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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Druidism) A druid was a member of the priestly class in Britannia, Ireland and Gaul and possibly other parts of Celtic western Europe during the Iron Age. Very little is currently known about the ancient druids as they left no written accounts about themselves, and the only evidence of them are a few descriptions left by Greek and Roman authors, and stories created by later mediaeval Irish writers.[2] While archaeological evidence has been uncovered pertaining to the religious practices of the Iron Age people, "not one single artefact or image has been unearthed that can undoubtedly be connected with the ancient Druids."[3] Various recurring themes emerge in a number of the Greco-Roman accounts of the druids, including that they performed human sacrifice, believed in a form of reincarnation, and that they held a high position in Gaulish society. Next to nothing is known about their cultic practice, except for the ritual of oak and mistletoe as described by Pliny the Elder. The earliest known reference to the druids dates to 200 BCE, although the oldest actual description comes from the Roman military general Julius Caesar in his Commentarii de Bello Gallico (50s BCE). Later Greco-Roman writers also described the druids, including Cicero,[4] Tacitus[5] and Pliny the Elder.[6] Following the invasion of Gaul by the Roman Empire, druidism was suppressed by the Roman government under the 1st-century emperors Tiberius and Claudius, and it disappeared from the written record by the 2nd century, although there were likely later survivals in the British Isles.[7 ] The druids then also appear in some of the mediaeval tales from Christianised Ireland like the Tin B Cailnge , where they are largely portrayed as sorcerers who opposed the coming of Christianity.[8] In the wake of the Celtic revival during the 18th and 19th centuries, fraternal and Neopagan groups were founded based upon the ideas about the ancient druids, a movement which is known as Neo-druidry.[9]
[edit] Etymology
The modern English word druid derives from the Latin druides (pronounced /dru ides/), which itself was considered by ancient Roman writers to come from the native Celtic Gaulish word for these figures.[1 0][1 1 ][1 2] Other Roman texts also employ the form
druidae , while the same term was used by Greek ethnographers as (druids).[1 3][1 4] Although no extant Romano-Celtic inscription is known to contain the form,[1 0] the word is cognate with the later insular Celtic words, Old Irish dru ("druid, sorcerer") and early Welsh dryw ("seer").[1 2] Based on all available forms, the hypothetical proto-Celtic word may then be reconstructed as * dru-wid-s (pl. * druwides) meaning "oakknower". The two elements go back to the Proto-Indo-European roots *deru- [1 5] and *weid- "to see".[1 6] The sense of "oak-knower" (or "oak-seer") is confirmed by Pliny the Elder,[1 2] who in his Natural History etymologised the term as containing the Greek noun (drus), "oak-tree"[1 7 ] and the Greek suffix -.[1 8] The modern Irish word for Oak is Dara, as it derives to anglicised placenames like Derry, and Kildare (literally the "church of oak"). There are many stories and lore about saints, heroes, and oak trees, and also many local stories and superstitions (called pishogues) about trees in general, which still survive in rural Ireland. Both Irish dru and Welsh dryw could also refer to the wren,[1 2] possibly connected with an association of that bird with augury bird in Irish and Welsh tradition (see also Wren Day).[1 2][1 9]
the course of study. There is no historic evidence during the period when Druidism was flourishing to suggest that Druids were other than male.[24] What was taught to Druid novices anywhere is conjecture: of the druids' oral literature, not one certifiably ancient verse is known to have survived, even in translation. All instruction was communicated orally, but for ordinary purposes, Caesar reports,[25] the Gauls had a written language in which they used Greek characters. In this he probably draws on earlier writers; by the time of Caesar, Gaulish inscriptions had moved from the Greek script to the Latin script.
