The Drum and Its Role in Yoruba Religion Author(s): Ademla Adegbite Source: Journal of Religion in Africa, Vol.

18, Fasc. 1 (Feb., 1988), pp. 15-26 Published by: BRILL Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1580834 . Accessed: 27/09/2013 09:24
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THE DRUM AND ITS ROLE IN YORUBA RELIGION

BY

ADEMQLA

ADEGBITE
Ile-Ife, Nigeria)

(Qbafemi Awolowo University,

The drum is the foundation of Yoruba instrumental music. Early references to Yoruba music seem to place a high value on its use. Describing the pomp and pageantry that characterized Yoruba nobility, Richard Lander (1830) in one of his visits to the palace of a Yoruba traditional ruler, reported:
The chief was seated outside his house under its verandah surrounded by about a hundred of his wives and musicians with drums and fife ...'

Witford2 described the hourglass drum as "the principal instrument" while Ellis3 described the Gb'du as an important drum found mostly in the courts of the Yoruba rulers and in the homes of the nobility. Similar descriptions of the extensive use of drum ensembles have been given by Johnson4 and the late Qba Laoye I, the Tlml of Ide.5 It is to be noted here that the use of the drum is not limited to the Yoruba royal families and traditional rulers alone; nearly every Yoruba Orisa also has his own special drum ensemble and often this drum group is said to be the group particular deity enjoyed, danced, or listened to during his earthly life. Thus, the significance of drums and their liturgical function, especially in ritual ceremonies, cannot be over-emphasized. Apart from accompanying songs and chants which the devotees of the Orisd use during ritual and ceremonial occasions, drums also provide the medium through which the worshippers are in constant ecstatic communication and communion with their God and gods. The purpose of this study, therefore, is to examine some of these drums and their role in Yoruba religious worship. Yoruba drums can be grouped into two main categories. The first group includes all the varieties of what Ortiz (1980) refers to as unimembranophonic drums. These are single-headed drums or drums with fixed membranes and a membrane head on only one

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end of the shell. These drums are unipercussive in that they are hit on one membrane. They are open with a wooden body of conical shape with permanent tension held by peg cordage. Igbin, AgbdIledi, Osugbo,Ipese, Gb'du, and Agbd-Qbaluf3n belong to this category. Some of these drums are carved in such a way that they are referred to as "having legs" on which they are set during a performance. Some drums are played during religious festivals. For example, the Igbin drum ensemble is played during the religious worship of Qbdtald,the Yoruba Orisd of creation. Agbd-Qbalufn is used by the Qbaluf3ndevotees, the Ipese drum set by Ifd worshippers, and the Agbad-Ildi drum ensemble by members of the Ogbdnicult. On the other hand, the Gb'du, a royal drum ensemble and an epitome of Yoruba aristocracy, is found in the palaces of Yoruba traditional rulers. It is played on important occasions that involve the rulers and their subjects. The second group of drums comprises bi-membranophonic, unipercussive or ambipercussive closed types with a wooden body of conical or cylindrical form of permanent tension by bi-tensorial cordage6 made from strips of leather. A drum is bi-membranophonic if it has two fixed membranes whose vibrations produce its sonority. An ambipercussive drum, on the other hand, is a drum that is hit on both membranes or patches with open hand or with a combination of hand and stick or leather straps. Drums are said to have permanent tension if the fixed skins are held by structure of longitudinal bi-tensorial strips (awp) made from goat, deer, or antelope skins fastened and pulled tightly over them in a transversal way so that they are obliged to adhere to the body and so increase their bi-tension.7 Bdtd. B'mbe, and Dundun aptly fit the above description. The above structural description of various drums used in Yoruba religion help to show that the devotees of the Orisd do not use drums indiscriminately. Appropriate drums must be used for particular Orisd, otherwise they will incur the wrath of their tutelary deity.8 References made to the drum in Yoruba oral tradition credit Ayan Agalu,9 as the originator of some Yoruba drums. It is not known when Aydn introduced the drums to Yorubaland and what types of drums he introduced. But from all indications, it must have been in recent times and the drums in question is not likely to have been unimembranophonic but a variety of a bi-membranophonic

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The Drum and its Role in YorubaReligion

