INTRODUCTION One of the mathematical concepts which we must be familiar with is logarithm.

Before the day of scientific calculator, logarithms were used to multiply or divide extreme number s using mathematical tables. For these calculations, ten was the common base to use. Logarithm to the base of ten is also called the common logarithm. Other bases such as two, five and eight can also be used bases up to 60. Logarithms have many applications in various fields of studies. In the early 17th century it was rapidly adopted by navigators, scientist, engineers and astronomers to perform computations more easily.

HISTORY OF LOGARITHMS Logarithms were invented independently by John Napier, a Scotsman, and by Joost Burgi, a Swiss. Napier's logarithms were published in 1614; Burgi's logarithms were published in 1620. The objective of both men was to simplify mathematical calculations. This approach originally arose out of a desire to simplify multiplication and division to the level of addition and subtraction. Of course, in this era of the cheap hand calculator, this is not necessary anymore but it still serves as a useful way to introduce logarithms. Napier's approach was algebraic and Burgi's approach was geometric. The invention of the common system of logarithms is due to the combined effort of Napier and Henry Biggs in 1624. Natural logarithms first arose as more or less accidental variations of Napier's original logarithms. Their real significance was not recognized until later. The earliest natural logarithms occur in 1618. It cant be said too often: a logarithm is nothing more than an exponent. The basic concept of logarithms can be expressed as a shortcut.. Multiplication is a shortcut for Addition: 3 x 5 means 5 + 5 + 5 Exponents are a shortcut for Multiplication: 4^3 means 4 x 4 x 4 Logarithms are a shortcut for Exponents: 10^2 = 100. The present definition of the logarithm is the exponent or power to which a stated number, called the base, is raised to yield a specific number. The logarithm of 100 to the base 10 is 2. This is written: log10 (100) = 2. Before pocket calculators only three decades ago, but in student years thats the age of dinosaurs the answer was simple. You needed logs to compute most powers and roots with fair accuracy; even multiplying and dividing most numbers were easier with logs. Every decent algebra books had pages and pages of log tables at the back. The invention of logs in the early 1600s fueled the scientific revolution. Back then scientists, astronomers especially, used to spend huge amounts of time crunching numbers on paper. By cutting the time they spent doing arithmetic, logarithms effectively gave them a longer productive life. The slide rule, once almost a cartoon trademark of a scientist, was nothing more than a device built for doing various computations quickly, using logarithms. See Eli Maors e: The Story of a Number for more on this.

Today, logs are no longer used in routine number crunching. But there are still good reasons for studying them. Why do we use logarithms, anyway? To find the number of payments on a loan or the time to reach an investment goal To model many natural processes, particularly in living systems. We perceive loudness of sound as the logarithm of the actual sound intensity, and dB (decibels) are a logarithmic scale. We also perceive brightness of light as the logarithm of the actual light energy, and star magnitudes are measured on a logarithmic scale. To measure the pH or acidity of a chemical solution. The pH is the negative logarithm of the concentration of free hydrogen ions. To measure earthquake intensity on the Richter scale. To analyze exponential processes. Because the log function is the inverse of the exponential function, we often analyze an exponential curve by means of logarithms. Plotting a set of measured points on log-log or semi-log paper can reveal such relationships easily. Applications include cooling of a dead body, growth of bacteria, and decay of a radioactive isotopes. The spread of an epidemic in a population often follows a modified logarithmic curve called a logistic. To solve some forms of area problems in calculus. (The area under the curve 1/x, between x=1 and x=A, equals

B) Find and explain the applications of logarithm in two different fields of study. Explanation of each applications should include the following: 1) the field of study chosen 2) examples of problem solving related to the field of study.