[edit] Sacrifice
An 18th century illustration of a wicker man, the form of execution that Caesar alleged the druids used for human sacrifice. From the "Duncan Caesar", Tonson, Draper, and Dodsley edition of the Commentaries of Caesar translated by William Duncan published in 1753. Greek and Roman writers frequently made reference to the druids as practitioners of human sacrifice, a trait they themselves reviled, believing it to be barbaric. Such reports of druidic human sacrifice are found in the works of Lucan, Julius Caesar, Suetonius and Cicero.[26] Caesar claimed that the sacrifice was primarily of criminals, but at times innocents would also be used, and that they would be burned alive in a large wooden effigy, now often known as a wicker man. A differing account came from the 10th-century Commenta Bernensia, which claimed that sacrifices to the deities Teutates, Esus and Taranis were by drowning, hanging and burning, respectively (see threefold death). Diodorus Siculus asserts that a sacrifice acceptable to the Celtic gods had to be attended by a druid, for they were the intermediaries between the people and the divinities. He remarked upon the importance of prophets in druidic ritual: "These men predict the future by observing the flight and calls of birds and by the sacrifice of holy animals: all orders of society are in their power... and in very important matters they prepare a human victim, plunging a dagger into his chest; by observing the way his limbs convulse as he falls and the gushing of his blood, they are able to read the future." There is archaeological evidence from western Europe that has been widely used to back up the idea that human sacrifice was performed by the Iron Age Celts. Mass graves found in a ritual context dating from this period have been unearthed in Gaul, at both Gournaysur-Aronde and Ribemont-sur-Ancre in what was the region of the Belgae chiefdom. The excavator of these sites, Jean-Louis Brunaux, interpreted them as areas of human sacrifice in devotion to a war god,[27 ][28] although this view was criticised by another archaeologist, Martin Brown, who believed that the corpses might be those of honoured warriors buried in the sanctuary rather than sacrifices.[29] Bog bodies are also known from Great Britain and Ireland, such as the "Lindow Man", found in Lindow, Cheshire.[30]
Some historians have questioned whether the Greco-Roman writers were accurate in their claims. J. Rives remarked that it was "ambiguous" whether the druids ever performed such sacrifices, for the Romans and Greeks were known to project what they saw as barbarian traits onto foreign peoples including not only druids but Jews and Christians as well, thereby confirming their own "cultural superiority" in their own minds.[31 ] Taking a similar opinion, Ronald Hutton summarised the evidence by stating that "the Greek and Roman sources for Druidry are not, as we have received them, of sufficiently good quality to make a clear and final decision on whether human sacrifice was indeed a part of their belief system."[32]Peter Berresford Ellis, a Celtic nationalist who authored The Druids (1994), believed them to be the equivalents of the Indian Brahmin caste, and considered accusations of human sacrifice to remain unproven,[unreliable source?][33] whilst an expert in mediaeval Welsh and Irish literature, Nora Chadwick, who believed them to be great philosophers, fervently purported the idea that they had not been involved in human sacrifice, and that such accusations were imperialist Roman propaganda.[34]
[edit] Philosophy
Alexander Cornelius Polyhistor referred to the Druids as philosophers and called their doctrine of the immortality of the soul and reincarnation or metempsychosis "Pythagorean": "The Pythagorean doctrine prevails among the Gauls' teaching that the souls of men are immortal, and that after a fixed number of years they will enter into another body." Caesar remarks: "The principal point of their doctrine is that the soul does not die and that after death it passes from one body into another" (see metempsychosis). Caesar wrote: "With regard to their actual course of studies, the main object of all education is, in their opinion, to imbue their scholars with a firm belief in the indestructibility of the human soul, which, according to their belief, merely passes at death from one tenement to another; for by such doctrine alone, they say, which robs death of all its terrors, can the highest form of human courage be developed. Subsidiary to the teachings of this main principle, they hold various lectures and discussions on astronomy, on the extent and geographical distribution of the globe, on the different branches of natural philosophy, and on many problems connected with religion". Julius Caesar, "De Bello Gallico", VI, 13 Diodorus Siculus, writing in 36 BCE, described how the druids followed "the Pythagorean doctrine", that human souls "are immortal and after a prescribed number of years they commence a new life in a new body."[35] One modern scholar has speculated that Buddhist
missionaries had been sent by the Indian king Ashoka.[36] Others have invoked common Indo-European parallels.[37 ] Caesar noted the druidic doctrine of the original ancestor of the tribe, whom he referred to as Dispater, or Father Hades.
