CSWIP 3.1 - Welding Inspection-WIS5-2006 PDF

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INSPECTION WELDING
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INSPECTION WELDING
CONTENTS
INSPECTORS OF WELDING DUTIES TYPICAL ANDDEFINITIONS TERMS
IMPERFEGTIONS WELDING TESTING DESTRUCTIVE QUALIFICATIONS WPS- WELDER INSPECTION MATERIALS AND STANDARDS CODES
SYMBOLS WELDING PROCESSES TO WELDING INTRO MMAWELDING TIGWELDING WELDING MIG/MAG
VV
15.0 17.4
ARC WELDING SUBMERGED CONSUMABLES WELDING TESTING NONDESTRUCTIVE WELDREPAIRS AND DISTORTION STRESS RESIDUAL HEATTREATMENT PROCESSES CUTTING SAFETY ARCWELDING OF STEELS WELDABILITY VISUALINSPECTION PRACTICAL OF PRE-HEAT AND CONTROL APPLICATION CALIBRATION EXAMINATION MACRO/MICRO APPENDIX
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Section01 TypicalDutiesof WeldingInspectors
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AND TYPICAL DUTIES OF 1.0 VISUAL INSPECTION INSPECTORS WELDING

1.1 GENERAL
(oc) welding Inspectorsare employedto assist.with the quality control will meet specified activitiesthat are necessaryto "niur" that welded items and be fit for theirapplication' requirements Foremployerstohaveconfidenceintheirwork,weldinglnspe ctorsneedto and also have the variousQC procedures have the abilityto understand/interpret technology' of welding soundknowledge and for disciplines Examination is one of the Non-Destructive Visualinspection may be the onlyformof NDE' someapplications by is usually.followed visualinspection conditions, service Formoredemanding volumetric and one or more of the other NOt tecnniques surfacecrack detection of buttwelds' inspection the usuallyspecify(or referto other standards) Standards/Codes Application particular the about and may be very specific for weld inspection criteria acceptance they do inspection' and volumetric detection crack to be used for surface techniques inspection' for visual basicrequirements about giveany guidance notusually aregivenby: inspection for visual andbasicrequirements Guidance of Fusionwelds - visual Examination) Examination BS EN 970(Non-destructive
(to BS EN FORVISUALINSPECTION 1.2 BASICREQUIREMENTS
e70)
the following: BS EN 970 Provides u u o B a personnel inspection for welding requirements for visualexamination suitable aboutconditions recommendations for inspection aidsthat may be needed/helpful the useof gauges/inspection duringthe stagesof may be required aboutwheninspection guidance fabrication in the inspection thatmay needto be included aboutinformation guidance records
1.1
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A summary of eachof thesetopicsis givenin the following sub-sections.
1.3 WELDING INSPECTION PERSONNEL

Before startingwork on a particularcontract,BS 970 states that Welding Inspectors should: *, rulesand specifications with relevant be familiar standards for the fabrication workthatis to be undertaken (" standards may be National or Client)
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be informed aboutthe weldingprocedure(s) to be used have goodvision- in accordance with EN 473 & shouldbe checked every12 months
BS EN 970 does not give make any recommendation about a formal qualification practice for visualinspection of welds.However, it has becomeindustry for inspectors to have practical experienceof weldinginspection togetherwith a - suchas a CSWIPQualification. qualification recognised in Welding lnspection
FORVISUALINSPECTION 1.4 CONDITIONS

l l l u m i n a ti o n a illumination thatthe minimum shallbe 350 lux but recommends BS EN 970 states minimum of 500lux.. * normal shopor officelighting Access for directinspection, should the eye:Accessto the surface, enable o u to be within600mmof the surfacebeinginspected to givea viewingangleof not lessthan 30" to be in a position
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INSPECTION 1.5 AIDSTO VISUAL

the use of a mirrored for directvisualinspection, Where accessis restricted that may be used- usuallyby or a fibreopticviewingsystem,are options boroscope, parties' the contracting between agreement contrast to give suitable lighting to provideauxiliary It may also be necessary and the background' surfaceimperfections and reliefefiectbetween are: visualexamination' to facilitate that may be appropriate, other itemsof equipment o gauges welding (for checkingbevel angles and wetd profile, fittet sizing, measuringundercut dePth) gauges (high-low) gaugesand linearmisalignment weld-gap dedicated tapes edgesand measuring straight lens magnifYing it shouldbe X2 to X5) examination lens usedto aid visuat (ff fiaSinification
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with detailsof of a rangeof weldinggaugestogether BS g70 has schematics thatcan be made' of the measurements whattheycanbe usedfor and the precision
I.6STAGESWHENINSPEGT|oNMAYBEREQU|RED
on weldsin the asperformed is normally BS EN 970 statesthat examination weldis a minimum of the finished thatvisualinspection Thismeans condition. welded requirement. and the BS EN 970 goes on to say that the extentof examination, However, by the stages when some inspecti6nactivity is required,should be specified fabricator' Clientand between or by agreement Standard nff,ticatlon 'integrity', vessels such as pressure itemsthat must have high For fabricated the throughout required be usually will activity inspection or largestructures and piping namelY. process, fabrication u o tr welding before welding. during afterwelding
'activities' can be considered at each of thesestagesof fabrication lnspection thatmay be checks inspection to be the ,dutiesof the welding inspector'and [ypical section' in the following are described required
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1.7TYP|CALDUTIESoFAWELDiNG|NSPECToR
that a Welding lnspector The relevant standards,rules and specifications he will need are all the docurnents with at the startof a newcontract be familiar should judgements about sequencein order to make to refer to during the fabrication details. particular to are: documentsthat may needto be referred Typical o o o o (or Code) Standard the Application acceptancecriteria- see note below") (for v'isual checklists plansor inspection quality (for the type & extent of inspection) drawings up detaits and dimensionaI requireme nts) (for a siembty/f itQC procedures control,material suchas fhosefor- document (Company 1C/QA Procedures electrodestorageand issue,WPSsetc) handiing,
item shouldbe specifiedby for the fabricated Note:Althoughmostof the requirements are not.easy somefeatures or various QC Procedures, CtientSfandards Staidards, National qood standard'. given workmanship as'to maybe and therequirement to defineprecisety are someshapetolerances, to define precisely thatare difficult of requirements Examples distortion, of weldspafteror the amount damage surtace 'Goodworkmanship' workershouldbe able to achieve that a competent is the standard particular environment. working in a whenusingthecorrecttools difficutty without whatis itemwillbe the mainfactorthatinfluences of the fabricated theapptication ln practice parlicular has fabricator judged to be good wod<manship as well as fhe standardthat a pafticular Clients. usedto satisfy become 'Reference'samples standard the acceptance about needed to giveguidance are sometimes for profile required finish and root suchas weld surtacefinish& toe blend,weld for detaits grinding or linishing. thatneedfo be dressed by welds aidsthatwill be needed thatany inspeciion shouldalsoensure lnspector A Welding are: in goodcondition B - as appropriate/as by QC Procedures specified calibrated tr
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'consciousness' should: and a Weldinglnspector is a dutyof allemployees Safety B u for the workplace be awareof all safetyregulations and in suitable thatwill be neededis availabte that safetyequipment ensure condition
Duties Before Welding Check Material
l'L+'-vt J Action I withdrawingAf/PS is in accordance & can be tracedto a test certificate is identified (freefrom damage & contamination) condition is in suitable (& to welders and are available havebeenapproved inspectors) as appropriate and calibrated condition is in suitable drawings) withWPS (and/or are in accordance
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WpS,s Equipment Welding i Weld Preparations I Weldereualifications
qualifled for eachWPS to be used of welders identification are valid('in-date') qualification certificates all welder
by the WPSsare being Consumables Welding '; thoseto be usedare as specified by the QC Procedure as specified stored/controlled JointFit-ups ', withwPS / Drawings are in accordance & to standard tackweldsareto goodworkmanship CodeA/VPS and damage contamination ,r" freefromdefects, withWPS is in accordance min.temperature
Weld FaceS .,
, (if required) i Preheat DutiesDurinqWeldinq Check Welding Site/field
Action withCode are suitable/comply conditions weather ensure welding) not affect will (conditions withWPS is in accordance withWPS in accordance min.temp.is beingmaintained withWPS max.temp.is in accordance
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Process V Welding V' ^/ preheat(if required) Temp lnl"r-pass
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MATERIALSJOINING
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weldingconsumables
-' are in accordance as withwPS & beingcontrolled Procedure
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with WPS volts,travelspeed,are in accordance Weldingparameters vr' current, RootRun * ; the joint) fllling to Code(before acceptable is visually (for singlesrded welds)
/Grinding Gouging cleaning Inter-run Welder
standard \" method& to goodworkmanship is by an approved standard is to goodworkmanship a"r
for the WPS beingused !J is on the approvalregister/qualified
Duties After Weldinq
Action Check Y 'identiflcation with the welder's eachweldis marked Weld ldentification
withdrawing/weld in accordance eachweldis identified ma p cleanness for all NDT(proflle, weldsare suitable ensure etc) with in accordance weldsand sentence inspect visually Code with Drawing/Code are in accordance checkdimensions
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WetdAppearance V
SurveYi:o Dimensional
Drawings NDT Repairs
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drawings on'as-built' are included anymodifications ensure \". for are available & reports all NDTis complete ensure records withthe Procedure in accordance monitor
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(check chartrecord) L" with Procedure for compliance monitor is calibrated testequipment ensure with Procedure/Code testto ensurecompliance monitor available are reports/records ensure ,
Test tt Pressure/Load (if required)
i as & collated arecompleted allreports/records RecordsV-ensure Documentation required
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REGORDS 1.8 EXAMINATION

will vary according reports records/inspection for examination The requirement for a formal requirement no is frequently there and fabrication and type of to contract record. to showthat items it may be necessary recordis required Whenan inspection satisfiedthe have they that and stages have been checked at the specified criteria. acceptance on an an activity against a signature willvary- possibly The formof this record report inspection individual be an it may or Plan, or on a Quality Checklist Inspection for eachitem. suchas: for inclusion details BS EN 970 liststypical reports, inspection Forindividual o u o o o a tr E nameof manufacturer/fabricator of itemexamined identiflcation & thickness tYPe material joint typeof welding Process criteria standard/acceptance acceptance not acceptable imperfections all of types and locations includean accuratesketchor photo.) to necessary be it may (when specified, anddate of examination nameof examiner/inspector
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Questions Responsibilities and duties of a welding inspector
QU1.
List 4 areasthat would generallybe coveredby a non-destructive (NDE)inspectionstandardfor welds? examination
QU2.
List desirablecharacteristics that all welding inspectors should possess?
QU3.
List 5 areas of knowledge with which a proficient welding inspector should be familiar with?
QU4.
Give six main duties of a welding inspector before welding, duringweldingand afterwelding.
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Section02 Terms& Definitions
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2.A TERMSAND DEFINITIONS

Note: "Welding terms and are taken from BS 499-1:1991 definitions The following cutting" and thermal brazing for welding, symbols Glossary W e l d i ng : in which two or more parts are united by means of heat or An operation in the natureof the metal pressure or both, in such a way that there is continuity betweentheseParts. Brazing: A processof joining generallyappliedto metals in which, during or after heating,moltenfiller metal is drawn into or retainedin the space betweenclosely In general,the adjacentsurfacesof the parts to be joined by capillaryattraction. the melting below always 450"C but above metal is metting point of the filler of the parentmaterial. temperature Brazewelding: similarto fusionweldingand a flller The joiningof metalsusing a technique parent metal, but neitherusing capillary metal with a lower meltingpoint than the metal. the parent melting norintentionally as in brazing action Weld: of metalmadeby weldingA unionof pieces
Joint: A connectionwhere the individualcomponents,suitably prepared and or brazing' arejoinedby welding assembled,
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betweenthe ends A connection of two or edges Partsmakingan angle to one anotherof 135" to of the in the region 180' inclusive the end or between A connection face of the and edge of one Part making the other part, the Parts an angle to one anotherof more 90" in than 5" up to and including joint the regionof the
joint Corner
the ends or between a connection edges of two Parts making an angle to one another of more than30" but lessthan 135' in the regionof thejoint
joint Edge
betweenthe edges a connection of two parts makingan angle to of 0" to 30" inclusive one another of thejoint region in the
Cruciform joint
a connectionin which two flat platesor two bars are weldedto anotherflat plate at right angles and on the sameaxis
a connection between two overlapping parts making an angle to one anotherof 0" to 5o in the regionof the weld inclusive or welds
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OF WELDS 2.1 TYPES 2.1.1 OF VIEW POINT FROMCONFIGURATION
Butt weld In a buttioint
Fillet weld
In a T-ioint
l--r-:: j
In a corner ioint
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weld: Autogenous onlyby TIG or OxyCan be achieved fillermetal. A fusionweld madewithout fuelgaswelding. Slotweld: a filletweld madeby dePositing components A joint betweentwo overlapping of the join surface the it to so as to of a holein one component roundthe periphery the hole. through exposed othercomponent
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Plug weld: withfillermetal of a workpiece A weld madeby fillinga holein one component the hole through exposed component so as to join it to the iurfacEof an overlapping or oval). (theholecan be circular
2.1.2
POINT OF VIEW FROMTHE PENETRATION
weld: Full penetration root the jointwithc_omplete jointwherethe weldmetalfullypenetrates A welded fusion. /n US the preferred term is completejoint penetration weld or CJP for shori ( s e eA WSD l .1 )
weld: Partialpenetration /n US the preferredterm is partialioint A weldedjoint withoutfull penetration. penetrationweld or PJP for short.
(SEEBS EN ISO15607) o 2.2 TYPES OF JOINTS

joint: weldedjoint in whichthe weld metaland parentmaterial homogeneous have no significantdifferencesin mechanical properties and/or chemical carbon two carbonsteel plateswelded with a matching Example: composition. steelelectrode. joint: weldedjoint in which the weld metaland parentmaterial heterogeneous composition. properties and/orchemical in mechanical differences havesignificant electrode' base nickel performed with a iron item weldof a cast a repair Example: dissimilar joint: welded joint in which the parent materialshave significant Example:a properties and/or chemicalcomposition. in mechanical differences pressure vessel. steel stainless austenitic onto an lugwelded carbonsteellifting
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WELD OF THEGOMPLETED 2.3 FEATURES