Application 1: pH measurement

pH is a measurement of acidity and is a surprisingly common measurement. For example, in the chemical industry, the acidity of the reagents in many types of reactor has to be controlled to enable optimum reaction condition. In addition, in the water industry, the acidity of freshwater for consumption and of effluent for discharge have to be controlled carefully to satisfy legislative requirement. pH is an electro chemical measurement, Invariably made by means of the so called glass electrode. It is a notoriously difficult measurement to make because of factors such as drift and fouling. Understanding the significance of measurement requires an appreciation of electro-chemical equilibria. And using pH for control purpose is problematic because of the inherent non-linearities and time delays. The formal definition of pH is given by: pH=( )

Where()donates concentration of ion in aqueous solution with units of g ions/L. In the case of hydrogen, whose atomic and ionic weights are the same. (H+) has unit of g/L or kg . The logarithmic scale means that pH increase by one unit for each decrease by a factor of 10 in (H+).

Pure water dissociates very weakly to produce hydrogen and hydroxyl ions according to: 0 +O

An equilibrium at approximately 25 C, their concentrations are such that: ( ) + (O )=

The dissociation must produce equal concentration of h= and oh- ions, so ( ) = (O )=

Since pure water is neutral, by definition, it follows that for neutrally: ==7

This gives rise to the familiar ph scale of 0-14, symmetrical about ph 7, of which 07 corresponds to acidic solutions and 7-14 to alkaline solutions. To evaluate the ph of alkaline solutions it is usual to substitute for above equations: = ( ) = 14 + (O ) in the

Example: neutralization control Neutralization is a process whereby acid and base reagents are mixed to produce a product of specified pH. In the context of waste water and effluent treatment the objective is to adjust the ph to the value of 7 although, in practice, any value in the range 6-8 is good enough. In many chemical reactions the pH has to be controlled at the value other than 7, which could be anywhere in the range of 014. Neutralization is always carried in aqueous solution. pH is a meaningless quantity otherwise. Note that a basic that is soluble in water is usually referred to as an alkali. pH is without doubt the most difficult of common process variable to control. For example, the measurement is electro chemical, made with a glass and reference electrode pair as shown below, and is prone to contamination, hysteresis and drift. The signal produced, the logarithmic, is highly non-linear. The process being controlled invariably has a wide range of both concentration and flow through. The rangeability of flow gives rise to variable residence times. To achieve satisfactory control, all of these issues have to be addressed.

Application 2: Frequency response Frequency response is an important means of analysis and design for control system in the frequency domain. In essence, it concerns the behavior of system that are forced by sinusoidal inputs. A system may be forced sinusoidally and, by measuring it s output signal, the nature of the system may be deduced. Alternatively, a system may be designed such that the sinusoidal relationship between its input and output signals is a specified. Frequency response is of particular importance for design purposes from a stability point of view. Consider the first order system G(s) (a.k.a. Transfer Function) as shown:

If

is a sine wave of amplitude A and frequency ( ) = A sin

rad

(s) =

Then the response is given by:

By splitting this into its partial fractions, inverse transforming and some non-trivial trigonometric manipulation, the solution may be found. Once the exponential transient has decayed away, the response becomes:

sin (

Which is also a sine wave as depicted :

In figure above, the amplitude of o is the factor .

which comprises the

amplitude A of the input amplified by the steady state gain K and attenuated by

The product of gain and attenuation factor ratio. The frequency and amount where: of

is known as the amplitude but is shifted in phase by

is the same as that of

Since the oscillatory behavior is associated with rots of the form s j , this fact may be exploited in determining the frequency response of a system by substituting s=jw and form the complex conjugate giving: G (j ) = = j

This may be depicted in Argand diagram form as shown:

It may also be expressed in polar co-ordinates as follows: G (j = ( G (j G (j

Where the modulus is the length of the vector, is given by: | | ( ) ( ) =

And the argument, which is the angle of the vector, is given by:

The derived equation shows the complexity to plot in Cartesian space.

