicit, robustly stable and 'numerically objective'13. These features of this work make it well suited for large scale computations involving both 'moderately' large elastic deformations, and large elastic-plastic deformations.

Acknowledgment
The results presented here were obtained during the course of investigations supported by the Office Of Naval Research through grant No. N00014-86-8-0308. This financial support is gratefully acknowledged.

References
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