or brazing' by welding,brazewelding parentmetal:metalto be joinedor surfaced or surfacing' brazing brazewelding, welding, filler metal:metaladdedduring in the weld' of a weld and retained the making during weld metal:all metalmelted the part of the parent metal that is metallurgically zone IHAZI'. heat-affected but not melted' cutting, or thermal by the heatof welding atfecteO the weld metal and the HM in a fusionweld' between fusion line: the boundary termfor weldjunction' This is a non-standard the weldmetaland the HAZ. weld zone:the zonecontaining on the sidefromwhichthe weld weld face: the surfaceof a fusionweld exposed has beenmade. from the welder' root: the zoneon the sideof the firstrunfarthest runs.This a weldfaceandthe parentmetalor between between toe: the boundary stress high is a very importantfeature of a weld since toes are points of typesof cracks(e.9. pointsfor different and oftenthey are initiation concentration toes must In orderto reducethe stressconcentration, coldcracks). cracks, fatigue intothe parentmetalsurface' smoothly ntenO joining the toes.Othernonthe plane excessweld metal:weldmetallyingoutside overfill. reinforcement, termsfor thisfeature: standard
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Parent metal Parent
Fusion line
Excess
Excess weld metal
weld metal
Parent metal Excess weldmetal
Fusion line
Weld metal
Parent metal
2.4 WELDPREPARATION
components, where the individual A preparation for making a connection joined prepared by welding or brazing. and assembled, are suitably
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2.4.1
OF THEWELDPREPARATION FEATURES
is preparedfor angle of bevel: the angle at which the edge of a component for a MMA weld on carbonsteelplates, makinga weld.In caseof a V preparation steelplates, for a MMAweldon carbon thisangleis 30'. In caseof a U preparation for a MMAweld 8-12. In caseof a singlebevelpreparation this angleis between preparation for a J plates, ln of a single angle is 50". case this on carbonsteel thisangleis between10-20". MMAweldon carbonsteelplates, the planesof the fusionfacesof partsto be included angle: the anglebetween U thisangleis twicethe V and double V, single U, double ln caseof single welded. bevelangle.In case of singlebevel,singleJ, doublebeveland doubleJ, the angle. angleis equalto thebevel included or grooved, root face: the portionof a fusionface at the root that is not bevelled parent and welded process material to be used, on the welding It's valuedepends weld on carbon steel plates,it has a value for a full penetration application; 1-2mm. between edges,endsor surfaces at any crosssectionbetween distance gap: the minimum for a process usedand application; on the welding lts valuedepends to be joined. 1-4 mm. plates, value between it has a steel on carbon penetration weld full root radius: the radiusof the curvedportionof the fusionface in a component prepared for a singleJ, singleU, doubleJ or doubleU weld.ln case of MMA, and oxyfuelgas weldingon carbonsteel plates,the root radiushas a MIGIMAG and 8 mm in caseof and doubleU preparations valueof 6mm in caseof single J preParations. anddouble single land. the straightportionof a fusionface betweenthe root face and the curved Can be 0. Usually present in case of weld part of a J or U preparation. alloys. of aluminium preparations for MIGwelding
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2.4.2
TYPESOF PREPARATION
square butt PreParation Open ' eitherfrom one side or is usedfor weldingthin components, This preparation this preparation are in contact), bothsides.tt tne root gap is zero (i.e.if components due to the lack of (unrecommended becomesa closed square butt preparation penetration Problems!
Angleof
SingleV preparation it preparations usedin welding; is one of the mostcommon The V preparation plates a thicker (cheap fast). For plasma and cutting usingflameor can be produced the to complete lessfillermaterial sinceit requires is preferred V preparation double in on bothsidesof the joint resulting jointand the residual can be balanced stresses distortion. lowerangular
DoubleV preparation doubleV can be the same on bothsides(symmetric The depthof preparation withthe can be deeperon one sidecompared preparation) or the depthof preparation the depthof in this situation Usually, V preparation). double side(asymmetric opposite vs. the plate side one on of the thickness 113 of the preparation as distributed is balanced preparation for a allows This asymmetric 213on the backside. remaining
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Whilst givinglower angulardistortions. with root back gouging, weldingsequence both requires V preparation from one side,double welding allows V preparation single preparations). side for all double (the applies same sidesaccess
Included angle
Root face
SingleU preparation (slow and expensive). can be producedonly by machining U preparation for a betterfit-upthan in the in this caseprovide obtained tolerances tighter However, V plates withsingle compared for thicker it is applied Usually caseof V preparations. joint to lower lead and this the to complete material (requires filler less preparation in caseof verythick Similarwith the V preparation, and distortions). stresses residual can be usedU preparation a double sections
DoubleU preparation aluminium a land(exception. doesnotrequire thistypeof preparation Usually alloys).
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with backingstrip Single V preparation is made out of the same type of materialas the parent strip The backing the production 6 mm. lt allows stripis minimum of this backing The thickness material. deposition welds with increasedcurrent and hence increased of full penetration stripis tack Usually, the backing without the dangerof burn-through. rates/productivity using a fillet weld. The main problems of one component welded on the backside poor of crevice fatigue resistance and the probability weld are withthis typeof related to strip.lt is alsodifficult examine the parentmetalandthe backing between corrosion joint. Notethat in thiscasethereis crevice at the rootof the by NDT due to the built-in no rootface!
Single bevelpreparation
Doublebevel preparation
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SingleJ preparation
DoubleJ preparation (single/double All thesepreparations beveland single/double J) can be usedon T jointsas well.Doublepreparations are recommended in caseof thicksections. The (cheap, of thesepreparations is thatonlyone component mainadvantage is prepared canallow for smallmisalignments). pleasereferto BS EN ISO For furtherdetailsregarding weld preparations, 9692standard.
2.5 SIZEOF BUTTWELDS

fullpenetration buttweld
Design throat thickness
Actualthroat thickness
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penetration buttweld partial
Designthroat thickness
rule: As a general
flush buttweldground full penetration

Actualthroatthickness = Design throat thickness
thickness buttweld betweentwo platesof different
= Actualthroatthickness thickness Maximum thejoint through
thickness throat Design = Thickness of the plate thinner
torch of an electrode, duringone passage or deposited Run (pass):the metalmelted or blowpipe.
runweld Single
Multirunweld
of one or moreruns of weldmetalconsisting Layer:a stratum
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Types of butt weld (from accessibilitypoint of view):
Singleside weld
Double sideweld
WELD 2.6 FILLET

A fusion weld, other than a butt, edge or fusion spot weld, which is crosssection. in transverse triangular approximately
2.6.1
WELDS SIZEOF FILLET
dimensions. using several weldscanbe defined fillet buttwelds, Unlike betweentwo lines,each distance actuat throat thickness:the perpendicular at the weldfaceand the outertoes,one beinga tangent parallel to a linejoining pointof fusionpenetration the furthermost the otherbeingthrough usedfor thickness of throat dimension the minimum design throat thickness: on Symbolised throatthickness. purposes of design.Also knownas effective "a". with the drawing of the fusion intersection from the actualor projected leg length: the distance acrossthe fusionface.Symbolised facesand the toe of a filletweld,measured "2". with on the drawing
,y't
Leg length
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2.6.2
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WELDS OF FILLET SI-IAPE
are equalwithinthe mitre fillet weld: a flatfacefilletweld in whichthe leg lengths to be a area of thistypeof weld is considered The crosssection tolerance. agreed "2". "a" and a leg length thickness with a designthroat triangle rilht angleisosceles is: and leglength throatthickness design between The relation x z . a=0.707
orW,q,.a1-^7
convex fillet weld: a fillet weld in which the weld face is convex.The above writtenin caseof the leg lengthand the designthroatthickness between relation mitrefilletweldsis alsovalidfor this type of weld.Sincethere is an excessweld is biggerthan the design metal presentin this case,the actualthroatthickness throatthickness.
Excess weld
a design throat
The above concave fillet weld: a filletweld in which the weld face is concave. writtenin case of the leg lengthand the designthroatthickness relation between validfor this typeof weld.Also,the designthroat mitrefilletweldsis not anymore Due to the smooth blending thicknessis equal to ihe actual throat thickness. between the weld face and the surroundingparent material, the stress with the previous compared effectat the toes of the weld is reduced concentration in of applications is highly desired case weld type of is why this This type. phenomena major causefor might be a subjected to cyclicloadswhere fatigue failure.
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Design
asymmetricalfillet weld: a filletweld in whichthe verticalleg lengthis not equal between leg length. . The relation the leg lengthand the design with the horizontal fillet welds is not anymorevalid for this in of mitre written case thickness throai is notanymore an isosceles triangle. the crosssection type of weldbecause
Horizontal
Vertical leg size Throat size
lt than normalpenetration. fillet weld: a filletweldwitha deeper deep penetration processes (i.e. with MAG spray produced input welding SAW or high heat using is to obtain of greaterarc penetration This type of weld uses the benefits transfer). the requiredthroat thicknesswhilst reducingthe amount of depositedmetal a in residual stresslevel.In orderto produce to a reduction thus leading needed, at a penetration, speed must be kept constant, the travel and constant consistent this type of weld is usuallyproducedusing high value. As a consequence, ratio weldingprocesses. Also,the high depth-to-width or automatic mechanised centreline cracking. ln order to increases the probabilityof solidification is types, the throat thickness this type of welds from the previous differentiate "a". "s" of with instead symbolised
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2.6.3
WELDS OF BUTTAND FILLET COMPOUND
of butt and filletweldsusedin caseof T jointswithfull or partial A combination Fillet welds or butt joints betweentwo plates with differentthickness. penetration the blendingof weld facetowardsparent on top of the grooveweldsimprove "OO"O at the toesof the weld. the stressconcentration and reduce metalsurface
.::
weld bevelcomPound Double W E L D IN G P OS IT ION ,W ELD SLOPE AND W ELD ROTATION
2.7
position, weld in termsof working of a weldexpressed Weld position- the orientation please see ISO 6947). (forfurther details, slopeandweldrotation Weld slope -the angle betweenroot line and the positiveX-axisof the horizontal positive direction (i e. counterreference plane, measured in mathematically clockwise).
Z-axis of the weld and the positive the centreline Wefd rotation- the anglebetween (i.e. positive direction in the mathematically measured to the Y-axis, or a lineparallel of theweldin question. crosssection in the planeof the transverse counter-clockwise)
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WORLD CENTM FOR MATERIALS JOINING TECHNOLOGY
Welding oosition Flat
Sketch
Definition a weldingposition in which the weldingis horizontal, with the centreline of the weld vertical. Symbol accordinq ISO6947- PA.
a weldingpositionin which the welding is horizontal (applicable in case of fillet welds). Symbol according lso 6947 - PB
Horizontalvertical
Horizontal
position a welding in which the weldingis horizontal, with the centreline of the weld horizontal. Symbol according ISO6947- PC
Vertical up
Vertical down
position a welding in which the welding is upwards. Symbol according ISO 6947- PF. position a welding in which the weldingis downwards. Symbol according ISO 6947- PG
Overhead
Horizontaloverhead
position in which a welding the welding is horizontal and overhead, with the centreline of the weld vertical,Symbolaccording lso 6947- PE. position in which a welding the welding is horizontal and overhead(applicable in case of fillet welds). Symbol according ISO 6947- PD.
TWI woRLDcENTREFoR
2.17
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,-115" i ' 90"
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r6o"
Rotation
Tolerancesfor the welding positions
2.8
WEAVING
of duringthe deposition nozzle or of a blowpipe of an electrode oscillation Transverse welds' up usedin caseof vertical is generally Thistechnique weldmetal.
motion. Stringerbead:a run of weldmetalmadewith littleor no weaving
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WORLD CENTRE FOR MATEzuALS JOINING TECHNOLOGY
TWI
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Fffi&l |'f.lf#i"J#rNrNc
Questions Terminology QU1. Sketcha single U butt joint and indicatethe fotlowing: a) Rootface. b) Rootgap. c) lncluded angle. d) Rootradius.
QU2.
Sketcha tee joint, fillet weldedwith deep penetration and indicatethe following: a) leg length. b) Designthroat thickness. c) Root. d) Weldtoes.
QU3.
Complete the necessaryfeaturesof the sketch:
QU4.
Sketchthreejoint types in additionto a butt weld:
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QU2
Section03 Weldinglmperfections
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FoR woRLD cENTRE MATERIALS JOINING
WUt
rEc'NotocY
3.0 WELDINGIMPERFECTIONS
3.1 DEF!NITIONS
Definitions(see BS EN ISO 6520'1) fromthe idealweld. any deviation lmperfection: imperfection. Defect:an unacceptable of imperfectionsaccordingto BS EN ISO 6520-{: Classification in case of fusionwelding, imperfections the geometric This standardclassifies themintosix grouPs: dividing 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) Cracks Cavities inclusions Solid and Penetration Lackof fusion anddimension shape lmperfect imPerfections Miscellaneous
for the cause thusallowing identified is correctly thatan imperfection It is important occurrence. further takento prevent and actions to be identified
3.2 CRACKS
produced by a localrupturein the solidstate,which may Definition:an imperfection than other Cracksare more significant arise from the effectof coolingor stresses. at concentration produces a very largestress as theirgeometry typesof imperfection, to causefracture. them morelikely the cracktip,making Types of cracks: cracks longitudinal cracks transverse point) froma common radiating cracks(cracks radiating cratercracks crack) froma common cracksoriginating cracks(a groupof connected branching can be situated: Thesecracks - in the weldmetal - in the HM - in the parent metal cracksare foundonlyin the weldmetal. Crater Exception:
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thesecrackscan be' on theirnature, Depending cracks) cracksliquation - hot cracks(i.e.solidification steels) in creepresisting (i.e.reheatcracks,present - precipitation cracks induced cracks) induced - coldcracks(i.e.hydrogen - lamellar tearing
3.2.1
HOT CRACKS
can be: hot cracks and modeof occurrence, on theirlocation Depending of the alongthe centreline cracks:occurin the weld metal (usually solidification process weld)as a resultof the solidification iiquition cracks:occurin the coarsegrain HAZ, in the near vicinityof the fusion to highenough temperature, to an elevated the material lineas a resultof heating grain boundaries. placed on pointconstituents of the l6wmelting froduceliquation
3.2.2
CRACKS SOLTDIFICATION
20mm
can occurwhen: cracking solidification Generally, (sulphur etc)element . the weld metalhasa highcarbonor impurity content weldbeadis large(deep& . the depthto-width ratioof the solidifying narrow) condition e.g.stop/start occurs, . disruption of the heatflowcondition voidsor subThe crackscan be wide and open to the surfacelike shrinkage narrow. and possiblY surface whichresultin a is most likelyto occurin compositions, cracking Solidification than createclby iange.ln steelsthis is commonly temperature wide freezing thigher
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T\I/f Wini WJIJ'
woRLDcENTREFoR MATERIALSToINING TECHNOLOGY
normalcontentof carbonand impurityelementssuch as sulphurand phosphorus. liquid films so that intergranular These elements segregateduring solidification, The thermal shrinkage of the cooling remainafterthe bulk of the weld has solidified. and form a crack. weldbeadcan causetheseto rupture
hur-enriched Sulp liquidfilnt .Solidification crack
Shrinkage strain
does not weld on or near metal that the weldingfabricator It is important with oil or grease. surfacescoveredwith scale or which have been contaminated grease bothcarbon can supply and oil and content, high sulphur have a can Scale point tin, lead, metals such as copper, low melting with Contamination and sulphur. alsobe avoided. andzincshould
CRACKS INDUCED HYDROGEN
Toe crack regionof in the grain-coarsened occursprimarily Hydrogeninducedcracking delayedcrackingor underbeaditoe the HAZ, and is also known as cold cracking, and its path is crackinglies parallelto the fusion boundary, cracking.Underbead of the The cracking. direction and transgranular of intergranular a combination usually path to grow principalresidualtensilestresscan, for toe cracks,causethe crack to towardsa regionof lowersensitivity progressively awayfrom the fusionboundary
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3.3
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decreasesand hydrogencracking.When this happens,the crack growth rate arrests. eventually cracking. to causeHM hydrogen of threefactorsis necessary A combination
where the weld must cool downto near normalambienttemperature, ln addition, is cracking lf any one factoris not satisfied, is at its maximum. the effectof hydrogen of crackingcan be avoidedthroughcontrolof one or more Theref6re, preventeo. thesefactors.
-',. /.1
a
and thus avoid the formationof dow4 the qoo-linq,raie apply preheat(tg_.s_law_ qtd cqgqtiuc-t suscgplible m1 (sameeffectas preheat) tempe.rqtgr.g sgeglllglplejpgss a rirainiain by allowing content the hydrogen ot welding(to reduce postheat or,[o'fiirfiiiion
J
f\
fromtheweldarea) to effuse hydrogen suscePtible and eliminat_e, (to rgduc.e re..sidual apply PWHT -.g-lr,e.ig microstructur-es)
{"J ol
r-u
v ' '
a a
ieduie weld metal hydrogen by proper selection of welding MMA, use basic covered instead (e.g. use TIG welding processiconsumable ones) cellulose instead electrodes single-run technique (eliminate susceptible instead multi-run use content the hydrogen effect,reduce by meansof selftempering microstructures weld area) to effusefromthe hydrogen by allowing (sameeffectas above) hot passtechnique or bead " temper ui" and formation microstructure (avoid susceptible or nickel filler use austenitic areas) out of critical diffusion allowhydrogen content) (reduce hydrogen gases usedry shielding presentin from moisture joint contamination from rust (avoidhydrogen clean the rust) stress residual reduce at the toesof theweld) concentration (reduce stress blendtheweldprofile
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3.2.4
TEARING LAMELLAR
plates)and its tearingoccursonly in rolledsteel products(primarily Lamellar appearance' has a terraced featureis thatthe cracking maindistinguishing in jointswhere. occurs Cracking o o of steel direction strainoccursin the ihroughthickness ? thermalcontraction plate with their principal as very thin platelets, are present inclusions non-metallic to the platesurface parallel planes on strain imPosed Contraction inclusions planar non-metallic the to decohesion results in progressive holes form the roughly rectangular the parts of horizontal the are which plate surface. parallel to the cracking, partsof the vertical Withfurtherstrain, generally the crackingare produced, two These cracking' shear by ductile stagescreatethe terraced of thesecracks. appearance jointsliableto the problemin welded to control Two mainoptionsare available tearing: lamellar o o (Z grade) properties throughthickness us a cleansieelwith guaranteed to sequence and welding control restraint of jointdesign, ? combination the riskof cracking' minimise
'|-Il/f Aint VIJlJt
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? 6
FoR CENTRE woRLD ToINING MATERTALS rEclINoLoGY
3.3 CAVITIES
Gas cavity:formed gas by entrapped
cavity: Shrinkage causedby shrinkage duringsolidification
lnterdendritic shrinkage
Clustered porosity (localised)
3.3.1
GAS PORE
20mnr
Description A gas cavityof essentially spherical shapetrapped withinthe weldmetal. Thisgas cavitycan be presentin various forms: - isolated - uniformly porosity distributed - clustered porosity (localised)
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woRLDcENTREFoR
- linear porosity - elongated cavity - surface pore

