5. VIBRATION DUE TO MECHANICAL LOOSENESS There are three distinct types of Mechanical looseness.

They are, Looseness of structure/base frame Looseness related to pedestal cracks Looseness related the rotor

Mechanical looseness amplifies the amplitudes due to exciting forces already present in the machine. Mechanical looseness is due to loss of or reduction in stiffness. 5.1 Looseness of structure/base frame Weakness/looseness of the machine feet, base plate and concrete base, deteriorated grouting, distortion of the structure or base frame and loose hold down bolts are some of the structural related problems causing vibration. 5.1.1 Identifying Structure related vibration Vibration is characterized by dominant 1XRPM amplitude. Phase behaviour is a local phenomenon pertaining to driver or the driven equipment. Highly directional vibration. Phase angle difference between horizontal and vertical directions will be 0 or 180 degrees.

The symptoms are similar to that of vibration due to eccentricity. Spectrum taken from a machine having soft foot has been shown in Fig.5.1. Notice the dominant 1XRPM vibration peak in the spectrum. The problem is confirmed by carrying out phase analysis. The various elements of a rigidly held structure will move together. In case of any looseness, there will be relative motion at the interface resulting in loss of amplitude and phase angle changes. In Fig.5.2 is shown a case of weak base plate. A phase change of 180 degrees at the interface between the base plate and the concrete base indicates a weak base plate.

Fig.5.1 Spectrum of a machine having weak structure

2.1 mm/s 1.9 mm/s

MACHINE FOOT BASE PLATE CONCRETE BASE FOUNDATION

90/1.5 mm/s 270/0.5 mm/s 0.45 mm/s

Fig.5.2 Amplitude and phase behaviour

5.1.2 Cracked Structure/Pedestal Cracked structure, pedestal, uneven supports, loose bolt on bearing housing and improper bearing fit come under this type of looseness. Symptoms List of symptoms for this problem is given below. This type of problem is excited by unbalance or misalignment. Characterised by 2XRPM vibration peak. When the heavy spot is at the bottom dead center, the bearing is forced down on the pedestal. Similarly when the heavy spot is at the top Dead center, the bearing is pulled away from the pedestal. The applied force acts twice in one revolution. 2XRPM vibration amplitude is 50% of 1XRPM or more than that.Fig.5.4 is a typical spectrum seen when type B looseness is present.

Fig.5.3 Different types of looseness Due to rocking motion the phase angle readings will be erratic. Beware of balancing when mechanical looseness is present.

Fig.5.4 Spectrum of a machine having loose mounting bolt 5.1.3 Identifying looseness in the rotating system This type of looseness is associated with the shaft and most common cause of mechanical looseness. Some of the examples are, bearing loose in the housing, excessive clearances, loose bearing liner in cap, loose rotor on shaft and shaft turning with in inner race. This type of looseness results in following vibration characteristics. . . Multiple harmonics of running speed even up to 10XRPM will be seen in the spectrum. See Fig.5.5 Direction vibration will be noticed. Particularly vibration in the vertical direction will be higher Due to possible rubbing events, half time harmonics (1/2XRPM, 3/2XRPM etc.) will also be seen in the vibration spectrum. Refer to Fig.5.6

Fig.5.5 Spectrum of a machine having bearing loose on shaft

Fig.5.6 A spectrum with half time harmonics Multiple harmonics can excite resonance inducing amplification in corresponding to the excited frequency. amplitude

6. VIBRATION DUE TO FAULTY SLEEVE BEARINGS Sleeve bearings are usually used in large high-speed machines. Various designs of sleeve bearings are available and some of them have been shown in Fig.6.1.

Fig.6.1 Various sleeve bearings Vibration problems in sleeve bearings can be expected when there is excessive clearance, loose liners and lubrication problems. 6.1 Bearing clearances Loss of lubrication properties leads to a wear mechanism setting in. In the early stages of wear, rubbing takes place. This causes further wear resulting in larger bearing clearances. With larger clearances, impacting or mechanical pounding takes place. In the initial stages of wear, frictional rubbing forces are generated. During rubbing, the rotor tries to pull the sleeve along with it and the sleeve has a tendency to stop the rotor from rotating. The average speed during rubbing is half the speed of the rotor. Therefore in the early stages of wear 1/2XRPM and its harmonics are seen in the spectrum. See Fig.6.2.

