Professional Documents
Culture Documents
and the sun was shining. I was reading by the pool when I heard a
scream. Note: When there are two past continuous forms in a sentence with
. .
The time expressions we use with the past continuous are: while,when, as,allmorning/evening/day/week, ete
for repeated actions in the past continuing to the present. I havelearnedthepia!'o piecebecause I have beenpractising every day.
PastPerfect
We use the past perfect (had+ pastparticiple):
'The time expressions we use with the present perfect continuous are: for, since,how long ...?,all day/morning/ month,ete,lately, recently
Note; with the verbs live, work, teach and feel we can use the present perfect or the present perfect continuous with no difference in meaning. Wehave lived/have been living in Athensfor the past two years.
for an action which happened before another past action or before a stated time in the past. Judy had finished her
homework by seven o'clock. which finished for an action
result was
visible at a later point in the past. Hehad heard the news a few
Everyone
Unit 3
The time expressionswe use with the past perfect are: before,after,already, just, for,since,till/until, when,by the time, never, ete
PastSimple
We use the past simple:
.
.
PastPerfect Continuous
We use the past perfect
continuous
to put emphasis on the duration of an action which started and finished in the past, before another action or stated time in the past, usually.with for or since. Thecake had been baking
in the cooker for about an hour when I realised that I hadn't added the eggs.
Note that used to can also be used instead of the past simple for habits/repeated actions in the past.
whose result was visible in the past. He had been travelling all night and he was exhausted.
The time expressions we use with the past simple are: yesterday,then, when, How long ago ...?, last night/week! month/year/Friday/Oetober, ete,three days/weeks, ete ago, in 1999, ete
The time expressions we use with the past perfect continuous are: for, since,how long, before, until, ete
Usedto
PastContinuous
We use the past continuous (was/were + verb -ing);
We use used to + infinitive
change in meaning. When our children wereyounger, they played/used to play tennis. However, for an action that happened at a definite time in the past
for an action which was in progress when another action interrupted it. We use the past continuous for the action in progress (longer action) and the past simple for the action
which interrupted it (shorter action). We were watching the
actions in the past. I was writing the envelopes. tennis match when there was an electricity black-out. for two or more simultaneous out the invitations while Philip was addressing
we use the past simple, not used to. I cut the grassyesterday.
(NOT: Il15efl t6 (!.It the f).oilS! }'E!!;ter4e}:)
....
for an action which was in progress at a stated time in the past. We don't mention when the action started or finished. At 7 o'clock last night, I was working out at the gym.
ago
since
(= back in time from now) is used with the past simple. The
. concert finished an hour ago.
(= from
a starting
<_.
Grammar Reference
for (= over a period of time) is used with the present perfect (simple and continuous). hours. already I have already eaten lunch. Haveyou already paid off your car? yet is used with the present perfect in questions and negations. Haveyou spoken to the police yet? I haven't decided yet. ACTIVE They'vebeen discussing the issuefor Changing from the active to the passive:
. . .
Verb
was watering
The UnrealPast
The past simple can be used to refer to the present when we talk about imaginary, unreal or impossible situations which are contrary to facts in the present. The past perfect can be used to refer to imaginary, unreal or
Subject Verb Agent PASSIVE The plants were being watered bythe gardener. Only transitive verbs (verbs that take an object) can be changed into the passive. Active: I slept well last night. (intransitive verb)No passiveform: L8MR;ht was we!!s.'pt. Note: some transitive verbs (have, be,exist,seem,fit, suit, resemble,
lack, etc) cannot be changed into the passive. I have a chronic
back problem. NOT: .~ 6f:mm;c 8ack f;;eBle!'R ;! li8S BY!'Re.
PrE
PrE Cc
Pa
type 2 Conditionals - If shehad themoney, shewouldbuyanAlfa Romeo. suppose/supposing - Suppose/Supposing you wereoffered the position,what wouldyoudo? wish/if only -I wish/If only I lived in my ownflat.
would rather (present) -I'd rather you invited the Smiths.
We can use the verb to get instead of the verb to be in everydayspeech when we talk about things that happen by accident or unexpectedly. He gets paid on a monthly basis. (instead of heis paid...)
By + the agent is used to say who or what carries out an
Pa
Fu
away.
The past perfect is used with:
action. With + instrument/material/ingredient is used to say what the agent used. TheCupwaswon by Argentina.Thesteak wassprinkled with whitepepper. The agent can be omitted when the subject is they, he, someone/somebody, people, one, etc. Nobody found the answer. = The answerwasnot found. The agent is not omitted when it is a specific or important
person, or when it is essential to the meaning of the sentence. Thenovel was written by Toni Morrison.
Fu Co
PrE
type 3 Conditionals
wouldn't have met you.
