4.0 THERMODYNAMIC CONTENT 4.

1 Flow Meter Flow can be measured as either a volumetric quantity or an instantaneous velocity (flow rate). Interdependence of the measurement can be see at Figure 1.

Figure 1 Flow time graph flow rate = velocity x area =

volume = flow rate x time =

According to the graph at Figure 1, the volume can be found by calculating the area under the curve of the graph. This can be done by using integration method. 4.1.1 Measurement Scale Depending upon the model, the flow meters measurement scale can be either direct reading or in reference scale units. Direct reading tubes are straightforward. The measurement scale on each of these tubes reads actual flow at standard conditions in a choice of English or Metric units. Reference scale tubes, on the other hand, provide a uniformly calibrated scale in arbitrary millimeter (mm) units. Obtaining actual flow rates with these tubes requires the use of a reference scale flow correlation table (available from Matheson) which relates the mm scale reading to an actual flow rate. Reference scale tubes are useful when measuring flow rates for gases other than air, for non-standard conditions, or when conditions or the gas may frequently change. Variable area flow meters are often defined by their measurement scale length, that is,

the distance between the zero and full scale marking. Scale length is typically indicated in millimeter (mm) units.

4.1.2 Type of flow According to thermodynamic, there are two types of flow in water which are streamline flow and turbulent flow. Assume a color liquid is use to easily observe the flow of water. In streamline flow the flow of the fluid is parallel to the wall of the tube which mean the color liquid flow in a straight line within the tube. However, as the velocity increase until reach a point called critical velocity the color liquid will start to disperse and mix with the other liquid. This state is called turbulent flow. 4.1.3 Viscosity Viscosity is the frictional resistance that existed in flowing fluid. The is no devices that are frictionless. Same as flow meter, there no fluid that flow in the flow meter is frictionless. If the flow is frictionless, it is impossible to measure the flow rate. The particle of the fluid that are in contact with the wall are actually in rest, while those in the middle will flow at maximum velocity. Thus the high velocity of the fluid flow in the middle will be slowed down by slow moving layer, and the slow moving layer will be speeded up by fast moving layer. Dynamic viscosity of a fluid is expressed in units of has a dynamic viscosity of 1 speed of 1 if a force of 1 N is required to move a plane of 1 . Thus a fluid in area at a

parallel to a fixed plane, the moving plane being lm away from the fixed plane and

the space between the planes being completely filled with the fluid. This illustrated diagrammatically in Figure 2.

Figure 2 Determination of Dynamic Viscosity

4.1.4 Bernoullis Principle Bernoullis principle state that when the velocity of a fluid is increase the pressure will decrease and vice versa. The are many flow meter that use Bernoulli and continuity equation.

Figure 3 Types of measuring flow meter in pipes Three types of flow meter that usually use are orifice meter, nozzle meter, and venture meter. The difference between them is a matter of cost, accuracy, and how closely their actual operation obeys the idealized flow assumptions. We assume the flow is horizontal ( steady, and incompressible between point (1) and (2). So the Bernoulli equation become: ),

If we assume the velocity at both point are uniform, the continuity equation can be written as:

where is the small (

) flow area at section (2). Combination of these two equations

results in the following theoretical flow rate

assumed vena contracta (point in fluid stream where the diameter of the stream is the least, and fluid is at maximum velocity) = 0 which mean no viscous effects. Otherwise,

= contraction coefficient.

Figure 4 A smooth, well-contoured nozzle (left) and a sharp corner (right) The velocity profile of the left nozzle is not uniform due to differences in elevation, but in general and we can safely use the centerline velocity, , as a reasonable average . This phenomenon, velocity. For the right nozzle with a sharp corner,

will be less than

called a vena contracta effect, is a result of the inability of the fluid to turn the sharp 90 corner.

Figure 5 Typical Flow Pattern and Contraction coefficients. The vena contracta effect is a function of the geometry of the outlet. Some typical configurations are shown in Fig. 3.14 along with typical values of the experimentally obtained contraction coefficient, , where and are the areas of the jet at the vena

contracta and the area of the hole, respectively. Other flow meters based on the Bernoulli equation are used to measure flowrates in open channels such as flumes and irrigation ditches. Two of these devices, the sluice gate and the sharp-crested weir, are discussed below under the assumption of steady, inviscid, incompressible flow.

Figure 6 Sluice Gate Geometry

We applied the equation of Bernoulli continuity between the point on the free surface at (1) and (2) to give:

Figure 7 Rectangular, Sharp-crested Weir Geometry For such devices the flow rate of liquid over the top of the weir plate is dependent on the weir height, , the width of the channel, , and the head, , of the water above the top of the weir.

Between points (1) and (2) the pressure and gravitational fields cause the fluid to accelerate from velocity to velocity . At (1) the pressure is , while at (2) the pressure is essentially

atmospheric,

. Across the curved streamlines directly above the top of the weir plate

(section aa), the pressure changes from atmospheric on the top surface to some maximum value within the fluid stream and then to atmospheric again at the bottom surface.