Gauses electrode Dampfluxes/corroded (MMA) rbon/water roca Grease/hyd surface of prepared contamination in gas shield Air entrapment (MIG/MAG TIG) in deoxidant nsufficient IncorrecVi metal fllleror Parent electrode,
Too hiqh an arc voltaqe or arc length
Prevention in goodcondition Use dry electrodes surface Cleanprepared Checkhoseconnections with sufficient Use electrode activitv deoxidation voltage and arclength Reduce surface riskof reaction before ldentify is applied treatment gas flowrate Optimise
from Priming Gasevolution paints/surface treatment gasflowrate Too highof a shielding (MlG/MAG in turbulence whichresults TIG)
Gomments the can eitherbe localisedor finelydispersedvoidsthroughout Notethat porosity weldmetal.
3.3.2
WORMHOLES
Description of the gas duringthe solidification formed by entrapped or tubularcavities Elongated groups. singly or in theycan occur weldmetal;
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Causes of preparation Grosscontaminated surface worksurface Laminated due to joint in worksurface Crevices qeometry
Prevention procedures preweld cleaning Introduce parentmaterial withan Replace piece unlaminated joint shapeswhichproduce Eliminate crevices
Comments the solidifying of gas between entrapment are causedby the progressive Wormholes crossproducing elongatedporesof circular characteristic (dendrites) metal crystals "herring-bone" a radiograph. array on pores as a can appear elongated These section. Someof them may breakthe surfaceof the weld.
3.3.3
POROSITY SURFACE
*20mm
Description of theweld. the surface A gas porethatbreaks Causes or surface Dampor contaminated electrode (MlG/MAG) activitv Lowfluxinq (particularly freesulphur Excess producing sulphur steels) cutting dioxide gas due to longarc Lossof shielding (MIG/MAG) or hiqhbreezes gasflow rate Too highof a shielding (MIG/MAG in turbulence whichresults TIG)
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Prevention and dry electrodes Cleansurface flux Usea hiqhactivitv to electrode Usehighmanganese steels produce MnS,notefree-cutting be (high notnormally should sulphur) welded draughts against screening lmprove arc length and reduce gas flow rate Optimise
3.8
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Gomments porosity. porosity to thosefor uniform are similar of surface The origins
3.3.4
PIPE CRATER
i.t!ai--r-r20mm
Description during cavityat the end of a weld run. The main cause is shrinkage A shrinkage solidification. Causes skilldueto using Lackof welder processes withtoo higha current filler(Slopeout) crater Inoperative Prevention welder Retrain techniques craterfilling Usecorrect
(TrG)
Gomments due to its low heatinput.To fill the problem in TIG welding Craterfillingis a particular (slope out)in a series weld current reduce the to it is necessary craterfor thisprocess stepsuntilthe arc is extinguished. of descending
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FoR woRLD cENTRE
INCLUSIONS 3.4 SOL!D