While he would have had first hand experience with Gaulish people, and therefore likely with druids, Caesar's account has been widely criticised by modern historians as being inaccurate. One issue that had been raised by such historians as Fustel de Coulanges[41 ] and Ronald Hutton was that while Caesar described the druids as a significant power within Gaulish society, he did not mention them even once in his accounts of his Gaulish conquests, and nor did Aulus Hirtius, who continued Caesar's account of the Gallic Wars following the latter's death. Hutton believed that Caesar had manipulated the idea of the druid so that they would appear both civilised (being learned and pious) and barbaric (performing human sacrifice) to Roman readers, thereby representing both "a society worth including in the Roman Empire" and one that required civilising with Roman rule and values, thus justifying his wars of conquest.[42] Sean Dunham suggested that Caesar had simply taken the Roman religious functions of senators and applied them to the druids. [43] Daphne Nash believed it "not unlikely" that he "greatly exaggerates" both the centralised system of druidic leadership and its connection to Britain.[44] Other historians have accepted the possibility of Caesar's account being more accurate. Norman J. DeWitt surmised that Caesar's description of the role of druids in Gaulish society may report an idealised tradition, based on the society of the 2nd Century BCE, before the pan-Gallic confederation led by the Arverni was smashed in 121 BCE, followed by the invasions of Teutones and Cimbri, rather than on the demoralised and disunited Gaul of his own time.[45] John Creighton has speculated that in Britain, the druidic social influence was already in decline by the mid-1st century BCE, in conflict with emergent new power structures embodied in paramount chieftains.[46] Other scholars see the main reason for the decline of druidism in the Roman conquest itself.[47 ] [edit] Cicero, Diodorus Sicilus, Strabo and Tacitus It would not only be Caesar, but other Greco-Roman writers who would subsequently comment on the druids and their practices, although none of them would go into as much detail as he. Caesar's contemporary, Marcus Tullius Cicero, noted that he had met a Gallic druid, Divitiacus, who was a member of the Aedui tribe. Divitiacus was supposedly knew much about the natural world and performed divination through augury.[4] Whether Diviaticus was genuinely a druid can however be disputed, for Caesar also knew this figure, and also wrote about him, calling him by the more Gaulish-sounding (and thereby presumably the more authentic) Diviciacus, but never referred to him as a druid and indeed presented him as a political and military leader.[48] Another classical writer to take up describing the druids not too long after was Diodorus Siculus, who published this description in his Bibliotheca historicae in 36 BCE. Alongside the druids, or as he called them, drouidas, whom he viewed as philosophers and theologians, he also remarked how there were poets and singers in Celtic society whom he
called bardous, or bards.[35] Such an idea was expanded on by Strabo, writing in the 20s CE, who declared that amongst the Gauls, there were three types of honoured figures: the poets and singers known as bardoi, the diviners and specialists in the natural world known as o'vateis, and those who studied "moral philosophy", the druidai.[49] Nonetheless, the accuracy of these writers has been brought into question, with Ronald Hutton stating that "All that can be concluded is that we have absolutely no secure knowledge of the sources used by any of these authors for their comments on Druids, and therefore of their date, their geographical framework or their accuracy."[50] The Roman writer Tacitus, himself a senator and a historian, described how when the Roman army, led by Suetonius Paulinus, attacked the island of Mona (Anglesey, Ynys Mn in Welsh), the legionaries were awestruck on landing by the appearance of a band of druids, who, with hands uplifted to the sky, poured forth terrible imprecations on the heads of the invaders. He states that these "terrified our soldiers who had never seen such a thing before..." The courage of the Romans, however, soon overcame such fears, according to the Roman historian; the Britons were put to flight, and the sacred groves of Mona were cut down.[51 ] Tacitus is also the only primary source that gives accounts of druids in Britain, but maintains a hostile point of view, seeing them as ignorant savages.[52] Ronald Hutton meanwhile points out that there "is no evidence that Tacitus ever used eye-witness reports" and casts doubt upon the reliability of Tacitus's report.[53]