17

unipercussive drum. This assumption is based on two reasons. First, it must be noted that unimembranophonic drums are used for ritual and religious ceremonies such as Igbin, Ogiddn, Ipese, or Bdtd. They are said to be the drums which the Orisd themselves brought into being and to which they loved to dance during their earthly lives. Oral tradition says some of these drums were originally human beings10 for example the component members of the Ipese drum set which include the four wives of Ifd, otherwise known as Orunmila, the Yoruba Orisa of wisdom. Their existence in Yoruba culture, therefore, cannot be of recent development. drums of which Second, bi-membranophonic-unipercussive in West Africa, are distributed is an Dutndzn widely example, This is type predominant in the though known by various names. Muslim communities of the savannah belt. In Northern Nigeria, for example, it is known as Kdlkngu. Among the Yoruba of Southern Nigeria, it is called Kntango, Gdngan, or Dutndun,depending on the size of the drum. Although this drum is usually associated with Islam, there seems to be no available evidence to support its existence in Arabia. However, in North Africa, from where Islam was brought to the Savannah Belt of West Africa, bimembranophonic-unipercussive drums are commonly found. Furthermore, the fact that the shape and stype of playing Yoruba Kdndangare similar to Hausa Kdldngu gives some credence to the theory that it might have been introduced by the Muslim Hausa from the North who, incidentally brought Islam to Yorubaland. Knaingd, then, may be seen as the forerunner of all the varieties of the tension drums found in Yorubaland. Despite the differences of their origin, however, these drums are used in Yoruba religious worship. But unlike the traditional drums which are used strictly for ritual and ceremonial events, the Dundun drum ensemble is used for both social and religious occasions. It will be seen from the above explanations that the Dundun drum does not fall within the category of Orist drums such as Igbin or Ipese in that it was not created by Orisa at the beginning of time while the presence of this type of drum in North and West Africa strengthens the argument that it must have been introduced into Yorubaland from those areas. is the Be that as it may, the Yoruba drummers believe that AyaTn member This of drums. and the Orist every why explains originator of a traditional drummer's family, especially the Batd and Duindun

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drummers, carry the prefix Aydn in his or her name to denote the tutelary divinity of the family. Thus AydnsVld, Aydngdde, and and Aydndeleare given to male children while Aydnsik', iAydnrzikf Aydnyemiare given to female children. This seems to fall in line with the Yoruba system of naming in which the Orisd of a family is usually reflected in the name. A child from Sdngo devotees' family while Estibzi, Esuigbdml,Ogunwande, is Sngddele, Sdngonzyi,Sdngonide Ogunkdnmiare the names of members of Esui, otherwise known as t4l?gbda,and Ogu'nworshippers' families. It must be noted, however, that most modern popular musicians neither come from drummer families nor carry prefix Aydn in their names. This is because in modern Yoruba society, one does not have to come from a musician family to qualify to go into the music business, very much unlike the traditional system in which the art of musicmaking ran in families. Drums in Yorubaland are constructed by skilled drum makers, but no two parts of any one drum are made by one individual. The drum frame is carved by professional carvers (plVna)or by those who were once drummers themselves but who no longer perform actively for one reason of the other. The brass caster (asude) makes the bells that are tied around the master drum (Iyd 'lz). The job of covering the drum frame with the membrane (awe) is done by the drummers themselves. Traditional decoration is also part of the drummaking process. This is usually done on the drum frames of the upright drums such as Igbin, Gbedu, and Osutgbd, bearing the of the case of a or insignia royalty (in deity (in the case of Gb'du) Igbin). Traditional Yoruba believe that each of these steps of drummaking requires certain rituals which must be performed so that the spirits in the materials from which the drum is made may be placated and that the drum may function well. This idea stems from the Yoruba concept of nature and its relationship with religion. They believe that nature is alive and that there are certain forces or powers superior to man which direct and control the course of nature and of human life in it. In many cases these powers that are superior to man inhabit prominent natural objects such as mountains, rivers and trees. These are generally regarded as the temples or abodes of gods and spirits. But the world of nature is not seen as a separate entity. The world of gods and goddesses, the world of ancestors and heroes, the world of human beings and the world

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7lie Drumtand its Role in YorubaReli'gion1