Definition: in the weldmetal' entrapped substances Solidforeign
3.4.1
SLAGINCLUSIONS
Description shapeand thusdiffers is of an irregular The imperfection welding. Slagkappedduring froma gas Pore. in appearance
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WORLDCENTREFOR MATERIALS JOINING TECHNOLOGY
Prevention Causes slagremoval inter-run lncomplete slag removal from lmprove weld of multipass surface underlvinq of slag' Welder work to gain control Position of arc ahead Slagflooding angleneedsto correctelectrode smooth surface Dresswork of slag in work sqrfqgg Entrapment
if the particularlv weldmetal, within.the maybe present of inctusions i:il|;:nrsion sharp-edged or whenlarge a problem is used.Theseonly become MMAprocess areProduced. inclusions
3.4.2
FLUXINCLUSIONS
Description shapeand thus differs is of an irregular The imperfection duringwelding. Fluxtrapped welding frolm a gal pore. Appear only in case of flux associated in appearance (i.e.MMA,SAW and FCAW). processes Prevention Gauses in qoodcondition flux due to darlqgsq rgg$g- Useelectrodes Unfused Flux fails to melt and becomes Change the flux/wire. Ad1ust welolng in theweld(SAWor FCAW) pararnetersi.e. current, voltage etc to trapped conditions welding satisfactorv oroduce
3.4.3
OXIDEINCLUSIONS
Description shaPeand thus is of an irregular Oxidestrappedduringwelding.The imperfection from a gas pore. in appearance differs Prevention Gauses on work surface Grindsurfacepriorto welding Heavvmillscale/rust Comments in This type of defectoccursespecially is puckering. typeof oxideinclusion A special a to due can occur Gross oxide film enfoldment alloYs. the case of aluminium and combinationof unsatisfactoryprotectionfrom atmosphericcontamination in theweldPool. turbulence
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3.4.4
INCLUSIONS TUNGSTEN
Description This imperfection duringTIG welding. can becomeembedded of tungsten Particles than the is denser tungsten that fact the to due as a lightareaon radiographs appears radiation' of X/gamma largeramounts metaland absorbs suirounding tip withweldpool of electrode Contact Keep tungstenout of weld Pool; use
Contact of filler metal with hot tip of nvoiO contact betweenelectrodeand of the electrode tip by Reduce welding current; adjust Contamination gas flowrate shieldinq Exceedingthe current limit for a given Reduce welding current; rePlace one diameter witha larger electrode sizeor electrode beyondthe normal Reduce electrode extension and/or of electrode Extension distance from the collet, resulting in weldingcurrent lnadequateshielding gas flow rate or Adjust the shieldinggas flow rate; in oxidation protectthe weld area;ensurethat the winddraftsresulting excessive the arc post gas flow after stoPPing tiP of the electrode for at least5 seconds continues e hange the electrode,ensure the in the electrode Spliisor cracks for the is selected sizetungsten correct used current ivenweldinq gas comPosition correct to shieldinggas (e g' use of Change lnadequate argon-oxygenor argon-carbondioxide that are used for MAG wel mixtures
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3.12
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woRLDcENTREFoR JotNINc MATERIALS
V1f1/,
rEcl'No'-oc'
AND PENETRATION 3.5 LACKOF FUSION 3.5.1 LACKOF FUSION
Definition: the Lack of union betweenthe weld metal and the parent metal or between of weldmetal. laYers successive
3.5.1.1
FUSION LACKOF SIDEWALL
Description the weldand parentmetalat one or bothsidesof the weld' Lackof unionbetween Low heatinputto weld aheadof arc metalflooding tvtotten Oxideor scaleon weldPreParation in MAGdiP inductance Excessive weldi transfer
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current; and/orwelding iilrease arcvoltage travel decrease angleand work position; mproveetectrode travels increase procedure edgepreparation tmprove even if this increases inductance, Reduce
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Comments at the edge of the weld pool to heat must be available Duringwelding sufficient metal' produce fusionwiththe parent
3.5.1.2
FUSION LACKOF INTER.RUN
Description the weldbeads A lackof unionalongthe fusionline,between Causes in low resulting Lowarc current of weldpool fluiditv Too hiqha travelsPeed beadplacement Inaccurate Prevention current lncrease travelspeed Reduce welder Retrain
Comments the weld beads and cause local fusionproducecrevicesbetween Lack of inter-run of slag. entrapment
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3.5.1.3
LACKOF ROOTFUSION
Description metalat the rootof a weld. theweldandparent Lackof fusionbetween Prevention arc voltage; current and/or welding lncrease travelspeed decrease for the parent induction setting Use correct dip in MAG inductance Excessive metalthickness welding, transfer size electrode too large(lowcurrent Reduce MMAelectrode densitv) up procedure Switch to vertical downweldinq Useof vertical Reduceroot face Larqerootface qap correctrootopeninq Ensure Smallroot welder angle.Ensure electrode Usecorrectelectrode angleor incorrect Incorrect qualified competent and is fullv manioulation correctaliqnment Ensure at root misaliqnment Excessive Causes Lowheatinput
3.5.2
LACK OF PENETRATION
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3.5.2.1
PENETRATION TNGOMPLETE
l*20mm
Description penetration. and nominal the actual between The difference Gauses thickrootface, Excessively to cut rootgap or failure insufficient "back backto soundmetalin a operation oouoinq" Lowheatinput Prevention and technique backgouging lmprove is as per the edgepreparation ensure WPS approved
and/orarc voltage; current welding lncrease speed travel decrease and possibly settings electrical lmprove in MAGdiP inductance Excessive arc transfer to spray pool switch ahead flooding welding, transfer of arc size electrode too large(lowcurrent Reduce MMAelectrode densitv) Switchto verticalup procedure downwelding Useof vertical
Gomments is low and the area strength i.e.the required nature, lf the weldjointis not of a critical penetration weld.In partial produce possible a to it is prone cracking, to fatigue is not is not an part and of this structure penetration is considered root this caseincomplete requirement). or code by the design be determined (thiswouldnormally imperfection
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3.5.2.2
ROOTFUSION INCOMPLETE
Description from the root One or both fusionfaces of the root are not melted.When examined side,youcanclearlysee one or bothof the rootedgesunmelted. and prevention Causes Sameas for lackof rootpenetration
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3 . 6 I M P E R F E CS TH A P E A N DD I M E N S I O N S 3.6.1 UNDERCUT
-Z$rnm
Description grooveat the toe of a run in the parentmetalor in a previously An irregular deposited weldmetaldue to welding. lt is characterised by its depth, length andsharpness.
Intermittent undercut
Causes Melting of topedgedueto highwelding current (especially at freeedge)or high travelspeed Attempting a filletweld in horizontal position vertical (PB)withleg length>9mm
Excessive/i ncorrect weaving
Prevention Reducepowerinput, especially approaching a freeedgewhere overheating can occur Weld in the flat position or usemultirun techniques
Reduce weaving widthor switch to multiruns lncorrect electrode angle Directarc towards thicker member Incorrect gas selection shielding (MAG) Ensurecorrectgas mixture for material typeand thickness(MAG)
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WORLD CENTRE FOR MATEzuALS JOINING TECHNOLOGY
Comments to controlthe heat input. lf the Care must be taken duringweld repairsof undercut ratefollowing welding will be excessive beadof a repairweld is too small,the cooling and the parent metal may have an increasedhardnessand the weld may be cracking. to hydrogen susceptible
3.6.2
WELDMETAL EXGESS
-.--$Omm
Description in filletwelds excessive convexity weld metalis the extrametalthat produces Excess greater thanthe parentmetalplatein buttwelds.This featureof and a weldthickness onlywhen the heightof the excessweld metal as an imperfection a weld is regarded limit. is greater thana specified Gauses arc enerqv(MAG,SAW) Excess Shallow edqeoreoaration Faulty electrode manipulation or sequence build-up size electrode Incorrect Too slowa travelspeed
Incorrectelectrodeanqle
Prevention Reduction of heatinout edqepreparation Deepen welder lmprove skill Reduce electrode size correct travel Ensure speedis used
Ensure correctelectrodeanqle is used
polarity correct i.e.DC +VE Wrong polarity used (Electrode Ensure polaritv DC-VE Comments used to designate this featureof the weld is misleading The term "reinforcement" producea stronger weld in a butt joint in sincethe excessmetal does not normally can becomea problem, as the angleof the weld toe steel.This imperfection ordinary stressconcentration at the toesof the weld and to an increased can be sharp,leading fatigue cracking.
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3.6.3
EXCESS PENETRATION
Description bead beyonda specifiedlimit can be local or Projection of the root penetration continuous. Gauses Weldheatinputtoo high i.e. weldpreparation Incorrect rootgap,thinedge excessive preparation, lackof backing unsuited to welding Useof electrode oosition Lackof welder skill Prevention welding current; Reduce arc voltage and/or increase weldinq speed preparation workpiece lmprove Usecorrectelectrode for position Retrain welder
Comments requires Notethat the maintenance of a penetration beadhavinguniform dimensions in pipebuttwelding. if This can be mademoredifficult a greatdealof skill,particularly preparation. permanent accessto the weld or a narrow The use of thereis restricted barscan be usedto assist in the control of penetration. or temporary backing
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3.6.4
OVERLAP
-20mln
Description at the toe of a weld causedby metalflowingon to the surfaceof the An imperfection to it. fusing parent metalwithout Causes (MMA) manipulation Poorelectrode travelsPeed HighheatinpuUlow flowof filletwelds surface causinq positioninq of weld Incorrect coatingtYPe WrongElectrode in too higha fluiditY resulting Prevention welder Retrain Reduce heatinputor limitsizeof filletweld weld to 9mmleq bv usinqmultirun to flat position Chanqe typeto a more coating electrode Change typewhichis less fastfreezing suitable fluid
Comments as if the weld pool is too with undercut, For a filletweld overlapis oftenassociated at the top and overlapat undercut fluidthe top of the weld will flow awayto produce the base. lf the volume of the weld pool is too large in case of a fillet weld in position(PB), weld metalwill collapsedue to gravity,producing horizontal-vertical at the top and overlapat the base). This defect is called both defects(undercut "s a g g i n g " .
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3.6.5
MISALIGNMENT LINEAR
-50mm
Description betweentwo weldedpiecessuch that while their surfaceplanesare Misalignment sameplane' parallel, theyare not in the required Gauses in assemblY lnaccuracies fromother procedures or distortion welds 'out of flatness' in hot Excessive or sections rolled olates Prevention priorto of alignment checking Adequate withthe useof clampsand coupled welding wedoes priorto section of rolled Checkaccuracy weldinq
Gomments problem, preparation but a structural is not reallya weld imperfection, Misalignment the localshearstressat increase can drastically Eveni smallamountof misalignment stress. a jointand inducebending
3.6.6
MISALIGNMENT ANGULAR
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Description betweentwo welded pieces such that their surfaceplanes are not Misalignment angle. parallel or at the intended Causesand prevention misalignment. Sameas for linear
3.6.7
FILLED GROOVE INCOMPLETELY
Description channelin the surface of a weld due to insufficient A continuosor intermittent metal. of weldfiller deposition Causes weld metal Insufficient weldbeadsurface lrreqular Prevention of weldruns the number lncrease welder Retrain
Comments the load filledgroovereduces as incompletely from undercut, differs Thisimperfection notchat produces stress-raising a sharp undercut of a weld,whereas capacity bearing theedgeof a weld.
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WIDTH 3.6.8IRREGULAR
Description in widthof the weld. variation Excessive Causes arc blow Severe weld beadsurface lrreqular Prevention Switchfrom DC to AC, keepan as shortas possible arc length welder Retrain
Gomments weld,it can affect of completed may not affectthe integrity this imperfection Although of the joint (in case of finetne wiJtn of HAZ and reducethe load carryingcapacity (in case of duplexstainless resistance steels)or impaircorrosion grainedstructural steels).
3.6.9ROOTCONCAVITY
Description at the rootof a buttweld. dueto shrinkage groovethat occurs A shallow 3.24 Inspection Welding TWI WORLD CENTRE FOR
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MATERIALS JOINING TECHNOLOGY
Causes arc powerto Produce Insufficient bead oositive gas pressure (TlG) backinq Excessive Lackof welderskill
Slaq floodinqin backingbar groove
Prevention Raisearc energy qas pressure Reduce welder Retrain slaqflooding Tiltworkto prevent
Gomments the extentof the rootbead. stripcan be usedto control The use of a backing
3.6.10
B U R NT H R O U G H
Description in a holein the weld. of theweldpoolresulting A collapse Causes travelspeed Insufficient weldinq current Excessive
Lack of welder skill
qrinding of rootface Ercessive rootqap Excessive
Prevention Increase the travelspeed current weldinq Reduce welder Retrain welder Morecaretaken,retrain fit up correct Ensure
Gomments . lt can due to lack of welderskill whichoccursbasically This is a grossimperfection, the gap formed into the joint, but requiresa great deal of be repairedby bridging attention.
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3.7 MISCELLANEOUS IMPERFECTIONS
3.7.1
STRAYARC/ARCSTRTKE
Description Localdamage to the surfaceof the parentmetaladjacent to the weld,resulting from arcingor striking the arc outsidethe weld groove.The resultis in form of rindom areas of fusedmetalwhere the electrode, the holder,or currentreturnclamp have accidentally touched the work. Prevention lmprove access(modify assembly sequence) Missing insulation on electrode holder lnstitute a regular inspection scheme for or torch electrode holders and torches Failure to provide an insulated resting Provide an insulated place resting placefor the electrode holderor torch whennot in use Loosecurrent return clamp Regularly maintain current return clamps Adjusting wirefed(MAGwelding) Retrain welder wthqut isolating welding current Gomments An arc strike can producea hard heat-affected zone, which may containcracks. Thesecan lead to seriouscracking in service. lt is betterto removean arc strikeby grinding thanweldrepair. Causes Pooraccessto the work
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3.7.2
SPATTER
Description duringwelding and adheringto the Globules of weld metal or fillermetalexpelled parent metal solidified weld rnetal. or of surface Causes Hioharccurrent arc blow Maonetic for GMAWprocess Incorrect settings Damoelectrodes gas of shielding Wrong selection ( 1 0 0% co ') Prevention Reduce arc current Reduce to AC power arc lenqthor switch (butbe careful Modify electrical settings fullfusion!) to maintain Usedrv electrodes Increase Argoncontent if possible, however too higha ohof Argonmay lead to lackof penetration
Comments of the weld. imperfection anddoes not affectthe integrity in itselfis a cosmetic Spatter it is a sign that the weldingcurrent, However as it is usuallycausedby an excessive problems are not idealand so thereare usuallyotherassociated weldingconditions produced by is always i.e. high heat input.Notethat some spatter withinthe structure can be weldingprocesses. Anti-spatter compounds electrode open arc consumable off. sticking andthe spatter canthen be scraped usedon the parentmetalto reduce
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3.7.3 TORN SURFACE Description weldedattachments. of temporary by fracture due to the removal damage Surface particle penetrant or magnetic dye to a off,thensubjected be grinded Theareashouid qualified a using shapeby welding to its original and th6n restored examination weld of any overlay allow the presence not do applications Some pro""Our". NOTE: material. of theparent onthesurface 3.7.4 ADDITIONALIMPERFECTIONS mark Grinding Description dueto grinding' damage Local
ma rk Chipping Description Localdamagedue to the useof a chiselor othertools. Underflushing Description grinding. due to excessive of the workpiece Lackof thickness runs of oPPosite Misalignment Description sidesof thejoint. of two runsmadefromopposite the centrelines between Difference
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Tempercolour (visibleoxidefilm) - root oxidation Description steels occurs in caseof stainless in the weldzone.Usually surface oxidised Lightly
3.8 ACCEPTANCESTANDARDS
of a weldedstructure. can seriouslyreducethe integrity Weld imperfections joint, them usingNDE to locate it is necessary welded priorto service of a Therefore, reoccurrence. to avoidtheir and takeaction theirsignificance, assess techniques, is of a certainsize and type of defectfor a given structure The acceptance in incorporated is usually This standard. as the defectacceptance expressed normally or specifications. standards application in totallyrejectcracks.However, standards acceptance imperfection weld All'normal be parties, may cracks of all agreement to the and subject circumstances, exceptional beyonddoubtthat they will not lead to allowedto remainif it can be demonstrated failure.This can be difficultto establishand usuallyinvolvesfracturemechanics andcalculations. measurements vary betweendifferent to note that the levelsof acceptability It is important and in most cases vary betweendifferentstandardsfor the same applications, jobs it is important to use the different when inspecting Consequently, application. quoted in the contract. or specification standard applicable weld imperfectionshave been found, they have to be Once unacceptable it is whether the firstconsideration is at the surface, imperfection weld lf the removed. dressing' superficial repaired by be to shallowenough is of a type,whichis normally is thickness material the remaining of the defect, implies that,afterremoval Superfiiial weldmetal. of further the addition notto require sufficient by some means and new weld lf the defectis too deep, it must be removed thickness. throat design added to ensurea minimum metal
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or reremovedmetal or weld repair (as in filling an excavation Replacing procedure. The with an approved makinga weldjoint)has to be done in accordance for standard procedure qualifled on the will application depend is this rigorwith which qualified procedure making for job. a to use In some casesit will be acceptable the joint. lf the levelof or makinga complete new joints whetherfillingan excavation will haveto be made usingan exact the qualification is higher, required reassurance joint, and then refilledusinga specified which is excavated of a welded simulation inspectionand testing will be requiredin method, ln either case, qualification standard. withthe application accordance
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TECHNOLOGY
Questions Weld defects Givetwo maincauses for the occurrence of a burnthrouqh and prevention.
QU1.
QU2.
Givetwo maincauses for the occurrence of lackof rootpenetration on a single-V buttweld.
QU3.
Sketch thefollowing defects, on a single-V buttweld. a) b) c) d) Incomplete rootpenetration Lackof rootfusion Incomplete filledgroove Concave root
QUs.
Givefivedefects that mayoccurwhen weldingcarbonsteelusingthe process MMAwelding withthe current setting to low.
QU6.
Givethreepossible causes for lack of sidewall fusionin singleV butt joint with MMA process and which type of NDT rnethod is the most suitable to detectits occurrence?
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QU3
Section04 Testing Destructive
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FoR woRLD cENTRE MATERIALSJOINING TECHNOLOCY
4.0 DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

4.1 INTRODUCTION
European WeldingStandards requiretest couponsthat are madefor welding procedure qualification testingto be subjected to non-destructive testingand then destructive testing. The tests are calleddestructive tests becausethe weldedjoint is 'destroyed' whenvarious typesof test pieceare takenfrom it. Destructive testscan be divided into2 groups, namely: tr D property - quantitative thoseusedto measure a mechanical tests - quatitative thoseusedto assessthejointquality tests a
Mechanicaltests are quantitative because a quantity is measured property mechanical suchas tensile strength, hardness and impact toughness.
tests are used to verifythat the joint is free from defects- they are Qualitative of soundquality and examples of theseare bend tests,macroscopic examination and fracture tests(filletfracture& nick-break).
4.2 TESTTYPES, TESTPIECES & TESTOBJECTIVES