When druids are portrayed in early Irish sagas and saints' lives set in the pre-Christian past of the island, they are usually accorded high social status. The evidence of the lawtexts, which were first written down in the 7th and 8th centuries, suggests that with the coming of Christianity the role of the druid in Irish society was rapidly reduced to that of a sorcerer who could be consulted to cast spells or practise healing magic and that his standing declined accordingly.[56] According to the early legal tract Bretha Crlige , the sick-maintenance due to a druid, satirist and brigand (dberg) is no more than that due to a baire (an ordinary freeman). Another law-text, Uraicecht Becc (Small primer), gives the druid a place among the der-nemed or professional classes which depend for their status on a patron, along with wrights, blacksmiths and entertainers, as opposed to the fili, who alone enjoyed free nemed-status.[57 ] [edit] Welsh literature Whilst druids featured prominently in many mediaeval Irish sources, they were far rarer in their Welsh counterparts. Unlike the Irish texts, the Welsh term commonly seen as referring to the druids, dryw , was used to refer purely to prophets and not to sorcerers or pagan priests. Historian Ronald Hutton noted that there were two explanations for the use of the term in Wales: the first was that it was a survival from the pre-Christian era, when dryw had been ancient priests, whilst the second was that the Welsh had borrowed the term from the Irish, as had the English (who used the terms dry and drycraeft to refer to magicians and magic respectively, most probably influenced by the Irish terms.)[58]
[edit] Archaeology
As the historian Jane Webster stated, "individual druids... are unlikely to be identified archaeologically",[59] a view which was echoed by Ronald Hutton, who declared that "not one single artefact or image has been unearthed that can undoubtedly be connected with the ancient Druids."[3] A.P. Fitzpatrick, in examining what he believed to be astral symbolism on Late Iron Age swords has expressed difficulties in relating any material culture, even the Coligny calendar, with druidic culture.[60] Nonetheless, some archaeologists have attempted to link certain discoveries with written accounts of the druids, for instance the archaeologist Anne Ross linked what she believed to be evidence of human sacrifice in Celtic pagan society - such as the Lindow Man bog body - to the GrecoRoman accounts of human sacrifice being officiated over by the druids.[61 ][62]
According to accounts produced in the following centuries, the new rulers of Roman Gaul subsequently introduced measures to wipe out the druids from that country. According to Pliny the Elder, writing in the 70s CE, it was the emperor Tiberius (who ruled from 14 to 37 CE), who introduced laws banning not only druidism, but also other native soothsayers and healers, a move which Pliny applauded, believing that it would end human sacrifice in Gaul.[63] A somewhat different account of Roman legal attacks on druidism was made by Suetonius, writing in the 2nd century CE, when he claimed that Rome's first emperor, Augustus (who had ruled from 27 BCE till 14 CE), had decreed that no-one could be both a druid and a Roman citizen, and that this was followed by a law passed by the later Emperor Claudius (who had ruled from 41 to 54 CE) which "thoroughly suppressed" the druids by banning their religious practices.[64]
possible druidic survival in Britain after the Roman conquest: unfortunately, Nennius is noted for mixing fact and legend in such a way that it is now impossible to know the truth behind his text. He wrote that after being excommunicated by Germanus, the British leader Vortigern invited twelve druids to assist him. In the lives of saints and martyrs, the druids are represented as magicians and diviners. In Adamnan's vita of Columba, two of them act as tutors to the daughters of Legaire mac Nill, the High King of Ireland, at the coming of Saint Patrick. They are represented as endeavouring to prevent the progress of Patrick and Saint Columba by raising clouds and mist. Before the battle of Culdremne (561) a druid made an airbe drtiad (fence of protection?) round one of the armies, but what is precisely meant by the phrase is unclear. The Irish druids seem to have had a peculiar tonsure. The word dru is always used to render the Latin magus, and in one passage St Columba speaks of Christ as his druid. Similarly, a life of St Beuno states that when he died he had a vision of 'all the saints and druids'. Sulpicius Severus' Vita of Martin of Tours relates how Martin encountered a peasant funeral, carrying the body in a winding sheet, which