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of nature form a unity. Each world is alive, inter-related, and dependent upon each other in one vast circling stream of power in which visible and invisible forces interact. Thus, the first step in the making of a drum is the ceremony which placates the spirit dwelling in the wood from which the drum is subsequently made. Trees near the village or where human voices are frequently heard are always considered the best choice, otherwise the drum will not "speak" well. In the same way, a ritual ceremony is performed to the spirit of the animal whose skin is used as the membrane of the drum. But two drums may not necessarily function in the same way, especially if the wood of one came from a tree near a village, and the other from a forest tree or if the necessary ceremonies were not performed in one or another case. It is important to note here that a traditional Yoruba man does not recognize any activity as being profane whether it is hunting, fishing, farming, games or sexuality. Even conflicts, war, and struggles have rituals causes and functions in that they repeat the struggle between divine and cosmic forces. To the traditional man, therefore, a ritual is meaningful only if it is seen as repeating acts which were originally performed by the Orisa, the ancestors of the heroes at the beginning of time.1' When Yoruba drum makers perform rituals to the spirits of the materials from which the drum is made, they are merely repeating a primordial gesture. Communication between the traditional Yoruba and the Orisa occurs in different forms. It is sometimes done through private rituals which only the initiated members can attend; or it may be through rituals which are open to the general public. In each case, the indispensable role of music find expression. This role is clearly manifested in the liturgical procedures which are based, among other things, on chanting, recitation, singing, drumming and dancing. The most vital aspect of these procedures is the playing of musical instruments, notably drums. Three types of drums are used in Yoruba religious ceremonies. There are, first, the drums which the Orisa themselves are believed to have created and which they loved to play, hear, or dance to when they were in physical human form. Some of those drums are known to us today only by their names; others have been completely forgotten. Some are now abandoned at shrines because there are no competent drummers who can play them. Among the

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surviving ones are Igbin, created by Obdtald;Ipese, created by Qrunmild; Bdta, by Esu; Ogidariby Ogun; and Agbd-QbalufOn, by Qbaluf{n. The second type of drums includes those that are later adopted and used by the devotees of certain Orisd. Such drums tend to overlap in their usage. For example, Bdtd, which is used by the devotees of Esu, is also used for the Egungun and Sdngd rituals. Obviously, the devotees of the latter deities, or the deities themselves are likely to have adopted the use of Bdtd because of the fact that Esu is one of the Yoruba's major gods, a primordial being like Qbdtaldand Qrunmildwho has existed since the beginning of time. His devotees must have been using Bata long before Sdngd, one of the Alaafin of Oyo, became deified.12 The third type of Yoruba religious drums consists of the ones recently introduced into Yoruba society and subsequently adopted for religious and social purposes. Notable among these are the Dundun drum ensemble, Apald, and Sakara. Dundun drums play a prominent role in the ceremonial music of Qbdtald,Esu, Qsun, and Ogun worshippers. Hunters also use the Dundun set on ceremonial occasions, particularly in a type of dance rhythm called Apgnrgn. It must be stated, however, that when the Dundun drum is used in a religious context, it is mostly in activities which involve the devotees and the public that it becomes relevant. At the most serious level, that is at private or secret rituals, it is the drum of a particular Orisd that is more likely to be used. Thus, Igbin drum music is heard during such ritual and ceremonial occasions as the annual festival of Qbdtald.The Igbin set consists of lyd rild, lyd dgan, Kekf and Afere. The rhythmic patterns produced by Igbin drums can also be produced on the Dundun drums. The only difference in the style of playing them is that the tension strap of Igbin is fixed and cannot be easily manipulated to produce the three tone levels of Yoruba languages'3 (i.e. low-midhigh tone levels), whereas the Dundun can. Because of its capability to produce Yoruba words, ecstatic communication between the worshippers and their Orisd becomes a more meaningful event on the Dundun drum. This is true of other drums for which the Dundun set is used as a substitute (such as Bata, Afiri and Ogiddn.) The reason for the adoption of Dundun drums by some religious sects is that it is easier to understand the language of the master drum, Iyd'lu, when she "speaks" the traditional phrases. These phrases, however, sound intelligible only to those who understand the language of the drum.