When the clearances increase, the vibration becomes directional. Look for increase in vibration levels in the vertical direction while trending. With increased clearances, rotor impacts cause, multiple harmonics to appear in the spectrum. See Fig.6.3. Wiped sleeve bearings invariable show very high 2XRPM amplitude in the vertical direction in addition to other harmonics.

Fig.6.2. Spectrum with progressively increasing bearing clearance

Fig.6.3 Spectrum from a wiped sleeve bearing 6.2 Lubrication related problems Oil Whirl This type of problem is seen in machines operating at high speeds and above second critical speed. Pressure lubricated sleeve bearings exhibit tendency for oil whirl. 6.2.1 Mechanism of Oil whirl The mechanism of oil whirl has been illustrated in Fig.6.4. The lubricating oil in the sleeve bearing has the following functions. a. b. c. To support the rotor To eliminate metal to metal contact To carry away the heat generated due to load acting on the oil film.

As the shaft rolls, lubricating oil lifts the shaft and forms an oil wedge. This oil wedge carries out the functions mentioned above. There will be shaft eccentricity due to shaft centerline and bearing centerline not coinciding. When this eccentricity increases due to transient conditions, additional oil is pumped into the space created by the shaft. This results in increased oil film pressure. This causes the shaft to whirl around the bearing.

Fig.6.4 Phenomenon of Oil whirl 6.2.3 Identifying Oil whirl . Generates vibration amplitudes at 0.42 to 0.48 X RPM vibration frequency Oil whirl left unchecked can cause severe damage to the rotor. By changing the oil temperature oil whirl can be corrected temporarily. Oil whirl can be intermittent and is excited by external source vibrating at the bearings oil whirl frequency. Pulsations in piping when transmitted and if the exciting frequency coincides with oil whirl frequency, resonant whirl is induced.

7. VIBRATION DUE TO FAULTY ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS Rolling element bearings are usually manufactured with fine tolerances. It has been found that only 30% of the bearings last full life. The premature failure of the bearings takes place due to a. b. c. Product defects Operational faults and External sources.

In many cases a good part life of the bearings is lost during installation.

Commonly known causes for bearing failure are, excessive load, misalignment, Defective seating, faulty mounting, improper lubrication, poor sealing, false brinellling and electric current. 7.1 Nature of rolling element-bearing vibration Defects in the rolling element bearings cause high frequency low amplitude vibrations. The bearing vibration defect frequencies are not integral multiples of Shaft speed. The bearing vibration is generally confined to the nearest point. The vibration frequencies generated are ultrasonic frequencies, natural frequencies of the bearing components, defect frequencies based on the geometry of the bearing and sum and difference frequencies.

7.2 Bearing Failure stages Bearings have been known to go through different stages of failure, before terminal failure occurs. By identifying these stages during vibration trending in addition to avoiding breakdowns, bearing could be made to last longer. 7.2.1 Ultrasonic frequencies This is the initial stage of the bearing failure. During this stage, when the microscopic flaws are present or due to improper lubrication, spikes or shock pulses are generated. These spikes and pulses are evaluated by spike energy and Shock Pulse. When the spike energy reaches a typical value, it is recommended that the lubrication is checked or redone. After lubrication if the spikes reduce and remain at a lower level than the indication is that the problem was only a lubrication problem. However if the spikes reduce for a short period and then raises again, then it is clear indication of a flaw having set in. Fig.7.1 is shows a typical initial stage failure. In this stage approximately 10% of the average bearing life (60 months) is left out.

Spikes/pulses (0.25 gSE) Fig.7.1 Ultrasonic frequencies

Fig. 7.1a Spike energy spectrum of lubrication problem 7.2.2 Natural frequencies Even as the machine is allowed to run beyond the first stage, the defect begins to deteriorate. The impacts or spikes will excite the natural frequencies of the bearing components. These frequencies are generally in 30000 CPM to 120000 CPM range. This stage is shown in Fig.7.2. It has to be noted that the spike energy values have increased. Usually in this stage 5 to 7% of the average bearing life is still available.