PrE Co
suppose/supposing - Suppose/Supposing you had seen him taking thebracelet, wouldyouhavesaidanything? wish/if only - I wish/If only I hadn't causedsucha fuss.
Would rather (past) - I'd rather you had not told me what you - Christa didn't know anything about art, but she thought about him.
Pa
With verbs which can take two objects such as bring, tell, send, show, teach,promise, buy,sell,read, offer,give, lend, etc, we can form two different passive sentences. My employer promised me a pay rise. (active) I waspromised a pay riseby my employer.(passive,more usual) A pay risewaspromised to me by my employer. (passive, lessusual)
Pa Co
as if/as though
Inti
Unit4
If in an active sentence a preposition follows a verb, then in the passive it is placed immediately after the verb. The tide washed the sandcastle away. Thesandcaslte was washed away by the tide. The verbs hear, help, see and make are followed by the bare
-inl
ThePassive
We form the passive with the verb to be in the approp'tiate tense and the past participle of the main verb. Only transitive verbs (verbs which take an object) can be used in the passive. We use the passive:
infinitive in the activebut by the to-infinitive in the passive.The policeofficermade the drivermove hercar.Thedriverwasmade to move herear.
Let becomes be allowed to in the passive. Betty let the children
Ur
Fu
We
stay up past midnight.Thechildrenwere allowed to stay up past midnight. Toask questions in the passivewe follow the samerules as for statements,keepingin mind that the verb is in the interrogative form. Haveyou booked yourappointment? Hasyour appointment beenbooked (byyou)yet?
When we want to find out who or what perforqJ.ed an action, ... by? What was the the passive question form is Who/What ulcer caused by?
. . .
.
when the action itself is more important than the person/people who do it, as in news headlines, newspaper articles, formal notices, advertisements, instructions, processes, etc. Violatorswill be heavily fined.
Causativeform
we use have + object + past participle to say that we have
arranged for someone to do something for us. The past
when
we want
to avoid taking
responsibility
we refer to an unpleasant event and we do not want to saywho or what is to blame. Mistakeswere made in the final copy.Theoriginal
252
Grammar Reference
Questions and negations of the verb have are formed with do/does (presentsimple)or did (past simple).Didyouhave the
computer repaired yesterday?
Begoing to
We use begoing to:
Note: The word order is very important. Leo liad his hair dyed and Leo had dyed his hair have very different meanings. In the first case Leo arranged for someone else to dye his hair, whereas, in the second case, he dyed it himself.
are going to buy that antique mirror wesaw. predictions based on what we can see or what we know,
especially when there is evidence that something will happen. Hefeels veryguilty;he'sgoing to tell herthetruth.
Regular active form She mows the lawn. She is mowing the lawn. She mowed the lawn. She was mowing
the lawn. She willmow the
Causative form
Shehasthe lawn mowed. She is having the lawn mowed. She had the lawn mowed. She was having lawn mowed.
the
The time expressionswe use with the future simple and be going to are: tomorrow,the day after tomorrow,tonight, soon,nextweek/month/year/summer, etc,in a week/month, etc
FutureContinuous
We use the future continuous (will be + verb -ing):
lawn. Future Continuous Present Perfect Present Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Past Perfect Continuous Infinitive -ing form
Shewillbe mowing
for actions which will be in progress at a stated future time. I am going to Cuba.Thistime next week,I'llbe travelling to Havanna. for actions which will definitely happen in the future as the
the lawn. She has mowed the lawn. She has been mowing the lawn. She had mowed the lawn. She had been mowing the lawn. She should mow the lawn. Idon't mind mowing the lawn.
will be having the lawn mowed. She has had the lawn mowed.
Timeclauseswith future reference We use the present simple or present perfect, but NOT future forms, with words and expressionssuch as while, before, after, until/till, as, when, whenever, once, as soon as, as long as, by the time, etc to introduce time
clauses. By the time we get to the surpriseparty, Ella will have arrived. (NOT: By #Ie time r:e wilt get ...J
She has been having the lawn mowed. She had had the lawn mowed. She had been having the lawn mowed. She should have the lawn mowed. Idon't mind having the lawn mowed.
We also use the present simple and present perfect, but NOT future forms, after words and expressionssuch as
unless, if, suppose/supposing, in case, etc. Takeyourumbrella
in case it rains. (NOT: ... iff E65e YE/!1will Reef/it.)
Unit 5
FutureSimple
We use the future simple (will + bare infinitive) for:
when when it is used as a question word. When will the daffodils be blooming?
if/whether after expressions which show uncertainty/ ignorance,etc, such as I don't know, I doubt, I wonder, I'm
not sure, etc. I doubt whether he will get hereon time.
predictions about the future, based on what we think, believe or imagine, using the verbs think, believe, expect, etc, the expressions be sure, be afraid, etc, and the adverbs probably, certainly, perhaps, etc. Shewill probably accept thejob offer. promises, threats, warnings, requests, hopes and offers. Will you lend me some money till next weekend? actions, events, situations which will definitely happen in the future and which we can't control. Ouroldestsonwill be thirty nextMay.