Example: Electronic Filters

The concepts of filters have been an integral part of the evolution of electrical engineering from the beginning. Several technological achievements would not have been possible without electrical filters. Because of this prominent role of filters, much effort has been expended on the theory, design, and construction of filters. A filter is a circuit that is designed to pass signals with desired frequencies and reject or altenuate others. As a frequencies-selective device, a filter can be used to limit the frequency spectrum of a signal to some specified bone of frequencies. Filters are the circuits used in radio and TV receivers to allow us to select one desired signal out of a multitude of broadcast signals in the environment. A filter is a passive filter if it consists of only passives elements resistors R, inductor L, and capacitor, C. it is said to be an active filter if it consist of active elements, (such as transistors and operational amplifier) in addition to passive elements R, L and C. There are four types of filters whether passive or active: A lowpass filter passes low frequencies and stops high frequencies A highpass filter passes high frequencies and rejects low frequencies A bandpass filter passes frequencies within a frequency band and blocks or attenuates frequencies outside the band A bandstop filter passes frequencies outside a frequency band and blocks or attenuate frequencies within the band

PART 2 The volume V, in the equation V=m of a solid sphere and its diameter, D in cm, are related by , where m and n are constants.

You can find the value of m and of n by conducting the activities below: I. Choose six different spheres with diameters between 1 cm to 8 cm. Measures the diameters using a pair of vernier calipers. sphere 1 2 3 4 5 6 II. Diameter (cm) 1.0 2.4 3.8 5.2 6.6 8.0

Find the volume of each sphere without using the formula or volume.(you can use the apparatus in the science lab to help you) Archimedes principle states that the upward and the buoyant force exerted on a body immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid the body displaces. In other words, an immersed object is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid it actually displaces. Using the method of water displacement and knowing the water density is 1g/ , the volume of a solid sphere is equivalent to the weight of the water displaced (in grams)and thus it can be measured.

sphere 1 2 3 4 5 6 III.

Volume (cm ) 0.5236 7.2382 28.7310 73.6223 150.5329 268.0832

Tabulates the values of the diameter, D, in cm, and its corresponding volume, V, in Sphere 1 2 3 4 5 6 . Diameter(cm) Volume (cm ) 1.0 0.5236 2.4 7.2382 3.8 28.7310 5.2 73.6223 6.6 150.5329 8.0 268.0832

Find the value of m and n using logarithms with any two sets of values obtained in the table above.

sphere 1 2 3 4 5 6

Diameter(cm) 1.0 2.4 3.8 5.2 6.6 8.0

Log D 0.0000 0.3802 0.5798 0.7160 0.8195 0.9031

Log V 0.2810 0.8596 1.4584 1.8670 2.1776 2.4283

Volume(cm ) 0.5236 7.2382 28.7310 73.6223 150.5329 268.0832

Given that the volume V, of a solid sphere is V=m (1)

Taking logarithm on both side yield

Which can be expanded to:

(2)

Using logarithm with any two sets of values (3) (4)

and

) we have :

From eq. 3 and 4, it is obvious that

can be eliminated by taking (3) - (4):

Which can be simplified by the Laws of Logarithms:

Dividing both side with

, we can determine the value of n

Although it is not necessary to find n in the reduced form of: * +

Let

(8.0 , 268.0832) and

(5.2 , 73.6223) we have

With n = 3, the value of m can be determined by manipulating eq. (1)

PART 3 a) In our daily life, the relationship between two variables is not always in the linear form. For example, the relationship between the volume, V, and the diameter, D, in part 2 above. Plot V against D using suitable scales.

B) When the graph V against D is drawn, the value of m and n are not easily determined from the graph. If the non-linear relation is changed to a linear form, a line of best fit can be drawn and the values of the constants and other information can obtained easily. a) Reduce the equation V = m V=m to a linear form

In which the reduced equation is a linear form of y = Mx + C Where y = ;M=n;x= and C =

b) Using the data from part 2, plot the graph and draw the line of best fit.

C) From the graph, find, 1. The value of m and n thus express V in term of D To obtain the value of m, we must know the y-intercept , -0.281, because

m= m = 0.5236 The value of n can be determined by calculating the slope of the graph, that is

Thus, volume, V, of a solid sphere can be expressed in term of D as V = 0.5236 ( (6)

2. The volume of the sphere when the diameter is 5 cm, and

With the value of 0.699 on the x-axis, we can look up on the linear graph and interpolate the corresponding value 1.816 on the y-axis

V=

3. The radius of the sphere when the volume is 180

With this value 2.25527 on the y-axis, we can look up on the linear graph and interpolate the corresponding value 0.845 on the x-axis.