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The Drum and its Role in YorubaReligion

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Hence, the phrases: Baba aruigb6 gb'obi j', gb'obi

Orisa gb'obi j?, gb'obi

Qbatala gb'obi jV, gb'obi

Orisa gb'obi jv, gb'obi

Meaning: Old man'4 accept the kola nuts Accept, Orisa accept the kola nuts, accept Obata'ld accept the kola nuts, accept Orisa accept the kola nuts, accept. These phrases are frequently repeated by the Iyd 'ild of the Igbin set during a performance. Owing to the subdued nature of Igbin's pitch variations these phrases are hardly understood by an average a'ld of Igbin or of the various listener. This is not to suggest that Iyd other ensembles cannot "speak" their texts. What we are saying is of the that the phrases sound clearer when they are played on yda'lu Dutndunset. It is important to note that Yoruba drums, like most African musical instruments, are text-bound even though the degree to which instruments are capable of communicating may 'ild of Igbin vary from one to the other. For example, while Iyd ensemble and Iyda'lu of Dutndun can speak certain phrases intelligibly, the Iyd'a" of the Bdta set needs the help of Emele akp to be able to be intelligible when playing these phrases. It is for this reason that Iyd'lu of Bdtd is often referred to as akd 3161(i.e. a stammerer). The Bata' drum set which consists of Iyda'lu,emeleakp, emeleabo, and kudi features prominently in the music of Esui and Sdngo worship. The Bdtd drum set is perhaps the only drum set whose drum. This rhythmic patterns cannot be reproduced by the Dutndun is due, in part, to the stammering nature of Iyd'ltu. It is also due to the rhythmic pattern produced by each instrument in a performance. Batd is the most widely used traditional set in religious as well as social contexts. In Cuba, Btad is the only surviving Yoruba musical instrument.15 Ipeseis the name given to the drum ensemble used by Ifd worshippers. There are four instruments in this ensemble, namely Ipese, Aran, Afere, and Agogo. The Ipese set is used as an instrumental accompaniment to the recitation of Odui Ifd during the annual festival of Ifd. It is also performed when there is an outbreak of pestilence in which rituals have to be performed to appease the

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(the Orisa of iron and war) drum set. Like gods. Ogiddn is Ogudn's Igbin, Ipese, and Bdtd, it is used by Ogiun'sadherents for ritual and ceremonial purposes. It is heard during the annual festival of Ogun or when rituals are being performed in commemoration of a deceased worshipper. Here, the Ogiddn drum bridges the gap between the worshippers and the departed spirit. As a keen hunter, Ogun also loved to dance to Agr, a type of instrumental music associated with hunters. The Agere ensemble consists of AgOra,and a flute (Tioko or kkuiuju).Agere rhythms are sometimes played by the Diundn ensemble, consisting of Iya'lu, Isaajiu, Gdngan, and Guduigdui.Agre, like Ogiddn, is played during the annual festival of Ogun but it also features at the Isipa 9pde,16 the last ritual ceremony that is performed for a deceased hunter. One interesting aspect of these drum ensembles is their hierarchical structure, which reflects the traditional Yoruba family system in which the father is the head of the family while the mother and the children are the members of the household. Thus, in every Yoruba drum set there is always a "father" drum, and other drums which may be considered as the children. In the Dundun ensemble for example, the Gudugudud is considered the father of the ensemble while the master or lead drum is the mother of the drums, namely yda'luDulndun, yda'lul Bdtd, Iyd nlda Igbin, and so forth. In the Bdtd ensemble, there is the emele akg (male emele) and emele abo (female emele), a pattern that further reflects a family system. Again, the dichotomy between Olddumare(God) and Il-Ogirf (Earth) in Yoruba philosophy is also reflected in the pattern. The Earth is female, "Mother Earth", and represents the physical world, while God is male and represents the non-physical world. Since the non-physical world has priority over the physical world, that is, the world of spirits over the mundane world, the position of the male head of the family is a reflection of the pattern that exists between the God of the non-physical world and Mother Earth. It will be seen from this brief explanation that though the mother drum plays a leading role that attracts immediate attention in a performance, the drum that controls the ensemble is usually the male drum, Gudzguidu, in the case of Dundun, and Emele akp, in the case of Bdtd. Drums are often used to evoke the presence of the deity during annual festivals or special ceremonies. As stated earlier in the discussion, the Yoruba are quite aware that their Orisa are lovers

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The Drum and its Role in YorubaReligion