The time expressions we use with the futtlre perfect are: before,by,by then,by the time,until/till (onlyin negative sentences)
conti"uo..s
-: ~;>
.:
Grammar Reference
future perfect continuous is used with: by...for. By the end of
September, she will have been living in Tunisia for three years.
MixedConditionals
We can form mixed conditionals, if the context permits it, by combining an if - clause from one type with a main clause from another.
Unit 6
Conditionals
Type 0 conditionals are used to express a general truth or a scientific fact. In this type of conditional, we can use when instead of if.
If-clause
Main Clause
Type 2
If the plane landed late last night,
Type2
Ifyou were less impulsive,
If/When you mix white and black paint, you get grey.
Type3
If Ihadn't drunk the bad milk,
Type2
I would be fine now.
Type 1 conditionals are used to express a real or very probable situation in the present or future. If-clause Main Clause
Wishes
If + present simple
->
Use
I wish I was/were 10years old. (but I'm not) If only I were travelling with you and not alone! It would be much more fun. (but I'm not) to say that we wcx..c like something to be different about a present situation
When the hypothesis (if-clause) comes before the main clause, we separate them with a comma. When the main clause comes before the if-clause,then we do not use a comma to separate them. Note: with Type 1 conditionals we can use unless + affirmative verb (= if + negativeverb). I will not bein a positionto comeunlesssomeone buys my ticket.(= if someone does not buy myticket.)
+ past perfect
I wishIhad saved
[TIoremoney during
to express regret
Main Clause -> would/could/might bare infinitive + present + subject + would + bare
Ifshe knew the answer,she would tell me. If I was travelling around Europe, I would travel by train. If Ihad a better agent, I would get better acting offers.
infinitive
rumours.
Ifonlyit would be sunny on my birthday!
to express:
apolite imperative
a desirefora
situation or
Notes:
If only is used in exactlythe sameway as wish bu;: more emphatic or more dramatic. We can use were instead of was after wish a'lC only. I wishI were/wasa famouswriter! After the subject pronouns I and we, we cap ..:x could instead of would. I wishIcould studyart hisrOf"
~
254
Grammar Reference
Unit 7
~
Logical Assumptions/Deductions
Must: sure/certain that sth is true. Must is used in affirmative sentences and expresses positive logical beliefs. You havebeenpractisingall day, youmust beexhausted! Can't/couldn't: certain that sth is not true/real.
Inversion
No sooner had I handed in my resignation than my post was filled. There are two ways to invert the subject and the verb:
be/have/modallauxiliary
in questions.
Can't and couldn't are used in negations and express negative logical assumptions.Thatcan't bemy husband, he's in London.
after the following words or expressions, when the9 come at the beginning of a sentence.
Possibility
Can + present infinitive: general possibility, sth theoretically possible; not
Only in this way Only then Hardly (ever) ... when No sooner ... than Not only... but (also) Not i//7t,#t/1I In no way In/Under no circumstances Not since, etc
used for a specificsituation. Youcan have milk orjuice. Could/May/Might + present infinitive: it is possible/likely, perhaps; used to show sth is pQssible in a specific situation. Youshould keep
//;0/ 'p/;0/7'" /7U/77Pe?'/r /778/,huf",k/o".",""""./"
Note: we can use can/could/might in questions BUTNOT may. Doyou thinkthatyoucan/could/might givemeananswer today? Could/MightIWould + perfect infinitive: refers to the past, sth that
Obiigation/Duty /Necessity
Must: expresses duty, strong obligation to do sth; sth is essential. We generally use must when the speaker has decided that sth is necessary. I must explain what happened. Have to: expresses strong necessity/obligation. We usually use have to when somebody other than the speaker has decided that stb IS necessary. The landlordsaidwehave to pay therenttomorrow.
BUT:Iseldom drive during a snowstorm. (There is no inversion because the word seldom does not come at the beginning of the sentence.) Note: When the expressions only after, only by, only if, only when, not until/till come at the beginning of a sentence, the inversion is in the main clause.
.
-
Onlyafter heupdatedhisskillswashe able to get a job. Only if I see it with myown eyes willi believesomething likethat. with so, neither, nor to express agreement. "I lovehot apple streudel.""Sodo I."(We use so to agree with an affirmative statement.) "I can't stand loud people: "Neither/Nor can I."(We use neither/ nor to agree with a negative statement.) He was a great composer, as was his
father/and so washis father. with should, were, had when they come at the beginning of an if-clause instead of if.