Martin mistook for some druidic rites of sacrifice, "because it was the custom of the Gallic rustics in their wretched folly to carry about through the fields the images of demons veiled with a white covering." So Martin halted the procession by raising his pectoral cross: "Upon this, the miserable creatures might have been seen at first to become stiff like rocks. Next, as they endeavoured, with every possible effort, to move forward, but were not able to take a step farther, they began to whirl themselves about in the most ridiculous fashion, until, not able any longer to sustain the weight, they set down the dead body." Then discovering his error, Martin raised his hand again to let them proceed: "Thus," the hagiographer points out," he both compelled them to stand when he pleased, and permitted them to depart when he thought good."[69]
instead from the pseudo-Ossianic epics of Macpherson; his friend Frederick Tatham's depiction of Blake's imagination, "clothing itself in the dark stole of mural sanctity" in the precincts of Westminster Abbey "it dwelt amid the Druid terrors", is generic rather than specifically neo-Druidic.[7 1 ] John Toland was fascinated by Aubrey's Stonehenge theories, and wrote his own book about the monument without crediting Aubrey. The 19th-century idea, gained from uncritical reading of the Gallic Wars, that under cultural-military pressure from Rome the druids formed the core of 1st-century BCE resistance among the Gauls, was examined and dismissed before World War II,[7 2] though it remains current in folk history. Druids began to figure widely in popular culture with the first advent of Romanticism. Chateaubriand's novel Les Martyrs (1809) narrated the doomed love of a druid priestess and a Roman soldier; though Chateaubriand's theme was the triumph of Christianity over Pagan druids, the setting was to continue to bear fruit. Opera provides a barometer of wellinformed popular European culture in the early 19th century: in 1817 Giovanni Pacini brought druids to the stage in Trieste with an opera to a libretto by Felice Romani about a druid priestess, La Sacerdotessa d'Irminsul ("The Priestess of Irminsul"). The most famous druidic opera, Vincenzo Bellini's Norma was a fiasco at La Scala, when it premiered the day after Christmas, 1831; but in 1833 it was a hit in London. For its libretto, Felice Romani reused some of the pseudo-druidical background of La Sacerdotessa to provide colour to a standard theatrical conflict of love and duty. The story was similar to that of Medea, as it had recently been recast for a popular Parisian play by Alexandre Soumet: the diva of Norma's hit aria, "Casta Diva", is the moon goddess, being worshipped in the "grove of the Irmin statue". A central figure in 19th century Romanticist Neo-Druidism is the Welshman Edward Williams, better known as Iolo Morganwg. His writings, published posthumously as The Iolo Manuscripts (1849) and Barddas (1862), are not considered credible by contemporary scholars. Williams claimed to have collected ancient knowledge in a "Gorsedd of Bards of the Isles of Britain" he had organized. Many scholars deem part or all of Williams's work to be fabrication, and purportedly many of the documents are of his own fabrication, but a large portion of the work has indeed been collected from meso-pagan sources dating from as far back as 600 A.D.[citation needed ] Regardless, it has become impossible to separate the original source material from the fabricated work, and while bits and pieces of the Barddas still turn up in some "Neo-druidic" works, the documents are considered irrelevant by most serious scholars. T.D. Kendrick's dispelled (1927) the pseudo-historical aura that had accrued to druids,[7 3] asserting that "a prodigious amount of rubbish has been written about druidism";[7 4] Neodruidism has nevertheless continued to shape public perceptions of the historical druids. The British Museum is blunt:
Modern Druids have no direct connection to the Druids of the Iron Age. Many of our popular ideas about the Druids are based on the misunderstandings and misconceptions of scholars 200 years ago. These ideas have been superseded by later study and discoveries.[7 5] Some strands of contemporary Neodruidism are a continuation of the 18th-century revival and thus are built largely around writings produced in the 18th century and after by second-hand sources and theorists. Some are monotheistic. Others, such as the largest Druid group in the world, The Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids draw on a wide range of sources for their teachings. Members of such Neo-druid groups may be Neopagan, occultist, Reconstructionist, Christian or non-specifically spiritual.