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of music and that on the more serious level, that is the ritual and religious levels, music can be used as a vehicle of communication between man and these Orisd. In order to communicate with them, the Orisd must be in good mood. One way of getting them into a good mood is to recite or chant their orz'ki17 (praise poem) either vocally, instrumentally or vocally with instrumental accompaniment. The chanting of the Oriki of an Orisd invokes his presence during a ritual or ceremonial occasion. Like Yoruba oriki, the oriki of the Orisd often give the most salient characteristics of the Orisd in very figurative and hyperbolic language. The following is from the oriki of Orunmil:. Qruinmila, lrlri ipin; (igbakeji) Olodumare A jV ju oogun, Obiri a pa'j0 iku da'8 Meaning: Qrunmila, witness of creation, next in rank to Olddumare, The culmination of medicine Obiri the power that changes the date of death.19 The leading drum usually recites the oriki of the Orisa as other instruments accompany it. As the tempo increases, the atmosphere becomes charged and this often gives both concrete and mystical shape and form to such ceremonies. At no other time can the unique position of drums in Yoruba religious be more appreciated than during the annual festivals of the Orisdwhich often last for about a week. During that period, the whole community is thrown into a festive mood. The annual festival affords the opportunity to hear various types of music performed either vocally, with or without an instrumental accompaniment, or purely instrumentally. A by-product of these various types of instrumental music is that it fuses the community into one unit, an indivisible whole. It should be noted in passing that ritual Orisa music is performed exclusively by the devotees of the Orisd, while on ceremonial occasions such as the annual festivals, professional musicians who are usually non-devotees may be engaged to play the particular Orisa ensemble. In such a situation, the drummers and more especially the master drummer, must have a great repertoire of the orzkiof the Orisd. He must know the or'ki of the Orisd whose music he is playing very well, and he should be able to recite them on his drum when need arises. He does not usually sing at the

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same time as playing the drum. The expression a lu Btad or Dundun ki i dd'rin (a Btad or Dundun drummer does not lead a song while playing) is a common one among the Yoruba. The expression is often used when a person is trying to overdo something. To the untrained ear, the complex rhythms produced by various drums in a performance may be difficult to comprehend. But, to those who understand the language of the drum, the sound produced by each drum is unique, and the resultant music of the patterns of the individual member drums is still more unique. This resultant music is usually interpreted through the medium of dancing. Drum music may not be interpreted only by way of dancing; it can also be interpreted textually. This means that the drum, expecially the leading drum, is capable of playing phrases or even sentences verbalized by a reciter or a chanter. This is possible because when a Yoruba master drummer recites the orzkiof an Orisd on his drum, he does not merely play a set of rhythms like most other drums do within an ensemble; he verbalizes his knowledge of the oriki of the Orisd on his drum. The tonal characteristics of the Yoruba language make the reproduction possible. Thus, it can be stated that the Yoruba drum is closely related to vocal music, even though on many occasions, the "voice" is not that of human beings but of the drums. Futherrnore, all drums are identical structurally. It is the rhythmic patterns which are played on each set that differentiates one drum set from another. For example, it is possible for the Gbedu drummers to play the Ipese rhythm on their drums, just as Qbaluf{n drummers can also play Qbtdalddrum rhythms on their drums. However, tradition does not allow such a practice. That is why one does not hear such performances frequently. If at this stage we ask what the role of the drum is in traditional Yoruba religion, the answer might perhaps be summed up as follows: in Yoruba religion, drums have two closely related functions. One function is to enable the devotees of the Orisa to bridge the gap between the visible and invisible worlds and thus bring them into direct contact with all those psychic forces that control the destinies of man. Apart from their role as instrumental accompaniment to recitations, chants, and songs during religious ceremonies, drums provide the medium through which the worshippers are in constant ecstatic communication with their Orisd. They are used to evoke the presence of the Orisa. Here, Yoruba drums can properly