The varioustypes of mechanical test are used by materialmanufacturers/ suppliers property to verifythat plates,pipes,forgings etc have the minimum values grades. specified for particular property Design use the minimum grades engineers valueslistedfor particular of material as the basisfor designand the most cost effective designs are basedon an assumption that weldedjointshaveproperties that are no worsethanthose of the basemetal. (mechanical) The quantitative teststhat are carriedout for weldingprocedure qualification are intendedto demonstrate that the joint properties satisfy design requirements. The emphasisin the following sub-sections is the destructive tests and test joints. methods thatarewidelyusedfor welded
Welding Inspection
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4.2.1
.
TESTS TENSILE TRANSVERSE
Test Objective teststo tensile transverse qualification tests alwaysrequire Weldingprocedure criterion. the design of thejointsatisfies showthatthe strength Test Specimens tensiletest piece typical of the type specifiedby European A transverse is Standards shownbelow. Welding
Weldmetal
parallel length
test tensile for transverse suchas EN 895,that specifydimensions Standards, free from to be and the surface piecesrequireall excessweld metalto be removed scratches. of the joint but for the full thickness to represent Test piecesmay be machined testspecimens tensile transverse to take several verythickjointsit may be necessary to be ableto testthe fullthickness. . Test Method are then Specimens beforetesting. measured are accurately Test specimens continually to a subjected jaws and machine tensile testing of a the fitted into fractures. forceuntilthespecimen tensile increasing load by the crossthe maximum by dividing is calculated The tensilestrength before testing. measured specimen test of the area sectional of the ioint and thereby to measurethe tensilestrenqth The test is intended the validcriterion. remains the basemetalproperties, showthatthe basisfor design, . Criteria Acceptance lf the test piece breaks in the weld metal, it is acceptableprovidedthe whichis specified, is not less than the minimumtensilestrength strength calculated grade' material metal base for the specified the minimum usually
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lf the test specimenbreaksoutsidethe weld or fusion zone, the weld joint providedthat it is not less than 95% of the minimum strengthmay be acceptable tensile strength specified for the basemetal.
4.2.2
.
ALL-WELD TENSILE TESTS
Test Objective There may be occasions when it is necessary to measurethe weld metal - particularlyfor elevated strength as part of welding procedurequalification temperature designs. The test is carriedout in order to measurenot only tensilestrengthbut also yield(or proofstrength) andtensile ductility. All-weld tensile tests are also regularlycarry out by welding consumable manufacturers to verifythat electrodes and flllerwires satisfythe tensileproperties specified by the standard to whichthe consumables are certifled. Test Specimens As the name indicates, test specimens are machined from welds parallel with gaugelength axisandthe specimen theirlongitudinal mustbe 100Yo weldmetal. .
Crosg-secllonal r'Ei A
lirnimurngaraliellengrr
(al Reund cross section
Round tensile specimenfrom a welding procedure qualification fesf piece
Round tensr'lespecimen from an electrode classification fest piece
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Test Method forcein the sameway that increasing to a continually are subjected Specimens are tested. specimens tensile transverse that is by means of an extensometer Yield and proof stress are measured measure the and is ableto accurately lengthof the specimen to the parallel attached of the gaugelengthas the loadis increased' extension are shown Typicalload extensioncurvesand their principalcharacteristics below.
I
Uhimrte:trenqlh Hartir linrir
P.oot sl{Bnolh
,/
lrarturt / 'nelkilq'rxtnn p*int nt tlri-r 5oftdvrtilesleel
yiekl1x:ittt 5rrraled
urril let:r,1tlt 5Iriirr,e1+:rqalir::t Lrer
H S*esl!rgc
St=in Fre::ngr',Eii de!,3:matlnn
Load-extensioncurue for a steel that shows a distinct yield point at the elastic limit
Load-extension curve for a steel (or other metal) that does not show a distinct yield point; proof stress is a measure of the elastic limit
in twoways,namely: is measured Tensile ductility of the gaugelength % elongation of area at the pointof fracture % reduction
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measurements' thesetwo ductility (a) and (b) belowillustrate Schematics
Sriginal gaugelargtl
: ,.-I
{a}
Garige lenglh al faal|'lre Origitral dianteler d
Redttction in dlarrieler
/h: tvi
at fatltlre Giarneter Giame
4.2.3
.
TESTS TOUGHNESS IMPACT
Test Objective C h a rp yv-n o tch te stp i eceshavebecometheinter national|yacceptedm ethod and the energyto initiate, measuring by fracture to'britile resisiance for assessing to an subjected . .ru.t tiom a sharpnotchin a siandardsizedspecimen propagate, load. impact of the steelthat is used needto ensurethat the toughness Designengineers fracturein serviceand so to avoid Oiittte item will be high enough for a particular that is related to the design impact specimensare tested at a iemperature component' for the fabricated temperature to brittle a sharpchangein theirresistance c-Mn and low alloysteelsundergo good very have may that is lowerJo.o that a ste-et fractureas their temperature sub-zero at t"y show extreme brittleness toughnessat ambient temperatur"figure' - as illustrated in following tem-peratures
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Transition Temperature (-200c)
o g
u p fl srsh e l fe n e rg y
o -t
ct) L o tr 1rl +, o
fra*ture ducl[e eryst6EtEnrty} {S%
-E
lowershelf energy -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 brittle fracture (100%crystallinity)
G CL
10
20
30
40
('C) Test Temperature

is defined as the temperature that is mid-way The transitiontemperature In brittle). toughness) and lowershelf(completely between the uppershelf(maximum -20"C. is temperature the aboveschematic the transition Test Specimens have beenstandardised internationally and for test specimens The dimensions for dimensions are shownbelowfor full sized specimens.Thereare alsostandard 1Omm x 7.5mm x 5mm. for example & 1Omm smaller sizedspecimens, .
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for full sizedspect'mens charpy v-notchtestpiece dimensions position Specimensare machinedfrom welded test plates with the notch in the typically but to the testingrequirements according locations in different located acrossthe HAZ as shownbelow. of the weldmetaland at positions centre
liner'2rnrn Fu*-*ia,rt
Fusi*n lirte+ Smrn
Fusisftline
iJU+ld metal +:l
->
>40mm
Srnm line.f= Fusinn

litte+ 2ram Fuisicrt
ftetal ,EI \r",bld

lisre Fusian
butt Typical notchpositions for Charpy V-notch test specimens from double'Vee welds . Test Method in an Test specimensare cooledto the specifiedtest temperatureby immersion insulatedbath containinga liquidthat is held at the test temperature' 4.7
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After allowingthe specimentemperature to stabilisefor a few minutesit is quicklytransferred quickly to the 'anvil'of the test machine and a pendulum hammer released so thatthe specimen experiences an impact loadbehindthe notch. The mainfeatures of an impact testmachine are shownbelow.
Scale
lmpact specimenon the anvil showing the hammer position at point of impact lmpact testing machine
Charpy V-notch fesf pieces - before and after testing
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'absorbed' is by the hammerwhen it strikeseach test specimen The energy 'pointer' Energy on the scale of the machine' shownby the p6iitionof the himmer valuesare givenin Joules' for each notch are taken in triplicate(3 specimens test specimens lmpact 'b"."ur" for energy in recorded thereis will alwaystendto be somevariation position) for weldments' the sametest particularly nominaliy r Criteria AccePtance for each set of Eachtest resultis recordedand an averagevalue calculated by with the valuesspecified the Application threetests.Thesevaluesare compared havebeenmet' requirements specified whether or clientto establish standard of the test specimensprovidesadditional After impacttesting,examination and may be addedto the testreport' abouttheirtorijhnesscharacteristics information namely: brittlefracture completely indicates brittlefracture;1OO% whichindicates the below;the largerthe valuethe tougher the notch- as indicated behind specimen
L-ateraI eontradion
expanslon nsfilEteral brittlefracturs
a + b = lat+ralexFansls{l
traeture duc-'tile
will show a cleanbreakwith and extremebrittleness that exhibits A specimen frat fracturefaceswith littleor no havinga compretery both harvesof the specimen expansion. lateral
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will showonlya smalldegreeof verygoodtoughness that exhibits A specimen expansion' value lateral of high a fracture and without crackextension,
4.2.4
.
TESTING HARDNESS
Test Objective and this is to plasticdeformation The hardnessof a metal is its' resistance particular typeof indenter. by a to indentation the resistance by measuring determined may be susceptible abovea certainmaximum with hardness A steelweldment qualification procedure and welding or in service, eitherduringfabrication to cracking, the testweldto be hardness requires applications steelsand certain for certain testing that exceedthe maximum weldment of the no regions are that to ensure surveyed hardness. specified can also be usedfor taking examination prepared for macroscopic Specimens - referredto as a positions the weldment of various at measurements hardness hardnesssurvey. " Test Methods namely: testing, for hardness 3 widelyusedmethods are There . . . pyramid diamond test - usesa square-base TheVickershardness indenter or steelball coneindenter test- usesa diamond hardness The Rockwell test usesa ball indenter hardness The Brinell
value- the used to give a hardness is the measure The size of an indentation the metal. the harder smaller the indentation
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shownbelow' by the schematic is illustrated of testing TheVickersmethod fulcrum
pyramid
based square pyramidal indentet
(a) Mckersindentation
of impression (b) measurement dragonals
surveys out hardness for carrying are suitable methods BothVickersand Brinell weldments' of examination for macroscopic prepared on specimens in the the hardness to measure the indenter surveyrequires A typicalhardness (on both the HAZ basemetii (on bothsidesof the weld),in the weld metaland across of theweld). sides measure that is too largeto accurately The Brinellmethodgivesan indentation of the HAZ and is mainlyusedto measurehardness re-gions in specific the hardness of basemetals.
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hardness survey(using hardness is shownbelow: A typical Vickers indenter)
valuesare shownon test reportsas a numberfollowedby letters Hardness for example: the test method, indicating 240 HV10 22 HRC 238 HBW = hardness 240,Vickersmethod, 10 Kg indenter load = hardness (scale 22, Rockwell method, C) diamond coneindenter = 238 hardness, Brinell method, tungsten ballindenter
4.2.5
r
(CTOD) CRACKTtPOPENTNG DTSPLACEMENT TESTTNG
Test Objective engineers to makejudgements aboutrisksof CharpyV-notchtestingenables in steelsbut a CTOD test measures a materialpropertvbrittlefractureoccurring fracturetoughness. data enablesengineers to carry out fracturemechanics Fracturetoughness as: analyses such . . the size of a crackthat wouldinitiate calculating a brittlefractureunder particular certainstressconditions at a temperature fracture sizedcrackto give a brittle the stressthatwouldcausea certain particular at a temperature
This data is essentialfor making an appropriate decisionwhen a crack is duringinspection of equipment thatis in-service. discovered Test Specimens (or square)shapedbar cut A CTOD specimen is prepared as a rectangular transverse is machined to the axisof the buttweld.A V-notch at the centreof the bar, whichwill be coincident withthe test position weldmetalor HAZ. .
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is of the notchand the specimen saw cut is then put intothe bottom A shallow crack fatigue roaduntira shailow bending a cycric thatinduces thenput intoa machine from the saw cut. initiates B x 28 havinga cross.section large- typically are relatively The specimens weiol.The test piecedetailsare shownin of t-he and length-108 1A= tuil thickness below. the schematic notch Machined
,l-ffi i L l
o
*1
throug Section notch
Test Method below ambientand the are usuallytestedat a temperature cToD specimens bath of liquidthat has a in by immersion is controlled oi the specimen temperatur" testtemperature' beencooledto the required and induce a A load is appliedto the specimento bend cause bending to the specimen stressat the tip of the crackand a clipgauge,attached concentrated in widthof notch,givesa reiOingof the increase acrossthe mouthof the machined increased. the mouthof the crackas the loadis gradually it is usual 'test condition' of notchand test temperature) (position For each practice to carrYout threetests'
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The schematics belowillustrate the mainfeatures of the CTODtest.
Tip opening
Fracturetoughnessis expressedas the distancethat the crack tip opens without initiation of a brittle crack. The clip gaugeenables a chartto be generated showing the increase in width of the crackmouthagainst applied loadfromwhicha CTODvalueis calculated. AcceptanceCriteria An application standard or Clientmay specifya minimum CTOD valuethat indicates ductiletearing. Alternatively, the test may be 'for information' so that a value can be usedfor an engineering critical assessment. A verytoughsteelweldment will allowthe mouthof the crackto openwidelyby ductiletearing at the tip of the crack whereasa very brittleweldmentwill tend to fracture when the applied loadis quitelow and without any extension at the tip of the crack. - typicalvalues might be << CTOD values are expressed in millimetres > -1mm = verytoughbehaviour. 0.1mm= brittle behaviour:
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4.2.6
.
BENDTESTING
Test Objective qualification test pieces takenfromweldingprocedure Bendtestsare routinely qualification test pieces. haveto be takenfromwelder and sometimes that thereare is a simplemethodof verifying to bending specimens Subjecting in a buttweldthathavelowductility. no regions if test to be satisfactory but it is demonstrated measured is not actually Ductility a certain above specimenscin withstandbeing bent withoutfractureor fissures length. . Test Specimens namely: Thereare4 typesof bendspecimen, Facebend and to buttweldsup to -12mm thickness takenwith axistransverse Specimen (face tension) in bend of the bentso thatthe faceof theweldis on the outside Root bend to butt weldsup to -12mm th.ickness takenwith axistransverse Test specimen and bent so that the root of the weld is on the outsideof the bend (root in tension) Side bend of slice (-1Omm)from the full thickness takenas a transverse Test specimen in (side tested butt welds> -12mm and bent so that the full joint thickness tension) Bend Longitudinal axis of a butt weld; to the longitudinal takenwith axis parallel Test specimen maYbe testedin weld of root is 12mmand the face or thickness specimen tension
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tl // /z
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Former
L t t--
L t t--
I t
T-
Test Method are (and welder qualification) qualification Bend tesis for weldingprocedure guided bendtests' usually controlled is uniformly on the specimen Guidedmeansthat the strainimposed radius' witha certain by beingbentarounda former by the type of test is determined The radiusof the formerusedfor a particular in fromthat material thatcan be expected thatis beingtestedandthe ductility material condition. the unwelded of the specimen as a multiple The radiusof the formeris usuallyexpressed but for thickness) (t the specimen is 4t and for C-Mn steel it is typically thickness greater than be may the radiusof the former ouciiiity that havelowertensile materials 10t. the test methodwill specifythe minimumbend The standardthat specifies 120'. and this is typically mustexperience anglethatthe specimen . AcceptanceCriteria cracksor by not showing ductility satisfactory Bendtestspiecesshouldexhibit of the bend' on the outside or cavities fissures anysignsof significant less than about 3mm in lengthmay be allowedby some Small 'indications' standards.
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4.2.7 4.2.7.1
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TESTS FRACTURE FILLETWELDFRACTURES
Test Objective testpieces by fracturing of a filletweld can be assessed The quality/soundness surfaces. the fracture andexamining the quality of fillet welds may be specifiedby This method for assessing examination. to macroscopic an alternative as standards application to testingaccording that can be used for welderqualification It is a test method qualification to European but is not usedfor weldingprocedure Standards European Standards. . Test Specimens notch (typically > 50mm)and a longitudinal A test weld is cut intoshortlengths vprofile be square, may notch The as shownbelow. into the specimen is machined or u-shaped. shaped
LongitudinRl
notch
in fitlcb
u'elds
Test Method Specimensare made to fracturethrough their throat by dynamic strokes or application standard as shownbelow.The welding (hammeiing) or by pressing, (typically 4). of tests the number will specify standard
press movrng
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Criteria Acceptance will specifythe standard, or application for welderqualification, The standard the root of the into penetration of such as lack criteriafor imperfections acceptance surfaces. thatare visibleon the fracture and porosity frril.O solidinclusions of the fractureand of the appearance Test reportsshould also give a description of anYimPerfection location .
4.2.7.2
o
TESTS) (' NICK-BREAK' BUTTWELD FRACTURES
Test Objective tests. testsis the same as for filletfracture of thesefracture The objective
Standards to European testing for welderqualification Thesetestsare specified welding certain for to radiography or are additional to radiography, as an alternative European to qualification testing pio.".r"r, but it is not uled for weldingprocedure Standards. . Test Specimens so that the fracture are takenfrom a buit weld and notched Test specimens testpiecetypesare shownbelow' regionof the weld.Typical pathwillbe in the central
. o
Test Method bending' or three-point by hammering are madeto fracture Testpieces
Criteria Acceptance will specifythe standard, or application for welderqualification, The standard and inclusions solid fusion, of lack such as criteriafor lmperfections acceptance surfaces. porosity thatare visibleon the fracture of the fracture of the appearance Test reportsshouldalso give a description of anYimPerfection. andlocation
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4.3 MACROSCOPICEXAMINATION
from butt and filletwelds are requiredby the.European sections Transverse for some testingand may be required qualification standardsfor weldingprocedure of the welds' the quality for assessing te-sting *"rJ"r qualification of theseCourseNotes' Section in detailin a separate Thisis considered
4.4EURoPEANSTANDARDSFoRDESTRUCT|VETESTMETHoDS
for Weldilg Standards by the European are specified Standards The following welder some for and welds test qualifitation Lt;;lding procedure testing destructive qualifi cationtestwelds. - lmpacttests- Test materials testson weldsin metallic Destructive EN 875 sp e ci me n l o ca tion,notchor ientationandexam ination EN gg5 EN 910 EN 1321 - Transverse tensile materials tests on weldsin metallic Destructive test - Bendtests materials testson weldsin metallic Destructive and tests on welds in metallicmaterials Macroscopic Destructive of welds examination microscoPic
- Tensile Part 1: Methodof test at ambient testing. materials BS EN 10002 Metallic temPerature Part5: Methodof test at elevated materials. of metallic testing BS EN 10002 Tensile temPeratures
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Questions Destructive testing What mechanicalpropertiescan be measuredfrom a tensiletest for the approvalof welding procedure?
QU1.
QU2.
What are the objectiveof a charpy impact test and what units the resultgives in?
QU3.
Givea brief descriptionof the foilowing tests and state its purpose: a) Bend test. b) c) d) Nick-breaktest. Macro. Fracturefillet test.
QU4.
What is the main objectiveof hardnesstesting and why this test is very importantwhen approvinga wetding procedure?
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QU4
Section05 WPS& WelderQualifications
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& WELDER QUALIFICATION PROCEDURE 5.0 WELDING QUALIFICATION