[edit] References
1. ^ Antiquitas explanatione et schematibus illustrata vol. ii, part ii, book v. (p. 436). Montfaucon claims that he is reproducing a bas-relief found at Autun, Burgundy. 2. ^ Hutton, Ronald (2009). Blood and Mistletoe: The History of the Druids in Britain. Yale University Press. Page 01. 3. ^ a b Hutton, Ronald (2009). Blood and Mistletoe: The History of the Druids in Britain. Yale University Press. Page 23. 4. ^ a b Cicero. De divinatione . I.XVI.90. 5. ^ Tacitus. Annales. XIV.30. 6. ^ Pliny. Historiae naturalis. XVI.249. 7. ^ mention of Irish dru "druid" in a Christianized context as late as the 8th century in the poems of Blathmac. Mac Mathna, Liam (1999) "Irish Perceptions of the Cosmos"
Celtica vol. 23 (1999), 174-187 (p. 181). 8. ^ Hutton, Ronald (2009). Blood and Mistletoe: The History of the Druids in Britain. Yale University Press. Page 32-37. 9. ^ Hutton, Ronald (2007). The Druids. London: Hambledon Continuum. 10. ^ a b Piggott, Stuart (1968). The Druids. London: Thames & Hudson. Page 89. 11. ^ Druides, Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, A Latin Dictionary, on Perseus project 12. ^ a b c d e Caroline aan de Wiel, "druids [3] the word", in Celtic Culture . 13. ^ , Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus 14. ^ Pokorny's Indogermanisches etymologisches Wrterbuch, see also American Heritage Dictionary (4th ed.), 15. ^ Proto-IE * deru- , a cognate to English tree , is the word for "oak", though the root has a wider array of meanings related to "to be firm, solid, steadfast" (whence e.g. English true ). The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language . Fourth Edition, 2000 Indo-European Roots: deru-. 16. ^ The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language : Fourth Edition, 2000 Indo-European Roots: weid-. 17. ^ , Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus project 18. ^ List of ancient Greek words ending in -, on Perseus 19. ^ See further Brian Cuv, "Some Gaelic traditions about the wren". igse 18 (1980): pp. 43-66. 20. ^ Hutton, Ronald (2007). The Druids London: Hambledon Continuum. p. xi 21. ^ a b c Caesar, Julius. De bello gallico. VI.13-18. 22. ^ Hutton, Ronald, The Druids (London: Hambledon Continuum, 2007 p4445 23. ^ Pomponius Mela iii.2.18-19. 24. ^ Hutton, Ronald (1993). The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles: Their Nature and Legacy. ISBN 0-631-18946-7 p.171 25. ^ Gallic Wars vi.14.3. 26. ^ Lucan, Pharsalia i.450-58; Caesar, Gallic Wars vi.16, 17.3-5; Suetonius, Claudius 25; Cicero, Pro Font. 31; Cicero, De Rep. 9 (15);cited after Norman J. DeWitt, "The Druids and Romanization" Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 69 (1938:319-332) p 321 note 4 27. ^ Brunaux, Jean-Louis (2001). "Gallic Blood Rites" in Archaeology 54.2. 28. ^ Brunaux, Jean-Louis (2002). "Le Santuaire gaulois de Gournay-sur-Aronde" in Bulletin 56 of the Archaeological and Historical Company of Boulounge-ConchyHainvillers. 29. ^ Hutton, Ronald, The Druids (London: Hambledon Continuum, 2007 pp.133-134 30. ^ Hutton, Ronald, The Druids (London: Hambledon Continuum, 2007, 132; http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/01/0117_060117_irish_bogmen.html 31. ^ Rives, J. (1995). "Human Sacrifice among Pagans and Christians" in Journal of Roman Studies 85.
32. ^ Hutton, Ronald (2009). Blood and Mistletoe: The History of the Druids in Britain. Yale University Press. pp. 4-5, 17. 33. ^ Ellis, Peter Berresford (1994). The Druids. London: Constable. passim 34. ^ Chadwick, Nora (1966). The Druids. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. Pages xviii, 28, 91. 35. ^ a b Diodorus Siculus. Bibliotheca historicae . V.21-22. 36. ^ Donald A.Mackenzie, Buddhism in pre-Christian Britain (1928:21). 37. ^ Isaac Bonewits, Bonewits's Essential Guide to Druidism, Citadel, 2006. 38. ^ a b Hutton, Ronald (2009). Blood and Mistletoe: The History of the Druids in Britain. Yale University Press. Page 02. 39. ^ Diogenes Laertius. Vitae . Introduction, section 1. 40. ^ Twenty references were presented in tabular form by Jane Webster, "At the End of the World: Druidic and Other Revitalization Movements in Post-Conquest Gaul and Britain" Britannia 30 (1999:1-20):2-4. 41. ^ de Coulanges, Fustel (1891). La Gaule romaine . Paris. Page 03. 