Note: must and have to have different meaningsin questions. Do I have to paythefullamountnow?(Isit necessary forme...?) Must Istayforthe wholemeeting? (Doyouinsistthat I...?)
Should/Ought to: express duty, weak obligation. These are less emphatic
Absenceof necessity
Needn't/Don't have to/Don't need to + present infinitive: it isn't
necessary to do sth (in the present/future). Youdon't need to drive me
home, I will take a cab.
Didn't have to/Didn't need to: it wasn't necessary to do >'U' e don't know if it was done or not. Hedidn't have to.zteed to ~_ --e
0 Needn't + bare perfect infinitive: t 'a5 "0- ~.,.,., it was done. Youneedn't have bouglJt:>"3:&: '':L~-'
tJ" -= _ s-
(NOT: !/fJB rB~.) in direct speech when the subject of the introductory verb is
Prohibition
Mustn'tiCan't t IS=~":XP' you are not a!D' ~ -= X ;; the exam
--
Grammar Reference
Criticism
Could/Should/Might/Ought to + perfect infinitive: used to criticise someone's actions or lack of action (inthe past); it would have been better ifyou had ... (past). Youcould have been on time forthemeeting.
Say - Tell
.
object
say + no personal
- Joey said
he was an actor.
say + to + personal object -Joey said to us he wasan actor. tell + personal object - Joey told us he was an actor.
"Ikr
Unit 8
Relative Clauses
Relativeclauses are introduced with either a relative pronoun or a relative adverb.
Relative Pronouns
hello, good morning/afternoon, etc, something/ nothing, so, a prayer, a few words, no more, for certain/sure, etc the truth, a lie, a story, a secret, a joke, the time, the difference, one from another, somebody one's name, somebody the way, somebody so, someone's fortune, etc a question, a favour, the price, after somebody, the time, around, for something/somebody, etc
"101
no~
"Ih( nail
We use: i. who(m)/that to referto people. ii. which/that to refer to things. iii. whose with people, animalsand objects to show possession (insteadof a possessiveadjective).
Reported Statements
In reported speech, personal/possessive pronouns and possessive adjectiveschange according to the meaning of the sentence. Phoebe said,"I'mgoing to singmy latesthit song." Phoebe said(that)shewasgoing to singher latesthit song.
'Th WO
Who, which, and that can be omitted when they are the object of the relativeclause. Thatis thefilm (that)I wastellingyou
about. Whom can be used instead of who when it is the object of the relative clause. Whom is always used instead of who or that after a preposition.She's someone with whom I usedto work. Who, which, or that is not omitted when it is the subject of a relative clause. Theplay which won the TonyAward was a musical. Whose is never omitted. ThisisBruceWeber whosephotographs
you must have seen.
"Iw
were said (out-of-date reporting) or a short time after they were said(up-to-date reporting). Up-to-date reporting The tensescan either changeor remain the samein reported speech.
"Iv.
ton
when/that to refer to a time (and can be omitted). Thatwas theyear (when/that)my sonwasborn. ii. where to referto a place.The flatwhereI/iveisonthetopfloor.
iii. why to give a reason, usually after the word reason (why can be omitted). Thereason (why)shequit herjob isonlyto beguessed.
Re
.
.
.
Out-of-date reporting
Certain words and time expressionschange according to the meaning as follows: now -> then, immediately today -> that day yesterday -> the day before, the previousday tomorrow -> the next/following day this week -> that week last week next week ago here come bring -> -> -> -> -> -> the week before, the previousweek the week after, the following week before there go take
the meaning of the main sentence. It is not put between commas and is introduced with who, with, that, whose, where, when, or
the reason (why). Any student who is caught cheating will be expel/ed. A non-identifying relative clause gives extra information and is not
essential to the meaning of the main sentence. It is put between commas
and is introduced with who, whom, which, whose, where, or when. A student, whowascaught cheating, wasexpel/ed.
The verb tenses remain the same in reported speech when the introductory verb is in the present, future or present perfect. <& Rosssays, "/'m handsome." Rosssays (that) he is handsome.
Unit 9
Reported Speech
Reported speech is the exact meaning of what someone said, but not the exact words. We do not use quotation marks. The word that can either be used or omitted after the introductory verb (say,tel/, suggest, etc). Rachel said(that) shewould bake a cakefor the party.
The verb tenses can either change or remain the same in reported speech when reporting a general truth or law of nature. Theteacher said,'Thetigerbelongs to thecat family." Thetea~her said(that)thetigerbelongs to the cat family.