GENERAL it is essential by welding, itemsarefabricated and pressurised Whenstructures application. properties for their jointsare soundand havesuitable that all the welded Specifications by meansof WeldingProcedure Controlof weldingis achieved that must conditions welding about the writteninstructions (WpS's)that givedetailed properties. joints havethe required thatwelded be usedto ensure 'shop floor' documents to instructwelders,they are AlthoughWPS's are they with.This is because familiar to be need also inspectors thlt welding documents in working are that welders will need to refer to WPS's when they are checking requirements. withthe specified accordance WPS's and to have the skillto make Weldersneed to be able to understand these abilitiesbeforebeing demonstrate and have to welds that are not defective welds. to makeProduction allowed
5 . 1 Q U A L I F I E D W E L D TP NR GO C E D U R E S P E C I F I C A T I O N S
practice to usequalifiedWPS'sfor mostapplications' It is industry qualified by makinga test weld t9 demonstrate is usuallv A weldingprocedure specifiedby the application joini requirements the satisfy of the that the propertles User). (andthe ClienVEnd standard purpose of properties of thejoint is the principle the mechanical Demonstrating is also very weld can be produced that a defect-free qualification tests but showing important. similar production with weldingconditions weldsthat are madein accordance 'fit for be therefore properties and to those used for a test weld shouldhave similar theirintended PurPose'. withthe European in accordance WPS written of a typical Figure 1 is an example that needto be conditions welding the all formatgivingdetailsof Weldiig Standard specified.
5.1.1
FORPROCEDURE STANDARDS WELDING QUALIFICATION
to give havebeendeveloped standards andAmerican European about: details comprehensive

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jointproperties testpiecemustbe madeto demonstrate howa welded howthe test piecemustbe tested in a WPS needto be included details whatwelding qualification testweld by a particular welding allowed the rangeof production
are: theserequirements thatspecify EuropeanStandards The principal EN ISO 15614 for metallic of weldingprocedures & qualification Specification procedure test materials Welding Partl:Arc & gas weldingof steels& arc weldingof nickel& nickel alloys and its alloys of aluminium Part2: Arc welding qualification are: for procedure AmericanStandards The principal (vessels & pipework) systems ASMESectionlX for pressurised AWS D1.1 AWS D1.2 welding of steels for structural of aluminium welding for structural
5.1.2
FORWELDING PROCESS THEQUALIFICATION PROCEDURES
qualified basedon testweldsthathavebeenmade WPS'sare usually Although WPS'sto weldingstandards alsoallowqualifled weldjoint properties; to demonstrate (for applications). data some on other based be written WPS's for some ways that can be used for writingqualified Somealternative are. applications E E qualificationby adoption of a standard welding procedure - test welds qualified previously by othermanufacturers anddocumented qualificationbased on previouswelding experience- weldjointsthat have properties by their service madeand provedto have suitable beenrepeatedly record
qualification by meansof a test weld (and Standards to European Procedure that is typified of actions a sequence similarin ASMESectionlX and AWS) requires by thoseshownby Table 1. of a qualification procedure by the production test is completed A successful of whichis shownby Record(WPQR),an example WeldingProcedure Qualification Figure2.
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5.1.3
A WPQR& A WPS BETWEEN RELATIONSHIP
the weldingengineeris able to write Once a WPQR has been produced, jointsthat needto be made. production weld various qualifiedWPS'sfor the WPS are that are allowedto be writtenon a qualified The weldingconditions welding the on range depends and this qualification range the referredto as part of the form (the and piece details) as-run test that were usedfor the conditions WPQR. Weldingconditionsare referredto as welding variables by European& as eitheressentialvariablesor nonand are classified Standards Welding American variables. essential as follows: can be defined Thesevariables o properties that has an affecton the mechanical ssentialvariable a variable of by the standardwill the weldment(and if changedbeyondthe limits specified requirethe WPS to be re-qualified) on a WPS but does that must be specified variable a variable llolr-essential properties of the weldment effecton the mechanical significant nothavea requirea new will but re-qualification for need (and can be ch-ngedwithout WPS to be written)
effecton mechanical can have a significant variables It is becauseessential range qualification govern the that variables that they are the controlling properties intoa WPS. whatcan be written and determine the qualification outside weld usingconditions lf a weldermakesa production joint will not have welded the WPS, thereis dangerthat rangegivenon a particular andtherearethentwo options: theiequiredproperties 1 to those used for the Make anothertest weld usingsimilarweldingconditions WPQRto relevant for the thisto the sametests used weld and subject affected requirements stillsatisfyspecified thatthe properties demonstrate
with the in accordance weld and re-weldthe joint strictly the affected Remove WPS designated 'essential' are the same in that are classedas Most of the weldingvariables ranges but their qualification WeldingStandards and American both the European maydiffer. variablesand it is specifytheir own essential Standards Some Application are when procedures to ensurethat these are taken into consideration necessary qualified andWPS'sarewritten.
Inspection Welding Rev0 Jun06 Qualifications WPSandWelder TWI Ltd 2006, @ Copyright
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woRLDcENTREFoR roINrNG MATEPTALS TECHNOLOCY
aregiven WeldingStandards) (according to European variables of essential Examples in Table2.
5.2 WELDERQUALIFICATION
production methodfor controlling WPS's is the accepted The use of quali1ed and if welderhave the abilityto understand weldingbut this will only be successful withthem. workin accordance producesoundwelds(free also needto havethe skillto consistently Welders from defects). on wfqt particular to give guidance have been developed WeldingStandards skillsto make required the have in orderto showthat welders testweldsare required materials. weldsin particular particular typesof production 5.2.1 WE L D IN G S T A NDARDS FOR W ELDER QUALIFICATION
are: requirements Europeanstandardsthatspecify The principal EN 287-1 EN ISO 9606-2 EN 141g - Fusion welding test of welders Qualification Part 1: Steels - Fusion welding test of welders Qualification alloys andaluminium Part2.Aluminium for - Approvaltestingof weldingoperators Weldingpersonnel mechanised fully for setters weld fusionweldingand resistance materials of metallic welding andautomatic
qualification for welder requirements AmericanStandardsthatspecify The principal are: (vessels & pipework) systems ASMESectionlX for pressurised AWS D1.1 AWS D1.2 of steels welding for structural of aluminium welding for structural
5.2,2
FORWELDERS PROCESS THEQUALIFICATION
test weldsto requires Standards testingof weldersto European eualification is able to welder the that tests to demonstrate ib specified be made and subjected a soundweld' theWPS andto produce understand
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welding the emphasisof the tests is to For manual and semi-automatic torch' or welding the electrode to manipulate ability demonstrate that is on demonstrating the emphasis welding and automatic For mechanised equipment. typesof welding particular to control haveability weldingoperators sound that theycan produce to demonstrate allowwelders Standards American testingweldto non-destructive theirfirstproduction weldsby subjecting with weldersin accordance for qualifying Table 3 showsthe stepsrequired Standards. European
withEuropean in accordance certificate welder Qualification Figure 3 showsa typical Standards.
5.2,3
WELDING AND PRODUCTION QUALIFICATION WELDER ALLOWED
The welder is allowed to make productionwelds within the range of Certificate' on hisWelderQualification recorded qualification is based on the limits specifiedby the Welding The range of qualification as: essentialvariables- defined for wJlder qualification Standard welding a variable that if changed beyond the limits specified by the by the Standardmay require lreater skill than has been demonstrated test weld. for welderqualification that are classedas essential Someweldingvariables procedure are the same tvp;s as those classifiedas essential for welding wider' may be significantly buttfriEnge of qualification quatification, to welderqualification. are speciflc variables some essential are givenin Table4' variables essential qualification of welder Examples
5.2.4
FORA WELDERQUALIFIGATION OF VALIDITY PERIOD

CERTIFICATE
of the testpiece' from the dateof welding begins qualification A welder's validfor to remain certificate allowsa qualification Standard The European that: a periodof twoyears- provided person,can confirmthat the or other responsible the weldingco-ordinator, - ^t -,,^l:ti^^liaa welderhas everysix months rangeis confirmed qualification withinthe initial working
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5.2.5
QUALIFICATION OF WELDER PROLONGATION
by an every two ye..ars can be prolonged certificate A welder'squalification need conditions certain is allowed body but beforeprolongation examiner/examining namelY to be satisfied, o . that can be tracedto the welderand the WPS's is available r-Gords/evidence welding thathavebeenusedfor production of the welder's examination mustrelateto volumetric evidence' the ,supporting *u'ios (RT or UT) on two weldsmadeduringthe 6 monthspriorto production date the prolongation for levels the acceptance welds'mustsatisfy evidence the ,supporting been have and standard welding European by the imperfectionsipecified weld. test original as the madeunderthe sameconditions
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Specification WeldingProcedure The welding engineerwrites a preliminary welded to be coupon (pWPS)for each test
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A welder makes the test coupon in accordancewith the pWPS A weldinginspectorrecordsall the welding conditionsused to make the test cbupon (calledthe'as-run' conditions)
mav be Examiner/ExaminingBody/ ThirdParty lnspector An tndependent to monitorthe procedurequalification requested
The test coupon is subiected to NDT in accordancewith the rnethods specifiedby the standird - visual inspection,MT or PT & RT or UT
The test coupon is destructivelVtested (tensile, bend, macro tests) may requireadditionaltests StandardtClient The Code/Application such as hardnesstests, impacttests or corrosiontests depending on materialand aPPlication
is preparedby the Record(WPOR) . A WeldingprocedureQuatification welding engineergiving details of:
to sign the . lf a Third party Inspectoris involvedhe will be requested WPQRas a true record of the test
Table1 Typical sequencefor welding procedure quatification by means of a test weld
Welding lnsPection Rev 0 Jun 06 WPS and Welder Qualifications Copyright O 2006, TWI Ltd
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VARIABLE welding process PWHT
QUALIFICATION RRttCf tor PROGEDURE process that mustbe usedin qualified is no range process production testedaftera pwHr and onlyqualifyPWHTproduction Jornts joints 'as-welded' joints production onlyqualify jointstested'as-weldedi properties and mechanical composition of similar parent materials only GroupNo.;qualification the sameMaterial are allocated No. Group same with the materials production of welding allows musthavethe same welding for production consumables general rule as a designation European - belowand abovethe testcoupon rangeis allowed a thickness thickness be (+VEor -VE)cannot for AC; DC polarity RC ontyqualifies pulsed current qualifies for only current changed;pulsed production welding thatmustbe usedfor the testis the minimum theTrehelternp. applied in the testis the max. reached temperature interpass tfrenlgnest allowed above is 25o/o applymax.Hl allowed requirements wnenirnpact testHl below is25o/o applymin.Hl allowed requirements whenhardness testHl
parent material type

welding consumables
material thickness type of current
preheat temperature interpass temperature heat input (Hl)
Tabte2
Typicat examplesof wPS essential variablesaccording to EuroPeanWelding Standards
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test piece writes a WPS for welder qualification The welding engineer
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The welder makesthe test weld in accordancewith the wPS A welding inspectormonitors the welding to ensurethat the welder is the WPS working in accordance
ExaminingBody/ ThirdParty lnspectormav be Examiner/ An tndependent to monitorfhe tesf requested
. .
The test coupon is subjected to NDT in accordancewith the methods specifiedOyine Standird (visual inspection,MT gI PT & RT or UT) and welding processes'some destructive For certainmaterials, testing may be required(bends or macros)
showing the welding Certificateis prepared A Welder'sQualification conditionsusedfor the test piece and the rangeof qualification allowedby the Standardfor productionwelding would be Gertificate lf a Third Partyis involved,the Qualification endorsed as a true record of the test
Table 3
Ihe stages for qualification of a welder
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woRLDcENTREFoR rolNING MATERIALS rEcllNoLoGY
VARIABLE welding process type of weld parentmaterial type
WELDER fOT QUALIFICATION RANGE process that a weldercan useIn qualified is no range process oroduction weldscoveranytypeof jointexceptbranchwelds Outt fillets filletweldsonlyqualifY properties and mechanical composition of similar parent materials qualification onlyallows No.; Group the sameMaterial areallocated withthe sameGroupNo.but the of materials production welding rangesthanthe procedure broupsallowmuchwidercomposition Groups weldingmustbe of the same and filierwiresfor production electrodes type is formas the test (solidwire,flux coredetc);for MMA coating essential for testpiecesabove12mmallow> rangeis allowed; iihict<ness 5mm for smalldiameters; andvery restricted essential > 0.5x diameter 25mm) used(minpieces allow 25mm above test
filler material
material thickness pipe diameter
allowsall positions H-L045 veryimportant; of welding weldingpositions position (except PG)

Table4 Typical examplesof welder quatification essenttal variables according to n Welding Sfandards Euro pea
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1 Exsmpleof a WeldingProcedureSpecification FIGURE {WPS)ta EN 15614Fornla!