42. ^ Hutton (2009), p. 4-5. 43. ^ Dunham, Sean B. (1995). "Caesar's Perception of Gallic Social Structures" in Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State (Eds: Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; endorsed by Maier, Bernhard (2003). The Celts. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Page 65-66. 44. ^ Nash, Daphne (1976). "Reconstructing Posidonius's Celtic Ethnography" in Britannia 7. Page 126. 45. ^ DeWitt 1938:324f. 46. ^ Creighton, "Visions of power: imagery and symbols in Late Iron Age Britain" Britannia 26 (1995:285-301) especially p 296f. 47. ^ e.g. Jane Webster, in "At the End of the World: Druidic and Other Revitalization Movements in Post-Conquest Gaul and Britain" Britannia 30 (1999:1-20 and full bibliography). 48. ^ Hutton, Ronald (2009). Blood and Mistletoe: The History of the Druids in Britain. Yale University Press. Page 05. 49. ^ Strabo. Geographica. IV.4.4-5. 50. ^ Hutton, Ronald (2009). Blood and Mistletoe: The History of the Druids in Britain. Yale University Press. Page 10. 51. ^ Tacitus. Annals. 14.30. 52. ^ Rutherford, Ward (1978). The Druids and their Heritage . London: Gordon & Cremonesi. Page 45. 53. ^ Hutton, Ronald (2007). The Druids. London: Hambledon Continuum. pp.3-5 54. ^ Hutton, Ronald (1991). The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles: Their Nature and Legacy. Oxford, UK and Cambridge, USA: Blackwell. Page 148. 55. ^ Hutton, Ronald (2009). Blood and Mistletoe: The History of the Druids in Britain. Yale University Press. Page 32-33. 56. ^ Kelly, A Guide to Early Irish Law , pp. 59-60.
57. ^ Kelly, A Guide to Early Irish Law , p. 60. 58. ^ Hutton, Ronald (2009). Blood and Mistletoe: The History of the Druids in Britain. Yale University Press. Page 47. 59. ^ Webster 1999:6. 60. ^ Fitzpatrick, A.P. (1996). "Night and Day: the symbolism of astral signs on Late Iron Age anthropomorphic short swords". Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 62: 37398. 61. ^ Anne Ross (1986). "Lindow Man and the Celtic tradition", in Lindow Man; The Body in the Bog (eds: I.M. Stead, J.B. Bourke and D. Brothwell), page162-69. 62. ^ Anne Ross and Don Robins (1989) The Life and Death of a Druid Prince . 63. ^ Pliny. Historia naturalis. XXX.13 64. ^ Suetonius. Claudius. XXV.5 65. ^ Augustinus Hibernicus. "De Mirabilibus Sacrae Scripturae". King of Mysteries: Early Irish Religious Writings edited by John Carey. Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2000. 66. ^ Freeman, Phillip,War, Women & Druids: Eyewitness Reports and Early Accounts, University of Texas Press, ISBN 978-0-292-72545-4 pp. 49-50 67. ^ Jones, Mary. "The Boyhood Deeds of Fionn mac Cumhaill". From maryjones.us. Retrieved July 22, 2008. 68. ^ Parkes, "Fosterage, Kinship, & Legend", Cambridge University Press, Comparative Studies in Society and History (2004), 46: 587-615 69. ^ Hagiography. 70. ^ The modern career of this imagined connection of druids and Stonehenge was traced and dispelled in T.D. Kendrick, The Druids: A Study in Keltic Prehistory (London: Methuen) 1927. 71. ^ Tatham is quoted by C. H. Collins Baker, "William Blake, Painter", The Huntington Library Bulletin, No. 10 [October 1936:135-148] p. 139. 72. ^ Norman J. DeWitt, "The Druids and Romanization" Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 69 (1938:319-332): "Few historians now believe that the Druids, as a corporation, constituted an effective anti-Roman element during the period of Caesar's conquests and in the period of early Roman Gaul;" his inspection of the seemingly contradictory literary sources reinforced the stated conclusion. 73. ^ T.D. Kendrick, The Druids: A Study in Keltic Prehistory (London: Methuen) 1927. 74. ^ Kendrick 1927:viii 75. ^ "Explore/". The British Museum. http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/explore/highlights/article_index/d/the_druids.aspx Retrieved 2007-12-02. 76. ^ Piggott, Stuart (1968). The Druids. London: Thames & Hudson. Page 92-98. 77. ^ Ross, Anne (1967). Pagan Celtic Britain. London: Routledge. Page 52-56. 78. ^ Aldhouse-Green, Miranda (1997). Exploring the World of the Druids. London: Thames and Hudson. Page 31-33.
79. ^ Cunliffe, Barry (1991). Iron Age Communities in Britain. London: Routledge. Page 518-520.