Re
256
Grammar Reference
-'1e verb tenses change when the introductory verb is in the cast simple. The tenses change as follows: Direct speech Present '"'OW the secret." Reported speech
secret. Present Continuous -> Past Continuous am rehearsing my speech -()'I(." Present Perfect
have given up biting my 'IOils." He said (that) he was rehearsing
Direct speech
Reported speech
She agreed to lend me
Past Perfect
\.
She claimed to have undeniable proof. given a second chance. He offered to drive him to the airport. She promised to decide what was best for the company.
offer
* promise
work."
Past Continuous
He said (that) they gave/had given him promotion at work. or Past Perfect
refuse
-=eo
*threaten
She refused to pay until she got the pay you until I get the negatives." negatives. "Give me my money or She threatened to take him to court if he else 1will take you to court. " didn't give back her money.
, Co ::\...
+sb+ to-infinitive
Reported Questions
advise allow
"Youhad better get a good lawyer." You may speak to him, but only for a few minutes. "
Reported questions are usually introduced with the verbs ask, inquire, wonder or the expression want to know.
When the direct question begins with a question word (who,
He advised me to get a good lawyer. She allowed me to speak to him but only for a few minutes.
--e
~e
where, how, when, what, etc), the reported question is introduced with the same question word. 'When doesthetrainleave, please?" (directquestion) He asked me when the trainleaves.(reported question)
found out. "Don'ttellanyone." "Staybehind the yellow line." 'Youshould tryfor the Olympicteam." He begged me not to tellanyone. She commanded him
to stay behind the
When the direct question begins with an auxiliary(be, do, have), or a modal verb (can, may, etc), then the reported question is introducedwith if or whether.
"00 you think we'll have a white Christmas?" (direct question) He asked me if I thought we would have a white Christmas. (reported
encourage
team.
'You cannot use my car She forbade us to use for the next month." her car for the following month. 'Would you like to join
invite
me fordinner this order evening?" "Getoff the private property!" 'Whateveryou do, don't feed my dog from the table."
"No one should be trusted. "
She invited him tojoin her for dinner that evening. She orderedthem to get off the private property. He reminded him not to feed her dog from the table.
She warned me not to trust anyone.
of
Reported
Orders
To report orders in reported speech, we use the introductory verbs order or tell + sb + (not) to-infinitive. Gotoyour room! (directorder) Heorderedthemto go to theirroom.(reported order) Don't move!(directorder) Shetold usnot to move. (reported order)
*remind
*warn
257
Grammar Reference
Introductory verb Direct speech Reported speech
+ -ing form
accuse sb of *admit (to) "You are withholding evidence. " "Ido envy the opportunities you've had." "I'm really sorry I dented your car." "Ihave a Jaguar convertible!" She accused him of withholding evidence. He admitted to envying the opportunities she
with the words only, last and first (used as adjectives). I was
the only one who was a vegetarian.
had had.
He apologised for denting her car. He boasted about having a Jaguar convertible. about having terrible pains in her stomach.
with the words station, cinema, theatre, library, shop, coast, sea (side), beach, country(side), city, jungle, world, ground, weather. Wewentfora strollalongthe beach.
apologise
for
'I'f t' t I I I I
*boast about!
of
*complain (to sb) of/about
*deny
with languages unless they are followed by the word language. Mary speaksGreek,English and French. BUT: The
Germanlanguage isspoken in some partsof Switzerland.
with the names of countries which don't include the word States,
such a businessdeal."
*insiston
He insisted on
the M6, the A42), squares mmes Square), bridges (London Bridge
BUT: the Golden Gate Bridge), parks (HydePark), railway stations (paddington, Grand Centra/), mountains (Kilimanjaro), individual islands (Crete), lakes (LakeMichigan) and continents (Asia).
*suggest
He suggested (their) buying Cecile a shawl for her birthday. She explained that the medicine should take effect in five minutes. The secretary informed me that Miss Paltrow would not be in before that Thursday.
+ that clause explain 'The medicine should take effect in five minutes. " "I'm afraid Miss Paltrow won't be in before this Thursday."
inform sb
with possessive adjectives/possessive case. Thatis my computer. with the names of restaurants, shops, banks, hotels, etc which are named after the people who started them (Maey's). with the words bed, hospital, college, court, prison, school, university when we refer to the purpose for which they exist. Patrickwasill in hospital.BUT:I wentto the hospital to visithim. with the word work (= place of work). Sheleft work at six.
with the words home, mother, father, etc when we talk about our own home/parents. I wenthome at 10pm yesterday.
with by + means Qf transport (by bus/ferry/train/car, etc).