FURTHER EXPLORATION a) Compare the equation obtained in part 3 b(B) c(1) with the formula of the volume of sphere. Hence, find the value of The formula for volume of sphere is given by

Comparing the formula and eq.(6) we have,

b) Suggest another method to find the value of One simple method id to determine the circumference C, of a circle with diameter D. the circumference of a circle is the length around it and the associate formula is given by: C= D

To measure the circumference C, of a circle with diameter D effectively, the shadow of a solid sphere can be projected on the screen using a bright light source as shown below. Then, the diameter of the casted shadow can scaled linearly according to the actual diameter of the solid sphere because the formula shows the linear relationship.

OBJECTIVE The objectives of this project are: to apply and adapt a variety of problem solving strategies to solve problems to improve thinking skill to promote effective mathematical communication to develop mathematical knowledge through problem solving in a way that increases students interest and confidence to use the language of mathematics to express mathematical ideas precisely to provide learning environment that stimulates and enhances effective learning to develop positive attitude towards mathematics

CONTENTS Page: Acknowledgement Objective Introduction Part 1 Part 2 Part 3 Further exploration Reflection References

SEKOLAH MENENGAH KEBANGSAAN SEKSYEN 7 SHAH ALAM

ADDITIONAL MATHEMATICS PROJECT WORK 1/2013 LOGARITHM

NAME: NUR FATIN SYAHIRA BINTI IBRAHIM IC NUMBER: 960307-10-5316 CLASS: 5 SAINS 2 TEACHERS NAME: PUAN HASLIZA BINTI HAMID

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all, I would like to say Alhamdulillah, for giving me the strength and health to do this project work. Not forgotten my parents for providing everything, such as money, to buy anything that are related to this project work and their advise, which is the most needed for this project. Internets, books, computers, and etc. They also supported me and encouraged me to complete this task so that I will not procrastinate in doing it. Then I would like to thank my teacher, Puan Hasliza Bt Hamid for guiding me and my friends throughout this project. We had some difficulties in doing this task, but she taught us patiently until we knew what to do. She tried and tried to teach us until we understand what we supposed to do with the project work. Last but not least, my friends who were doing this project with me and sharing our ideas. They were helpful that when we combined and discussed together, we had this task done.

REFLECTION After spending countless hours, days and night to finish this project and also sacrificing my time video games and magazine in this three weeks , there are several things that I can say... Additional maths You are like a very bright star.. Smiling at me.. Every time teacher teaches me bout you Additional maths Who says you so difficult? Who says you kill them off? Who says you hurt parents feeling? You, one of the greatest creature of God.. You, open my eyes. Telling me little by little bout The Knower of All Know, I feel so grateful That He has given me the chance to get to know you Additional Maths, I love you..

REFERENCES

Additional Mathematics Text Book http://www.scribd.com http://www.westcler.org/gh/Outtda/pdf_files/History_of_Logarithms.pdf

REFLECTION

While I conducting this project, I had learned some moral values that I practice. This project had taught me to responsible on the works that are given to me to be completed. This project also had make me felt more confidence to do works and not to give up easily when we could not find the solution for the question. I also learned to be more discipline on time, which I was given about three weeks to complete these project and pass up to my teacher just in time. I also enjoy doing this project during my school holiday as I spend my time with my friends to complete this project and it had tighten our friendship. Last but not least, there are several things that I want to say... Additional Maths You are like a very bright star.. Smiling at me.. Every time teacher teaches me bout you Additional Maths Who says you so difficult? Who says you kill them off? Who says you hurt parents feeling? You, one of the greatest creature of God.. You, open my eyes. Telling me little by little bout The Knower of All Know, I feel so grateful That He has given me the chance to get to know you Additional Maths, I love you..

JOHN NAPIER

JOOST BURGI