15. Summary and Main Points-Plane trusses 15.0.

Statically determinate truss analysis by elementary mechanics

Figure 15.0.1. A statically determinate plane truss. The applied load will produce forces in the structural elements and these will be resisted at the support points ( 1) and ( 2 ) by reaction forces. In general, the reactions will be vectors, each with a component in the 1- and 2-direction, as in Figure 15.0.2, giving a total of four unknowns.

Figure 15.0.2. Reaction forces at support points. However, there are only three equations of static equilibrium, viz: F1 = 0 F2 = 0 M12 = 0 There are two elementary methods to get the forces in the truss elements:

the Method of Joints and the Method of Sections .

15.1. Truss finite elements

Figure 15.1.1. The global and local physical bases for a plane truss. EA m u1 1 m u1 2 [ ] ( ) [ ] ( ) L EA [ m ] F1( 2 ) = L [ m ] u1( 1) +[ m ] u1( 2 )

[ m ] F1( 1) =

( (

This allows us to write the matrix equation: F1( 1) 1 F2( 1) E A 0 = 1 L F 1( 2 ) 0 F 2( 2 ) m [ ] 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 u1( 1) u2( 1) u1( 2) u2 ( 2 ) [ m]

Here the forces and displacements appear as 2-D vectors to which the vector transformation law may be applied later. We can write this expression as: F = k u [ m] i ( j ) [ m] [ m ] [ m] i ( j ) where:

1 k = EA0 [ m] [ m] 1 L 0

0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0

0 0 0 0

is the stiffness matrix of element [m] in its local physical basis [ m ] . The transformation of the nodal force vector at node (1) of element [ m ] from its local physical basis to the global basis g has the form: F1( 1) g1l [ m ] 1 = F2( 1) g 2 l [ m ] 1 F1( 1) l F g 2 [ m] 2 [ m ] 2( 1)
g 1l [ m ] 2 g 1l [ m ] 2

F1( 2 ) g1l [ m ] 1 = F2( 2 ) g 2 l [ m ] 1

g 2 l [ m] 2 [ m]

F1( 2 ) F2( 2)

SEE CHAPTER 14, Q14.7.4 for an example Do 15.1.1 p15.23 Do 15.1.2 p15.25 Do 15.1.3 p15,28 These two matrix expressions, representing four simultaneous equations, can be combined in the single expression: F1( 1) g1l [ m ] 1 F2( 1) g 2 l [ m ] 1 = F1( 2 ) 0 F2( 2 ) 0
g g 1l [ m ] 2 g 2 l [ m] 2

0 0
g 1l [ m ] 1 g 2 l [ m] 1

0 0

0 l g1 [ m ] 2 g 2 l [ m] 2 [ m] 0

F1( 1) F2( 1) F1( 2 ) F2( 2 )

F = T F i ( j ) g [ m ] 44 [ m ] i ( j )

where gT[ m ] is the local to global transformation matrix for element [ m ] . Notice that:

 T g [ m ] 44

T g [ m ] 22 = [ 0] 22

T g [ m ] 22

[ 0] 22

T where g [ m ] 22 is the 2x2 transformation matrix for a 2-D vector. Inserting the local truss element constitutive equation: F = k u [ m] i ( j ) [ m] [ m] [ m] i ( j ) into the transformation equation:
g

F = T F i ( j ) g [ m] [ m] i ( j )

gives:
g

F = T k u i ( j ) g [ m] [ m] [ m] [ m] i ( j )

With the Fi ( j ) in global coordinates, we can now and only now apply the equations of equilibrium to all the elements which meet at any node (i). and we can write: u = T u i ( j ) g [ m ] 44 [ m ] i ( j )

Hence:
g

u = T g [ m] i ( j ) [ m]

( 1)

ui ( j ) g

F = T k u i ( j ) g [ m] [ m] [ m] [ m] i ( j )

k = T k T g [ m] g [ m] [ m] [ m] g [ m]

( 1)

is the stiffness matrix of element [ m ] in the global basis. Do 15.1.4 p15.31 15.2. Assembly of the truss stiffness matrix Now that the individual g k[ m ] for each element in the truss have all the vector components in terms of the global basis, we can use the direct stiffness method to

assemble the stiffness matrix [ k ] of the whole truss. This is done exactly as with a bar structure but now each nodal vector has two components, each of which appears as a separate degree-of-dreedom in [ k ] . The process is best illustrated by the worked examples at the end of this Chapter. 15.3. Boundary conditions

[ k]

is essentially the transfer function of the structural system and contains all of

the information about the truss itself. What it doesnt contain, and what are needed to determine the behaviour of the structure in any particular situation, are the boundary conditions. These are contained in F( i ) and u( i ) , either of which may be partly prescribed (i.e constrained) and partly unknown.

Figure 15.3.1. Free body diagram of a free node. For a truss, there are several types of constraint. At a free node (Figure 15.3.1), theres no constraint on any degree-of-freedom and all of the displacement components are unknown. Hence: u =? 1( i ) u = ? 2( i ) = ? 12( i ) Here 12 is the rotation of the node in the 1-2 plane.

12 tan 12 =

du2 dx1

which would be the slope of a deformed beam element. However truss elements are always straight and so 12 0 and isnt even included in the truss element formulation. Even at a free node there might be applied forces and so: F =C 1( i ) 1( i ) F = C2( i ) 2( i ) M = C12( i ) 12( i ) where M12 is the bending moment, which is again zero for a truss element, and the Cs are known values, either 0 or an applied load. If a node is constrained in one D.o.F, say u2( i ) = C2( i ) , then:

u =? F =0 1( i ) 1( i ) u F = C = ? 2( i ) 2( i ) 2( i ) =? M = 0 12( i ) 12( i ) The (initially) unknown force is needed to enforce the constraint. Such a node is called a roller, since this is the condition that occurs when a structure is supported on a roller bearing (Figure 15.3.2)

Figure 15.3.2. Free body diagram of a roller bearing constrained in the 2-direction. C1( i ) = 0 , i.e a rigid foundation, is most common but C1( i ) might be nonzero, e.g if there is settlement of the foundation, and it might even change with time. We can of course have a prescribed force on one degree-of-freedom, e.g;

 F =? u =0 1( i ) 1( i ) F = C2( i ) u2( i ) = ? 2( i ) M =? = 0 12( i ) 12( i ) This example, in which two of the displacements are constrained, could model the loading on a lift cage running up and down the lift shaft. If the node is constrained in the two translational directions, i.e: u = C F =? 1( i ) 1( i ) 1( i ) u = C2( i ) F2( i ) = ? 2( i ) =? M = 0 12( i ) 12( i ) the node is a pin-joint which is free to rotate as in Figure 15.3.3, which shows the particular case in which the constants are zero. This is the condition which exists at the joints of a truss, hence its alternative name of pin-jointed frame.

Figure 15.3.3. Free body diagram of a pin-joint. If a node is constrained in all three degrees-of-freedom then: u =C F =? 1( i ) 1( i ) 1( i ) u = C2( i ) F2( i ) = ? 2( i ) = C3( i ) M = ? 12( i ) 12( i ) This is the condition for a built-in, rigid, clamped, fully-fixed or encastr foundation (Figure 15.3.4).

Figure 15.3.4. Free body diagram of a fully-fixed node. Again this is an idealisation and the choice of whether to model a real joint as pinned or fully-fixed may not be clear-cut.