with the names of illnesses. Luke'sgot asthma. BUT: flu/the flu,
Unit 10
The Definite Article the
We use the:
Rulesfor Punctuation
A full stop (.) is used: to end a sentence that is not a question or an exclamation. Wehopeyouhavea great birthday.We wishyou theverybest. A comma (,) is used:
with nouns that are unique (the sun, the world, etf). with names of newspapers (the Herald), cinemas (the Odeon), theatres (the Globe Theatre), museums/art galleries (the British Museum), ships (the QueenMary), organisations (the UN). with the names of rivers (the Amazon), groups of islands (the Azores), mountain ranges (the Rockies). deserts (the Saharah), oceans (the Indian), canals (the Panama), countries when they include words such as States, Kingdom, Republic (the Czech Republic), names or nouns with of (the House of Parliament), in geographical terms 'such as the AntarctidArctidequator, the
South of France, the North/ South/East/West. with the names of musical instruments/dances (the bass, the tango). with the names of families (the Browns)/nationalities ending in -sh, -ch or -ese (the Dutch).
to separate question tags from the rest of the sentence. Bruce andDemihaven'tgot a divorce yet,havethey? A question mark (7) is used: to end a direct question. What is the reason for such behaviour? An exclamation mark (!) is used: to end an exclamatory sentence. Wow!!can't believe it! Quotation marks (" " ") are used: ~
258
with titles (the Ambassador, the Prime Minister) but not with titles including a proper name (Princess Diana). with adjectives/adverbs in the superlative form (the best pizza I have evereaten), but when most is followed by a noun, it doesn't take the (most people enjoy listening to music).
with the words day, morning, afternoon and evening. It was late
to introduce a list. You'llneed: garlic, onions and olive oil. An apostrophe (') is used:
---
IrregularVerbs
..
be bear beat become begin bite blow break bring build burn burst buy can catch choose come cost cut deal
dig do
l
lain lit lost made meant met paid put read ridden rung risen run said seen sought sold sent set sewn
shaken shone
,.
lie light lose make mean meet pay put read ride ring rise run say see seek sell send set sew
shake shine
: coast, ground,
: about
States, there
c.E BUT: " Bridge ldual lllpUter. . -hich
""'tions
was bore beat became began bit blew broke brought built burnt (burned) burst bought could caught chose came cost cut dealt
dug did
been born(e) beaten become begun . bitten blown broken brought built burnt (burned) burst bought (been able to) caught chosen come cost cut dealt
dug done
lay lit lost made meant met paid put read rode rang rose ran said saw sought sold sent set sewed
shook shone
;chool, exist.
"'1.
I
e talk
W).
ffu,
..
1"".(1
icuse.
I
....,';J
520 SU,..;;
I
CE'5
I \
-e
fall feed feel fight find flee fly forbid forget forgive freeze get give go grow hang have hear hide hit hold hurt keep know lay lead learn leave lend let
fell fed felt fought found fled flew forbade forgot forgave froze got gave went grew hung (hanged) had heard hid hit held hurt kept knew laid led learnt (learned) left lent let
fallen fed felt fought found fled flown forbidden forgotten forgiven frozen got given gone grown
hung (hanged)
had heard hidden hit held hurt kept known laid led learnt (learned) left lent let
sit sleep smell speak spell spend split spread spring stand steal stick sting stink strike swear sweep swim take teach tear tell think throw
understand
sat slept smelt (smelled) spoke spelt (spelled) spent split spread sprang stood stole stuck stung stank struck swore swept swam took taught tore told thought threw understood woke wore won wrote
sat slept smelt (smelled) spoken spelt (spelled) spent split spread sprung stood stolen stuck stung stunk struck sworn swept swum taken taught rn told thought thrown understood woken worn won written .259
Appendix
Unit1
Unit6
get across= convey get ahead = succeed/make progress get around = overcome/avoid (a difficulty/an obstacle) get sb down = depresssb work into = find time for work off = eliminate work out = calculate/solve (a problem) work up = causeto be upset
carry off = manage(a victory) carry on = continue carry out = follow carry over = continue to exist carry sth through = manageto accomplish wear away = erode/becomeeroded wear down = weaken wear off = decrease wear on = pass(of a day) wear sth out = damagethrough use
Unit 7
Unit 2
put aside = save(money) put back = replace put down = criticise put off = postpone put sb through = causesb to endure(pain, hardship) put up = construct, assemble put up with = tolerate set sb back = cost set in = continue, develop set off = embark(on a journey) clear away = remove clear out = empty clear up = cure(an infection/a skin problem) hold back = suppress hold off = delay hold out = extend hold up = rob
UnitS
drag sb down = causesb to fail/be destroyed drag in = inappropriatelymention drag on = continue unnecessarily drag out of = manageto elicit keep back = reserve keep sb on = continue to employ keep to = adhere keep up with = stayon the samelevelas
Unit 3
bring about = cause bring in = introduce bring over = convey bring round = revive stand by = support stand for = represent stand in for = replace stand out = be obvious
Unit9
go on = continue go over = examine go under = fail/go bankrupt go up = increase pick at = nibble pick on = bully pick out = select pick up = collect
Unit4
cut back = reduce cut down = decrease cut in = interrupt cut off = sever,separate passaway = die passon = giveto the next person passout = faint passover = ignore
Unit 10
call for = demand call off = cancel call up = telephone call upon = request draw in = involve draw on = use(an ability/ a resource) draw out = lengthen (a process) draw up = write (a plan/a contract)
Unit 5
send back = return send for = summon send on = forward send out on = order take back = admit to an error/withdraw a statement take in = understand take on = accept take up = begin doing sth
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260
Personal opinion:
In my opinion/view, To my mind, To my way of thinking, I am convinced that, It is my firm belief that, I am inclined to believe that, It seems to me that, As far as I am concerned, I think that our efforts will meet with success. One advantage of, Another advantage of, One other advantage of, A further advantage of, The main advantage of, The greatest advantage of, The first advantage of having a pet is that they are fantastic company. One disadvantage of, Another disadvantage of, One other disadvantage of, A further disadvantage of, The main disadvantage of, The greatest disadvantage of, The first disadvantage of having a pet is that they need a lot of care.