Spike/shock pulse (.25 to .5 gSE) Fig.7.2 Natural frequencies of bearing components

Fig.7.2a Natural frequencies of bearing components 7.2.3 Bearing geometry defect frequencies As the defect deteriorates further, the spike energy values begin to increase. The impacts will be clear impacts due to rolling element passing over inner and outer races. These impacts generate defect frequencies based on the geometry of the bearing. The method of calculation of these

frequencies is shown in Table 7.1. The appearance of the defect frequencies in the spectrum is shown in Fig.7.3. Usually the amplitude corresponding to defect frequency of the defective part grows. Sometimes defects in the cage appear in the spectrum more as a side band frequency than a carrier frequency. In this stage the spike energy value increases from 0.5 gSE to 1 gSE. 2 to 5% of the bearing life remains in this stage. It is only during this stage defects in the bearing could be visible for naked eye.

Table 7.1. Calculation of bearing defect frequencies The important aspect of bearing frequencies are that they appear in the spectrum only in the event of a faulty bearing. The amplitudes corresponding to these defect frequencies may vary depending upon the operating conditions. However small the amplitudes may be, these defect frequencies are clear symptoms of a defective bearing. These bearing defect frequencies are available these days in software.

Spikes and pulses (0.5 to 1 gSE) Fig.7.3 Third stage of bearing failure

Fig.7.3A third stage of failure 7.2.4 Bearing gives way Towards the end of the third stage of bearing failure, harmonics of the bearing defect frequencies are noticed. It will be desirable to increase the number of surveys on the machine and closely monitor the vibration levels. The rate of failure from the end of third stage to terminal failure is unpredictable. It is recommended that an indent be made for replacement of bearing at the end of the third stage. While monitoring the spikes closely, there will a point when the spikes suddenly drop. The machine should be shutdown and bearing replaced at this point of time. The typical spectrum is shown in Fig.7.4. Notice the broadband random noise. If the machine is allowed to run beyond this, it will cause seizure.

Spikes an Pulses (sudden drop) Fig.7.4 Last stage of bearing failure 7.2.5 Guidelines for determining bearing failures In machines without previous history, the relationship between the spikes and bearing failure can be established by experience. The Table 7.3 indicates the measurement patterns for such evaluation. Disp Machine condition Machine Ok Ok Watch M/c Bearing Ok defects OK to run Watch M/c Bearing Ok defects OK to run Machine Ok Problems Machine High problems VIBRATION LEVELS Vel Accl Ok Ok Ok Ok Spikes OK High

Ok High High

High High High

High High High

Table 7.2 Guideline for measurements for bearing defects

When a bearing fails, different physical changes are seen in the bearing. The Table 7.3 indicates the effects of such physical changes and the causes along with remarks. It is recommended that the bearing removed from the machine be inspected. This is to serve as guideline for finding root cause failures. From the foregoing discussions on vibration due to faulty rolling element bearings, it could be seen that monitoring and trending the bearing vibration, maximum life of the bearing could be extracted. Usually permitted values of spike energy are shown in Table 7.3. Enveloped spectrum and spike energy spectrums are used these days to to detect early, rotational frequencies. The method is shown in Fig.7.5

Effect Surface Fatigue Smearing Scoring Debris denting Overheating Spalling Abrasion Corrosion Debris denting Over heating Damage to raceways

Cause Lubrication problem

Improper fit Defective seats Poor sealing

Remarks Low viscosity Roller bearing having high thrust load Foreign matter causing dents Friction from race turning on shaft Cracking and flaking of race Dirt entering during installation. Moisture carried by air Typically damage in inner race Typically damage in outer race Due to overloading fractures result High static impact load Severe vibration of a machine at rest

Unbalance Misalignment

Grooves in raceways Fractures Retainer failure Brinelling

Misalignment Background vibration Shock loads Poor mounting

Table 7.3 Effect and Cause of bearing defects Initial Value Ball bearings Maximum Value

TIME

BANDPASS FILTER

TIME ENVELOPER

TIME

FAST FOURIER TRANSFORM

SPECTRUM

Fig.7.5 Enveloping process

BDF