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OUALIFIED HATERIALJJOINTS
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IIATERIALSIZEGUALFIEO 'i itp-ns. P 'Srprro 3 i '3ts. na. ?-1

Lla:erial:hi*ness CuEide d !met:: ?isit lh:ckn:ss. fille: {nnil tmmil rm*tl 3-U 5.C c-?.: Nc Ltn I I l.l l:.:' Ll*derial:hic(ne5E trh
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to EN 15614Format ProcedureQuatification
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Forrnat 2.1 Exarnple of a IVPORDocunrnt FIGURE l0ualification Rangelto EN 156',|4

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FIGURE2.2ExampteofaWPQRDocument(TestWe|<lDetails}toENl5614Fornrat WeldsPec
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Docunrerrt FIGLIRE 2.3 Exanrple of a TIJPQR of WeldTest}to EN 15614Fc'rrnat {Details

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Figure 2
Exampleof WPQRDocumentto EN 15614 Format

5.14
Welding Inspection Rev 0 Jun 06 WPS and WelderQualifications Copyright @2006,TWI Ltd
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Test {lertitjcate(wPo) to EN 287 FDrnlat of a welder Qualification 3 Exanrple FIGURE

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287 Format Exampte of wetder Qualification Test certificate to EN 5.15

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WeldinglnsPection Rev 0 Jun 06 WPS and WelderQualifications o 2006,TWI Ltd Copyright
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TWI YEET f33-
woRLD.ENTRE FoR JoINING MATERIALS

TECHNOLOGY
Questions Weldingproceduresand welder qualifications QU1. variables of a weldingprocedure. six essential State
QU2.
State what the following abbreviationsare short for and give a brief descriptionof each pWPS. a) b) c) d) wPS. WPAR. wQT.
QU3.
Why are proceduresand welders approved?
QU4.
Statethe reasons for re-approvalof: a) b) A welding procedure. A welder.
QUs.
When testing a welder's test piece for the welder'sapproval list the mechanicaltests that are not likely to be neededand state the reason why?
QU5
Section06 lnspection Materials
WeldingInspection Rev 0 Jun 06 O 2006,TWI Ltd Copyright
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woRLDCENTREFoR MATERIoALSJOINING
6.0 MATERIALSINSPECTION
6.1 GENERAL
will wherethe inspector Thereare a numberof situations inspection. insPection: carryout materials o o o
is io carryout materials Inspector of the visualAruelding one of theduties to be required

mill, or PiPe ?t the Plate or construction fabrication during of material programme' maintenance duringa planned usually afterinstallation, of material or shutdown. outage
Awiderangeofmaterialsareavailable,thatcanbeusedinfabricationand to: butare not limited Theseinclude, welding. r . r . . . Steels steels Stainless anditsalloYs Aluminium andits alloYs Nickel andits alloYs Copper and its alloYs Titanium Castiron
to weldingand construction are all widely used in fabrication, Thesematerials sectors' and industry of a diverserangeof applications meetthe requirements should that the lnspector inspection to materials aspects Thereare threeessential consider: 1. 2. 3. andweldabilitY tYPe Material traceabilitY Material anddimensions' condition Material
TYPESAND WELDABILITY 6.2 MATERIAL

AWelding|nspectormustbeab|etounderstandandinterprett hematerial For documents' normative relevant with compliance check ordei'to in designation such as BS EN, APl, ASTM,the welding Procedure standards examplematerials the qualityplan/ the drawings, (WPS),the purchaseorder,fabrication Specification andclientrequirements' specification contract is for steeldesignation standard usedmaterial A commonly - Hot rolled products of non-alloystructuralsteels' BS EN 10025
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as follows: wouldbe classified S355J2G3, to thisstandard, steeldesignation A typical S 355 J2 G3 Steel Structural Nimm'att < 16mm YieldStrength: Minimum 6 - 20'C 2TJoules Charpy, Longitudinal rolled or normalised Normalised
and most commonlyused materials type and weldability, ln termsof material in a can be fusionweldedusingvariousweldingprocesses, alloysof thesematerials diameters. where applicable, and, wide rangeof thickness, for a such as ISO 15608Welding- Guidelines to other standards Reference metallicmaterialgrouping sysfem,steel producer'sand welding consumabledata and of a material on the suitability withguidance the Inspector bookscan alsoprovide typefor a givenapplication' consumable
6.3 MATERIALTRACEABILITY
or location application to tracethe history, as " the ability is defined Traceability may product, traceability welded of a In the case of thatwhichis underconsideration" to consider: the Inspector require . . . - bothparent and fillermaterial The originof the materials beforeor after PWHT history for example The processing part or subproduct would usuallyreferto a specific this of the The location assembly
documents reference to the inspection ln order to trace the historyof the material, is the products documenfs of inspection Types must be made.BSEN 10204Metallic 10204 BSEN Under guidance on thesetypes of document. whichprovides standard, fall intotwotypes: documents inspection (a) Inspection Non-Specific in accordancewith his own Inspectioncarried out by the manufacturer product and specification products same by the defined whether procedures to assess of requirements process, with the are in compliance madeby the samemanufacturing the orderor not. that the products declares in whichthe manufacturer Type2.1 are documents inclusion of without order of the with the requirements are in compliance supplied test results. that the products declares in whichthe manufacturer Type2.2 are documents in which test and the order with the requirements of suppliedare in compliance results basedon non-specificinspectionare supplied.
Welding Inspection 6.2 TWI woRLDcENTREFoR
Rev 0Jun 06
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SpecificInspection(b) to the productspecification, according carriedout, beforedelivery, lnspection are part, supplied or on test unitsof whichthe products to be supplied on the products of the with the requirements are in compliance in orderto verifythat these products order. that the products declares in whichthe manufacturer Type 3.'1are documents of the order and in which test with the requirements suppliedare in compliance suPPlied. resultsare authorised Type 3.2 are documentspreparedby both the manufacturer's and either department, of the manufacturing independent representative inspection the official by designated inspector or the representative purchaser's authorised the products compliance are in supplied that the declare they and in which regulations, with the requirementsof the order and in which test resultsare supplied. materialcan be carriedout througha or locationof a particular Application the (WPS),the fabrication drawings, Specification Procedure reviewof the Welding point of use. at the of the material inspection quality planor by physical the transferof cast may haveto witness the Inspector circumstances ln certain production, piece for examplerun plate in to be used to a original from the numbers Tests. Qualification that are to be usedfor Procedure on run off plates all the relevant that the inspector records work it is a requirement On pipeline pipes is pipe. information piece large diameter this line On of for each information pipes diameter the information on the insideof the pipe.On smaller usually stencilled of the pipe. alongthe outside maybe stencilled
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MATERIALS METALLIC BS EN 1A204: SUMMARY. DOCUMENTS OF INSPECTION TYPES
* (a) INSPECTION NON- SPECIFIC
Inspection document tYPe 2.1 with the order of compliance Declaration with the order. of compliance Statement by the manufacturer. Validated
Inspection document tyPe 2.2 Test report withthe order, of compliance Slatement of resultsof non-specific with indication inspection. Validatedby the manufacturer
in the if specifled inspection by specific may be replaced inspection a) Non-speciflc order. or the standard material
- (b) INSPECTION SPEC|F|C
Inspection certificate tYPe 3.1 with the of compliance Statement of resultsof order,with indication inspection specific by the manufacturer's Validated representative inspection authorised of the manufacturing independent department.
Inspection certificate tyPe 3.2 withthe order, of compliance Statement of resultsof specific with indication inspection. authorised Validatedby the manufacturer's of independent representative inspection and either department the manufacturing inspection authorised the purchaser's designated or the inspector representative by the officialregulations.
by a competent certified manufacturer systemof the material b) Qualitymanagement assessment a specific undergone and having withinthe community bodyestiblished for materials
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AND DIMENSIONS CONDITION 6.4 MATERIAL
Theconditionofthematerialcouldhaveanadverseeffectontheservice|ifeof thecomponent;itisthereforeanimportantinspectionpoint'Thepointsforinspection mustinclude: and surfacecondition' dimensions imperfections, visible inspection, General GeneralinsPections the methodsof handling' conditions' of storage takesaccount This type of inspection tolerances' or pipesand distortion of plates numUei
Visiblg imperfections . a - L r ^ r ^ + r - ^ m a ^ , , f a n f r r r i n . . rn
T y p i c a l vi si b |e i mp e rfe cti o n sa.r e.usua||yattr ibutabletothemanufactur i ngpr oc es s an if they appearat the or raminations cordraps,which oreakt'hesurface wourdincrude may be presentin the body of the material' edge of the plate.For laminations,.which maybe required' probe usinga compresston testing ultrasonic
GoldLaP
PlateLamination
D i m e n si o n s widthandthickness' length' thiswouldinclude For ptates but wouldalsocover thickness' andwa.ll For pipes,this wouil nof onryinitudelength cast or the materiar of the inspection At tnis"stage of oiameLrand ovarity. inspection certificate' the material against for validati6n heatnumbermay -r.o n" recorded
ilJffi::Jt.jitJ..,"n
scaleand rust,*ut't-*in.
mill excessive notshow it must is important, of themateriar damage'

mechanical or haveunacceptable o"orvpitted,
T h e r ea re fo u rg ra d e so fru stingwhichtheinspector m ayhavetoconsider :
with adherent Rust Grade A Steel surface largely covered rust

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mill scale with little or no
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Rust Grade B
Steel surface,which has begun to rust, and from which mill scale has begun to flake.
Rust Grade C Steel surface on which the mill scale has rusted away or from which it Slight pitting visible under normalvision. can be scrapped.
Rust Grade D
Steel surface on which mill scale has rusted away.General pitting visible under normalvision.
6.5 SUMMARY
duties and an Materialinspectionis an importantpart of the Inspector's is key to success. documentation involved the of the understanding must be approached in a logicaland precisemanner if Materialinspection is to be achieved. This can be difficultif the materialverification and traceability safetyprecautions may haveto be provided, material is not readilyaccessible, access be carriedout. can observed and authorisation obtained beforematerialinspection and the required the levelof inspection Reference to the qualityplan shouldidentify point at which inspection drawing should takes place. Reference to a fabrication provide of the material. information on the typeand location
Welding Inspection Rev0 Jun 06 Materials Inspection Copyright @2006,TWI Ltd
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available' documents fromthe inspection type cannotbe determined lf material may material the of identifying io"u*"nt is missini,othermethods or if the inspection needto be used' Thesemethodsmayinc|udebutarenotlimitedto:sp arktest,spectroscop|c test etc' Thesetypesof tests are hardness scleroscope "n"fysii, ,nafyrir,'"n"*i."f to may be required test house,and the Inspector in "pproued conducteJby normally with the purchaseorder or witness these tests in order to verify compliance atestandard(s)' appropri - Fundamentals and vocabulary systems - EN /SO 9000Quatity management
WeldinglnsPection Rev 0 Jun 06 lnsPection Materials @2006,TWI Ltd Copyright
6.7
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Wtr'
WORLDCENTREFOR MATERIALS ]OINING TECIJNOLOGY
TWI
woRLD cENTRE FoR
+'f.lT;iH"l"'INING YEEE
Questions
Materials inspection QU1. Whatarethreeessential aspects to materials inspection that inspector should consider.
QU2.
What is the best NDT method to be used for the detection of lamination in materials?
QU3.
What are the point of inspectionwhen inspectingthe materia! conditionand dimensions?
Weldinginspection Rev0 Jun06 Copyright @2006,TWI Ltd
QU6
Section07 Codes& Standards
TWI
woRLDcENTREFoR
wtr ffit#'"i'*"
ANDSTANDARDS 7.0 CODES

7.1 GENERAL
and for the lnspectorto carry a wide range of codes It is not necessary or more the specifica,tion in the p"rrorr"n.e of his/herduties.Normally standards the However required' is the only document preciselytne coniractspecification the and m'ay referencesupportingcodes and standards contractspecincaiion documentsshouroknowwhereto accessthese normative ;;;;i;, Thefo||owingisalistofdefinitionsre|atingtocodesandstandardswhichthe duties inspection whilstcarrying rn"y "ot6 across lnspector 7.2 DE F IN IT ION S
or characteristics rules'guidelines that provides a document NormativedOCUment: or theirresults' for activities such as which coversdocuments is a genericterm., document The term normative and regulations'* codesof practice techniJ specifications, standards, and approved by a Standard: a documentthat is establishedby consensus bodY' recognised rules'characteristics use,guidelines' for commonand repeated provides, A standard degreeof order of the optimum aimedat the achievement or theirresults, for activities * in a givencontext. H a r m o n i s e d S t a n d a r d s : s t a n d a r d s o n t h e s a m e s u b j e c tprocesses a p p r o v e and dbydifferent products.,. oi interchangeability establish that bodies, standardising to according provided of test resultl or infbrmation or mutualunderstanding services, thesestandards" for the or procedures practices that recommends Code of practice: a document or structures of equipment' utilisation maintenance, installation, manufacture, design, products. of a or independent A code of practicemay be a standard,a part of a standard standard* rules that is adoptedby an bindinglegislative Regulation:a documentproviding authoritY.* legalor administrative and regulations for standards Authority: a body ( responsible thathal legalpowersand rights'* that has .p"tiii" tasks and composition) entity
7.1
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Regulatory authority: authority that is responsiblefor preparingor adopting regulations" authority:authority for enforcing Enforcement thatis responsible regulations* statingrequirements. Specification: document data and its supporting'rnedium statingneeds or expectations that is Meaningfull generally implied or obligatory.** stated, way to carryout an activity or a process*. Usually it is a written Procedure: specified parameters precautions and of all essential to be observed whenapplying description following an established standard, code or a techniqueto a specificapplication specification of the precise steps to be followed, Instruction: a writtendescription basedon an procedure, standard, codeor specification. established which procedures and associated resources Quality Ptan: a documentspecifying project, product, process by whomand whento a specific shallbe applied or contract" " ISOIECGuide - Generalvocabulary 2 - Standardisation andrelated activities ** EN ISO9000 - Quality - 2000 management systems Fundamentals andvocabulary
7.3 SUMMARY
Application standardsand codes of practice ensure that a structureor purpose. component willhavean acceptable levelof quality and be fit for the intended Applyingthe requirements of a standard, code of practiceor specification can be a problem for the inexperienced lnspector. Confidence in applying of the requirements one or all of thesedocuments to a specific application only comeswith use over a periodof time. lf in doubtthe Inspector mustalways referto a higherauthority in orderto avoid potential problems. confusion and
Weldinglnspector Rev 0 Jun 06 Codesand Standards Copyright o 2006,TWI Ltd
7.2
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MATERIALSToINING
BS 499:Part I BS 709 B S1 1 1 3 BS 1453 BS 1821 BS 2493 BS 2633 BS 2640 BS 2654 Part3 BS 2901: BS 2926 BS 2926 BS3019 BS 3604 BS 3605 BS 4515 BS 4570 BS 4677 BS 4872Part1: B S4 8 7 2 P a r t 2 : BS 6323 BS 6693 BS 6990 B S7 1 9 1 BS 7570
-Glossary of Welding Terms'