mention the fact that the Internet has made a major impact on education, which will greatly influence the way we teachand learn. Not only has the Internet made a major impact on education, but it will also greatly influence the way we teach and learn.
The Internet is both having a major impact on education and is something that will influence the
way we teach and learn.
With reference to, According to recent statistics, the number of unemployed is increasing. Thehousewasdemolishedbecause, owing to the fact that, due to the fact that, on the grounds that, since,as theyaregoing to build a block of flats there. In view of, Because of, Owing to the fact that they are going to build a block of flats there, the house was demolished. Theyare going to builda block of flats there; for this reason, the house was demolished. Seeing that they are going to build a block of flats there, the house was demolished.
Indeed, Naturally, Clearly, Obviously, Of course, Needless to say, the extent of his talent guaranteed that he would be a great actor. It is a fact that, In effect, In fact, As a matter of fact, The fact of the matter is (that), Actually, In
practice, Indeed,
Togiveexamples:
For instance, For example, by providing flexible working hours, businesses can encourage employees to"be more productive. By providing incentives suchas,like flexibleworking hours, businesses can encourage employees to
be moreproductive. If employees areto be more productive, then the provision of incentives, particularly, in particular, especially flexible working hours, is essential. To make general the statements: To make partially true statements: To express limited knowledge: To state other people's opinions:
you let As a (general)rule,Byand large, Generally,In general, On the whole, the moredecisions a childmakeon hisown, the moreself-sufficient he will be.
Up to a point, Toa certain extent/degree,Tosomeextent/degree,In a sense,In a wgy,Toa limitedextent,thisistrue butserious athletes willalways need thesupport oftheir coach andteam-mates. Tothe best of my knowledge,Asfar as I know, Tony hasalreadysentthe letters. It ispopularly believed that, Peopleoften claim that, It is often alleged that, Somepeople argue that, Many argue that, Most people feelthat, Somepeoplepoint out that homeopathic remedies canbemoreeffectivethan conventionalmedicine.
Contrary to popular belief, conventional medicine isnotalways aseffective ashomeopathic remedies. 261
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Personal opinion:
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Appendix
In my opinion/view, To my mind, To my way of thinking, I am convinced that, It is my firm belief that, I am inclined to believe that, It seems to me that, As far as I am concerned, I think that our efforts will meet with success. One advantage of, Another advantage of, One other advantage of, A further advantage of, The main advantage of, The greatest advantage of, The first advantage of having a pet is that they are fantastic company. One disadvantage of, Another disadvantage of, One other disadvantage of, A further disadvantage of, Themain .disadvantage of, Thegreatest disadvantage of, The first disadvantage of having a pet is that they need a lot of care.
Firstly, First of all, In the first place, Secondly, Thirdly, Finally, Tostart/begin with, we have to make both sides feel comfortable before talks can continue.
CONCLUDING. Finally,Lastly, Lastbut not least,bakethecakein a mediumoven. To add more points to the same topic:
Whatis more, Furthermore, Apart from this/that, Inaddition (tothis), Moreove, Besides (this},... not to mention the fact that the Internethasmadea major impact on education,which will greatly influencethe waywe teachand learn. Not only hasthe Internetmadea major impact on education,but it will also greatlyinfluencethe way we teachand learn. TheInternetis both havinga major impact on educationand issomethingthat will influencethe way we teachand learn.
With referenceto, According to recentstatistics,the numberof unemployedisincreasing.
The house wasdemolished because, owing to the fact that, due to the fact that, on the grounds
that, since,as theyaregoing to build a blockof flats there. In viewof, Because of, Owing to thefactthat theyaregoing to builda block of flats there, the house wasdemolished.
