PI 2006 Liberalism

7th Oct 2013

The origin and nature of liberal philosophy An anti-ideology? - it does not succumb to the bias of the traditional ideologies Reformation, enlightenment and the roots of liberal thought Rationality: demystification and secularization - Liberalism grounded in reason, secularisation , not in a mystification of anything Negative freedom Uncivic liberalism: the natural basis of toleration Individualism: maturity and the public use of reason Liberal critique of ideology Ideologies are intolerant - tolerance has to do with the framing criteria used to measure tolerance Ideologies claim a monopoly of truth Ideologies are based on spurious claims to be scientific Ideologies are inherently repressive (totalitarian) Prime examples of ideologies are fascism and communism Liberalism understands itself as the opposite of an ideology (valuing tolerance, individualism, pluralism, relativism, based on reason, law, inalienable rights) a just society seeks not to promote any particular ends, but enables its citizens to pursue their own ends, consistent with a similar liberty for all; it therefore must govern by principles that do not presuppose any particular conception of the good (Sandel 1984) Ideology: a systematic set of ideas performing four functions Explanatory (explaining political phenomena) explains democracy and free elections Evaluative (providing criteria to distinguish right from wrong) Orientative (giving a sense of identity, guidance through values) Programmatic (providing a program for political action) Ball, T. & R. Dagger (2002) Political ideologies and the democratic ideal (4th ed.). New York: Addison Wesley Longman Liberal ideology Individual, agency-based explanatory model Based on human rights, equality before the law, pluralism, tolerance Universalising Enlightenment philosophy (Kantian categorical imperative); frequently accused of lacking in orientative power because of inherent relativism; but its core value of toleration provides boundary and guidance: you need to subscribe to the value of tolerance to be tolerated Calling for limited state, respect for human rights, respect for private property; conflicting views on taxation and public spending (classic vs. social liberalism)

Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law. (Immanuel Kant, 1785) Reformation and the seeds of liberalism Reformation (16th century) o Challenging the unity of church and state o Propagating the individual character of worshipping The English Civil Wars (17th century) o Conflict for supremacy between king and parliament o Religious sectarianism o Levellers (the first proto-liberal movement) o the freeing of politics from the hold of religion Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) o Pre-liberal thinker o State of nature and existential need for a social contract o Arguing that individuals in the state of nature are uninhibited but not free o Leviathan is a seemingly illiberal, authoritarian solution, but resulting from an individualistic model of man

Enlightenment= overcoming the power of the Church and the nature, only science could explain the world Enlightenment o Scientific discovery challenging religious doctrine about the natural world o Positivism o Reason o Secularisation, rejection of tradition, separation between state and the Church John Locke (1632-1704) o All individuals endowed by God with reason o In contrast with Hobbes, Locke argued the state of nature as guided by reason, but problematic o Social contract creates government as a trust, to protect their rights o Retaining a right to rebellion o Advocating religious tolerance, equality before the law o Inalienable right of man to life, liberty and property

Reason vs. religion Ideological nature of enlightenment (e.g. Hobbes politics of cultural transformation): o Aiming to overcome superstition and the unity of church and state in Ancient Regime, which is accused of keeping citizens resigned to their fate and status o Emphasizing educational function of science, to free individuals from their superstitions, and from sectarian manipulation, to transform them into rational beings, able to realize their potential Raison detat (e.g. Jean Bodin) o Overcoming religious-transcendental foundation of state objectives o Religious conflicts after Reformation resulting in necessity to enforce territorial integrity, religious conformity, maintenance of order o Primacy of secular political prudence over religious ethics o Enlightened absolutism replacing divine right of kings during 18th century across Europe Separation of Church and State Classic liberalism (the Enlightenment project) inherently hostile to public role for religion o Aiming to overcome intolerant, doctrinary, socially controlling medieval theocracies o Emerging against backdrop of politicization of religion in 17th century (English civil war, persecution of Huguenots in France, 30-year war in Germany) Religion to become a private matter, to liberate individuals from manipulation of their opinions o Hobbes: where many sorts of worship are allowed, proceeding from the different religions of private men, it cannot be said there is any public worship, nor that the commonwealth is of any religion at all o Locke: magistrate is probablyas ignorant of the way to salvation as my self, but certainly is less concerned for my salvation than I myself am o Jefferson: The legitimate powers of government extend to such acts only as are injurious to others. But it does me no injury for my neighbor to say there are twenty gods, or no god. It neither picks my pocket nor breaks my leg

Negative Freedom Liberal discourse evolves around relationship between the individual and the state o o o Limits to state power Rights and obligations of the individual Legitimate government through consent by the governed

 Individual rights o Function (duty) of the state: to enforce the fundamental individual civil and political rights - Freedom of religion, thought, expression, association, political participation, legal due process o Rights set limits to actions of others, including majority or other holders of power and authority o Individual is the bearer of rights, and autonomous o the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilised community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others (J.S. Mill) Liberty is the freedom from coercion (Hayek) o Two Concepts of Liberty (Isaiah Berlin) - Negative freedom: freedom from interference by others - Positive freedom: entitlement/ability to participate (Social Liberalism)

Selfishness and toleration Liberal social ethic - Acceptance of moral, cultural and political diversity - I detest what you say but will defend to the death your right to say it (Voltaire) - Pluralism (multiplicity of values, views, and interests) seen as a good in itself - Opposition to censorship - Toleration as ethical ideal (goal of personal autonomy) and social principle (set of rules about how to behave towards others) Liberal (radically uncivic) anthropology and the natural basis of toleration - State of nature (Hobbes and Locke) is without politics - Contrast with Aristotle: human beings are not political animals - Human beings selfish, not naturally concerned with welfare of others - Hobbes natural law is a negative principle of toleration, not a positive duty as set out by the Gospel: Do not that to another which thou thinkest unreasonable to be done by another to thyself (Hobbes, De Cive) Autonomy and maturity Public use of reason (Kant, 1724-1804) - Enlightenment is mankinds leaving behind its self-imposed immaturity - Immaturity mutually beneficial for the immature (who does not have to take responsibility for own life) and those who keep others immature (and exert control over masses)

- Only necessary and sufficient condition for enlightenment is freedom, i.e. freedom to make public use of ones reason Liberalism and elitism - Enlightenment a project to guide mankind out of immaturity - Requires leadership: scholars (Kant); enlightened absolutism (Hobbes); colonial rule (J.S. Mill) - Despotism is a legitimate mode of government in dealing with barbarians, provided the end be their improvement []. Liberty, as a principle, has no application to any state of things anterior to the time when mankind have become capable of being improved by free and equal discussion. (J.S. Mill)