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be compared to an audio-visual system that is capable of bringing the dwellers of a remote planet, the world of Nature, and of mother earth, right into one's home so that intelligible communication can take place between them face to face. In other words, drums are metaphysical agents in the sacred relationship between the Orisai and their devotees. Participants in Yoruba religious ceremonies are known to have been charged to the point of frenzy when their orz'ki or that of their Orisd are recited by the drum. The Sdngo worshippers, for example, often become possessed by the spirit of Sdngdand go into a trance (guin Sdngo) when the tempo of Bdtd is high during a performance. In the same way a member of the Jsf lineage may, at times, go into frenzy when the oriki of the lineage is recited on the drum at an appropriate occasion. A by-product of traditional drum music is its capacity of fusing a community together. It does this by requiring, engendering, and fostering a corporate spirit, a "togetherness", both in the fashioning of the materials for music-making and in the actual making of music.
NOTES AND REFERENCES 1. Richard Lander, Records of Captain Clapperton's Last Expedition in Africa, London: Henry Colbum and Richard Bently; Vol. I, 1830 p. 91. and CentralAfrica, London: Frank Cass 2. John Whitford, Trading Life in Western & Co. Ltd.; 1967, p. 98. 3. Alfred Ellis, The YorubaSpeaking People of the Slave Coast of West Africa, Lagos: Pilgrim Books; 1966, p. 159. theEarliest Times to thebegin4. Rev. SamuelJohnson, The History of the Yorubasfrom Dr. London: Lowe & Brydone the ed. British O. Protectorate, by Johnson, ning of Printers Ltd.; 1937, p. 297. 5. Qba Laoye I, the Timi of lde, "Yoruba Drums" Odu: A Journal of Yoruba and Related Studies, No. 8, Ibadan: Publication Section, Ministry of Education, 1959. p. 5-13. 6. These are the leather straps which are used to fasten the membrane to the pegs attached to the drum frame. 7. Fernado Ortiz uses these terms to describe the Bdtd drum in his Batd in Cuba translated into English by John Turpin III & B. E. Martinez (1980). 8. This information was given by Iyd Sdngd Qplapetan Sang6bunmi during the Sango6 festival at Ilobu, Qy9 State, in 1979. 9. Ayan Agulu was a Yoruba hero, an excellent drummer who was deified as the Orisd of drums by the people. This information comes from oral interviews with Mr. Ayanrins9la Ajagbe of Adeptan House, Taraa Compound, Ogb6m'sO, 1981 and Messrs Muraina Oyelami and Ayanleke both of The Department of Music, University of Ife, Ile-Ife, Nigeria, 1983. 10. From oral interviews with Pa. Awol9la of Oko, Ogbom9sp, Pa. Awotunde of African Languages and Literature, University of Ife, and from Lecture Notes given by Chief Fela $owande at the University of Pittsburg, Pa. in 1975.

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11. See Mircea Eliade, The Myth of the Eternal Return: Princeton: Princeton University Press, N.J. p. 22, 1971. 12. Sang6 was the third Alaafin of Qy9 and the fourth Yoruba King (11371177) who was deified after his death. For details about the deification of Sang6 in Yoruba history, see E. B. Idowu, Olddzmare. God in Yoruba Belief London: from the Longman, 1962. See also Rev. S. O. Johnson, The History of the Yorubas Earliest Times to the beginning of the British Protectorateed. by Dr. O. Johnson, London: Lowe & Brydone Printers Ltd., 1937. 13. The Yoruba Language is a tonal language, that is, a word in Yoruba can have several different meanings, depending on the tones on which the word is pronounced. Three basic tone levels, low-mid-high ( \ - /) are used. 14. Qbtadldis the Yoruba god of creation. He is believed to be the Orisa who assists Olddtmare(God) in the process of making human beings. Because of his long association with Olddtimare,he is often referred to as the old man, a primordial being. 15. Fernado Ortiz, op. cit. 16. For details about this, see Bade Ajuw9n, Irmpje'-Iszipd Qdf, Ibadan: University Press Limited, 1981. 17. For further details, see 1. Adeboye Babal9la, Oriki Or`'l, Glasgow: Collins, 1966. 2. 0. Qlatunji, Characteristics of YorubaOral LiteraturePh.D. 1971. 3. 0. Vidal, "Oriki in Yorubaland", African Arts, Autumn, 1971. 4. A. AdegbitV, Oriki: A Study in YorubaMusical and Social perception. Ph.D. 1978. 18. R. Abi9dun, Seminar on "Oral Tradition in the Study of Yoruba Art, Ifa Divination Sculpture and Apparatus", given at the University of Ife, Ile-Ife, Nigeria, March 10, 1974. p. 8. 19. Ibid.

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