They aregoingto builda block offlatsthere; forthisreason, thehouse wasdemolished. Seeing that theyaregoing to builda block of flatsthere, thehouse wasdemolished.
To expresseffect To expresspurpose:
Herhealthwasfailingandshewanted moretimewithherfamily; thus, therefore,so, consequently,as a result,as a consequence, she decided to retire.
Shequit herjob, so that shecouldtravelaroundthe world. Shequit herjob, so as to/in order to travelaround the world. I boughta newbicyclewith the purpose/intention of cyclingto work in the mornings Indeed,Naturally,Clearly,Obviously,Of course,Needless to say,the extent ofhistalent guaranteedthat he would bea greatactor. It is a fact that, In effect,In fact, Asa matter of fact, Thefact of the matter is (that), Actually,In practice, Indeed, failingtowatch yourdietwillleadtoyourgainingweight.
To make general the statements: To make partially true statements: To expresslimited knowledge: To state other people's opinions:
As a (general)rule, Byand large, Generally,In general, On the whole, themoredecisions you let a child makeon hisown, the moreself-sufficient he will be. Up to a point, Toa certain extent/degree,Tosomeextent/degree,In a sense,In a w.qy, Toa
limited extent, thisistrue butserious athletes willalways need thesupport oftheir coach andteam-mates. Tothebestof myknowledge, AsfarasI know,Tonyhasalreadysentthe letters.
It ispopularly believedthat, Peopleoften claim that, It is often alleged that, Somepeople argue that, Many argue that, Most people feel that, Somepeoplepoint out that homeopathic remedies canbemoreeffectivethan conventionalmedicine. Contraryto popular belief,conventional medicine isnot alwaysaseffective ashomeopathicremedies.
261
Tomakecontrasting points:
It isa well-known factthatwearing seatbelts saves lives; yet,however, nevertheless, but,evenso,still,nonetheless, large numbers ofdrivers refuse to wearthem. Although,Even though,Regardless of thefactthat,Inspiteof thefactthat,Despite thefact that, Whilewearing seatbelts isknownto save lives, largenumbers of drivers refuse to wearthem. Opponents of animaltestingargue,claim,believe that experiments canbeconducted in other ways withoutlosing theirefficacy. Whileit istrueto saythat thegovernment isinvesting inretraining schemes, in factthe unemployment rateisstillhigh.: Thefactthat there arestillnorecycling binsin myareacontradicts thebelief/ideathat thetown council careabouttheenvironment. Neithermysister nor mybrother have ever travelled abroad. Mysister hasnever travelled abroad; nor,neitherhasmybrother. Mysister hasnever travelled abroad, andmybrother hasn'teither. Hehasvisited every European country apartfrom,but,except (for)one. Inotherwords, Thatis to say, To put it anotherway,ifyoutreatpeople withrespect theyarefor morelikely to treatyouwithrespect. Makinga listbefore yougoshopping isimportantifyouwant tosave money; similarly, likewise, in thesameway,buying products thatareonsale alsohelps youstaywithinyourbudget. We could(either) go to Maltaor Tunisia. We couldgo to Malta.Ontheotherhand,Alternatively, wecould go to Tunisia. You mayusethisroomon conditionthat,provided(that),providing(that),aslong asyoukeep quiet.You mayusethisroomonlyifyoukeep quiet. In theeventof anemergency, Intheeventthat,If anemergency arises, callsecurity. Incase ofemergency, callsecurity. Doyouhappen to knowwhether Sandra works athomeor not? Get yourtickets earlyotherwise, or (else) youmightnotgetin. Thesun is getting increasingly more dangerous; consequently, as a result, I nevergo out between midday andthree. I'mhopingtogetbacktoday; if so,/'1/ come see you,if not,otherwise, /'1/ give youa call. Finally, Lastly, All in all, Taking everything into account/consideration, Onthewhole, All things considered, Inconclusion, Onbalance, Fortheabovementioned reasons, To sumup,it isfeltthat youwouldnotbesuitable fortheposition. The green lightcomes onwhen,whenever, before, afterhumidity reaches 90%. Waituntil,till thecrustisa golden brownbefore removing thepie. Therehas been no newsof the child sincefive o'clockyesterday evening. She spotted themasshewasgettingonthebus. She sawherwhileshewaswaitingfora taxi. I never see hernowthat shehasmoved to thecity. I amwritingto request moreinformation regarding, concerning theposition advertised inSunday's edition ofThe Times. I amwritingwithrespect/regard/reference to,in regard/reference to theavailability ofproduct no.127492. Inshort,Briefly, To put it briefly, I'venever meta nicer person!
Negativeaddition:
Time:
Reference:
Summa rising:
262