' 1 _ r _ 1 _ : r ' i : , '
r " :
Methods of destructlve tesrlng luslurr wcrunu JUrl
,r :
::
; ::!-: ::::;r:r ::::;: :;;.;;;i; ;;l;i i; ;i;J

g Ul Wcltttl
for destgnano Specification

Specftcaton Tor Tlller lllatelldlr
g n t ' ? t i f l 9 P l 4 t r t . = , , , , ,r,, , : : _ ^ : - _ - ; : : : :
r(,lrgao v'erurrrY'
we classI oxY-acetYlene @for fluids. carrying for MMAwelding l;;;llov steeleiectrodes workfor carrying PiPe fluids.
l- ol u
Specificationfor class ll oxy ace{yretre
r9
^+or{
ol venlcal sleel werueurrvrr rsrl for manufacture Specification
;ff;;;i;ks
Fillerrods and wiresfor copperano copperarroys'

tor cnromlumcGIIIoIrrrurl Specification
industry. for the petroleum shelts withbutt_wetded

doc fnr l\/l[/lA
-tssr srev(' Specification lor chromlum elcnrotrllulll rrru^ttr
tubes. for seamless Epecification
TIGwelding. steelwith alloy Ferritic purposes; tor pressure anntuOes SteelEpes poses. temperat@ elevated soecified
offshore. s";ification forlusionweldingof steelcastings' workfor nlesssteelPiPe fluids. carrying .
ni
of steel. weldinq
TIG or MIG weldino of aluminiumano lls alloys
Fusion required' s not

s for automobile'
purposes' engineering and general mechanical
of ditfuslblenyorogenIn welo tlrerar. Methodfor determination
residues.
Snenificalion for weldable Strucruralsleels Torllxeu urrbl
fluidsor their Process : ==: : i 1
quiPment'
Inspector Welding Rev 0 Jun 06 and Standards Codes @2006,TWI Ltd Copyright
7.3
'FfX/f =-:.:=
t//// /z
woRLDcENTREFoR r, acRr ar .s |oINING ----, """-'
'B,..'-9N,,$.u..M.B=,EEi
l,t. i .:n.:
:i:::ia=;-i:l
test of welders- Fusionwelding- Steels. BS EN 287 Partl: Qualification BS EN 440 Wire electrodesand deposits for gas shielded metal arc of non - alloy and fine qrain steels. Covered electrodes for manual metalarcwelding BS EN 499 of non- alloyandfine qrainsteels. 1 Quality requirementsfor fusion welding of metallic materials BS EN3834-Parts
to5
BS EN 756 BS EN 760 BS EN 970 B S E N9 1 0 BS EN 12072 BS EN ISO 18274 Wireelectrodes and flux wire combinations for submerged arc welding of non- allovand fine qrainsteels. Fluxes for submerged arc welding. Non - destructiveexaminationof fusion welds - visual examination. - Bendtests. testson welds in metallic Destructive materials Fillerrodsand wiresfor stainless steels. and aluminium Aluminium alloys & magnesium alloys. Nickel& nickelalloys
Note: The Inspector should have an awarenessof standards that are printed in bold.
BS.]EN NUMBER
B SE N1 0 1 1 Part1: Part2: Part3 Part4. Weldingrecommendations for weldingof metallicmaterials. guidancefor arc welding. General Arc welding of Ferritic steels. Arc welding of stainless steels Arcweldinq of aluminium and aluminium allovs. Destructive testson welds in metallic materials. Non-destructive examination of welds- Radiographic examination of welded ioints. Tensile testingof metallic materials. Definition and classification of gradesof steel. Designation systems for steels. Charpyimpacttestson metallic materials. - Typesof inspection products Metallic documents. Welded,brazedand solderedjoints - Symbolicrepresentation on drawinos. Welding,brazing,solderingand brazeweldingof metal.Nomenclature of processesand referencenumbers for symbolic representationon drawinqs. Arc weldedjoints in steel. Guidanceon quality levels for imperfections. Classificationof imperfections in metallic fusion welds, with exolanations. for tungstenelectrodes and Specification for inertgas shieldedarc welding plasma for cutting and weldinq.
E N1 3 2 0
E N1 4 3 5 BS EN 1OOO2 BSEN1OO2O BS EN 10027 BS EN 10045 BS EN 10204 BS EN 22553 BS EN 24063 BS EN 25817 BS EN 26520 BS EN 26848
Welding Inspector
7.4
T\/[,rI
woRLDcENTREFoR
E::"t'"'f,Kandards
Copyright @2006,TWI Ltd
wlt
ffi"f;';*o
WeldinglnsPector Rev 0 Jun 06 Codes and Standards Copyright @ 2006, TWI Ltd
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EEGE TG8E
woRLDcENTRE FoR
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Questions
Codesand standards QU1. what is the difference between a codesandstandards?
QU2.
In code and standards the term ,,shail,,or,,shoufd,, normaily used. What do you understand by that term?
QU3'
As a.weldinginspector,what documentcan be obtainedfrom appticable codeor standards?
Weldinginspection Rev 0 Jun 06 Copyright@2006,TWILtd
QU7
Section08 WeldingSymbols
WeldingInspection Rev0 Jun 06 @2006,TWI Ltd Copyright
wcr ffi##f ^"

TWI
WoRLDcENTREFoR
SYMBOLS 8.0 WELDING

A w e l d j o i n t c a n b e r e p r e s e n t e d o n a n e n g joint inee ringdraw ng bymeansofa -i shown as preparation the oi*"nsion-ot .nJ detail every showing sketch detailed below.
Single'lJPreParation it can be information' givescomprehensive while this methodof representation drawing' andcan also'overburden'the timeconsuming to specify the method is to use a symbolic representation An alternative - as shownbelowfor the samejointdetail' information required
has followingadvantages: Symbolicrepresentation o simple andquickto puton thedrawing . the drawing doesnot over-burden canbe puton the main Symbols view- allwelding o no needfor an additional drawing assemblY : has following d isadvantages Symboli c representation joints(e.g., BS EN lso 9692) o it canonlybe used for standard for jointdetails dimensions . thereis not a way of givingprecise correctlY in orderto interpretthe sYmbols o ,ome training is necessary
Inspector werdins
Rev 0 Jun 06 WeldingSYmbols Copyright @ 2006, TWI Ltd
8.1
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il:#R::Ir^.x:
rEcHNoLocY
OF WELDED REPRESENTATION FORSYMBOLIC 8.1 STANDARDS JOINTSON DRAWINGS

namely: symbols, that are usedfor welding standards Thereare two principal EuropeanStandard joints- Symbolic on drawings - Welded, representation & soldered brazed EN22553 AmericanStandard Examination - Standard & Non-destructive Brazing, for Welding, Symbols AWS A2.4 but there are also some are very similarin many respects, These standards misinterpretation. to avoid thatneedto be understood majordifferences with sub-sections are givenin the following Standard Detailsof the European European from the differs Standard American how the about only brief information Standard. WeldingSYmbols Elernentary to help that is intended by a symbol Varioustypesof weldjointare represented to the shapeof theweldto be made. by beingsimilar interpretation pages. usedby EN 22553are shownon following of symbols Examples
Welding Inspector
8.2
06 Rev 0 Jun
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WoRLDCENTREFoR
Symbols Welding @2006,TWI Ltd Copyright
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SYMBOLS WELDING 8.2 ELEMENTARY

Designation Squarebuttweld of iointpreparation Symbol lllustration
tl V V
buttweld Single-V
buttweld Single-bevel
Single-Vbutt weld with broad root face
Y
(
buttweld Single-bevel face root with broad buttweld Single-U
buttweld Single-J
V V
N
Filletweld
Surfacing(cladding)
run Backing weld) (backor backing
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FoR woRLD cENTRE MATERIALSToNING TECHNOLOGY
SYMBOLS OF ELEMENTARY 8.3 COMBINATION

elementary weldsmadefrombothsides,the applicable Forsymmetrical below. are combined as shown symbols Desiqnation buttweld Double-V (X weld) lllustration of iointpreparation Svmbol
butt Double-bevel weld(K weld)
buttweld Double-U
buttweld Double-J
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SYMBOLS 8.4 SUPPLEMENTARY

the required by a symboltoindicate may be complemented weld symbols of theweld. shaPe Exam svmbolsand how thqy-?Ig of suoolementary of ioint prepqlqlg! Illustration Designation
ied are qlven below.
Symbp!
singleFlat(flush) V buttweld
Convexdouble-V butt weld
filletweld Concave
singleFlat(flush) V buttweldwith backing flat(flush) run buttweld Single-V withbroadroot faceand backing run
v
Y
K
8.5
'f\IrI lnnt VlJlJJ woRLDcENTREFoR JoININC IVIATERIALS TECHNOLOGY
weldwith Fillet bothtoesblended smoothly
mbot then the shaPeof the weld surtace does not need to be indicated precisely'
Inspector Welding Rev0 Jun06 Symbols Welding O 2006,TWI Ltd Copyright
ON DRAWINGS OF SYMBOLS 8.5 POSITION

for weldjoints,it is details comprehensive In orderto be ableto provide joint. weld the two sidesof the to distinguish necessary is by meansof: to EN 22553, The way thisis done,according o o 3l"r arrowline line lineand a dashed of a continuous lineconsisting reference dual ?
of representation. the method belowillustrates The schematic 2a

-
1 = arrowline line (continuous 2a = reference line(dashed 2b = identification line) (single-V symbol 3 = welding joint)
line)
THEARROWLINEAND THEJOINT BETWEEN 8.6 RELATIONSHIP LINE

end is called the arrow side andthe opposite Oneend of the jointlineis called otherside. The arrowside is alwaysthe end of the joint line that the arrowline pointsto (andtouches). who decides It can be at eitherend of the joint line and it is the draughtsman whichend to makethe arrowside.
WeldingInspector Rev0 Jun 06 Welding Symbols @2006,TWI Ltd Copyright
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theseprinciples' belowillustrates The schematic

'anow side' , arrowline
,/,/
=-i-_----)
'other side'
aboutthe arrowline' namely: Thereare someconventions . . it musttouchone endof thejointline linesuchthatit formsan anglewith reference it joinsone end of the continuous it
l n c a s e o f a n o n ' s y m m e t r i c a | j o i n t ' s u c h a s a s i n g | e b e put ve|joint,thearrow|ine thatwill havethe weldpreparation on to it (as the jointmember mustpointtowards shownbelow) is shownbelow' buttjointshouldbe represented of how a single-bevel An example
r.=
OF THE LINEAND POSITION OF THEREFERENCE 8.7 POSITION WELDSYMBOL
to the bottom be drawnparallel possible, wherever line should, The reference to it)' (or perpendicular edgeof the drawing that the arrowsideand othersideof the weld it is essential For a non-symmetrical for doingthis is as follows: The convention weldbe distinguished.
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vflct
symbolsfor the weld detailsrequiredon the arrowside must be placedon the line continuous
line on othersidemustbe placedon the dashed o symbols for thewelddetails jointwitha backing run. belowfor a single-V is illustrated Thisconvention
otherside
otherside
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LINEAND THEDASHED OF THECONTINUOUS 8.8 POSITIONS LINE

the continuous EN 22553allowsthe dashedline to be eitherabove or below lineas shownbelow.
or
between to distinguish weldthenit is not necessary lf theweldis a symmetrical Thus,a omitted. be the two sidesand EN z2ss3statesthat the dashedline should four symbolic ,i"gi"-v butt weld with a backingrun can be shown by either of the shownbelow. representations
single-V weld with a backing run
I
nlhor
cida
otherside
"rof arrow
l other side
otherside
l arrow --v-----------=-l
and dashed linesis an interim of the continuous re the position Nofe; This 'flexibility' so thatotd drawings(fo the obsolete85499 tnaieN 22553allows measure part 2, for example)can be convenientty convertedto show the EN methodof representation.
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WORLD CENTRE FOR MATENALS JOINING TECHNOLOGY
OF WELDS 8.9 DIMENSIONING

rules General for some types of weld and EN 22553 may need to be specified Dimensions for this. a convention specifies o r . side of on the left-hand of the weld are written for the cross-section dimensions the symbol sideof the symbol on the right-hand for the weldarewritten dimensions length all buttweldsare full penetration to the contrary, of any indication the absence welds S Y MB OL S F OR CROSS.SECTIONDIM ENSIONS
8.9.1
dimensions: are usedto indicate letters Thefollowing a Z s filletweldthroatthickness filletweldleg length dePth penetration fillets) butt welds& deeppenetration (appticable to partialpenetration
are usedare shownbelow. of howthesesymbols Someexamples
Partialpenetration single-Vbutt weld

r------\ '-------'----1,/
Fillet weld with 8mm leg
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WORLD CENTREFOR MATERIALS JOINING TECHNOLOCY
Filletweld with 6mm throat

r-------\
4
8.9.2
SYMBOLSFOR LENGTHDIMENSIONS
Tospecifyweldlengthdimensionsand,forintermitt entwe|dsthenumberof are used:letters the following elements), (wel-d weld lengths individual I (e) n of weld length weldelements adjacent between distance of weldelements number
filletweld double-sided for the intermittent is illustrated The use of theseletters shownbelow.
PLANVIEW
ENDVIEW
nxl(e) weld Nofe: dashed tine notrequired becauseit is a symmetrical

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FoR woRLD CENTRE

MATERIALSJOTNING
I ELNIf ULUU I
l// // /t IlJlJJ
for the convention filletweld is to be staggered, double-sided lf an intermittent thisis shownbelow. indicating
PLANVIEW
ENDVIEW
(e)
8.9.3
INDICATIONS ENTARY COMPLEM
Complementaryindications may be needed to specify some other of theseare givenas follows: of welds.Examples characteristics . by a flag Fieldor siteweldsis indicated
by a circle a part,is indicaied o A peripheralweld, to be madeall around

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PROCESS OF THEWELDING 8.10 INDICATION

by a numberwritten the weldingprocessis to be symbolised lf required, rine- as shownbelow' of Jforx at G end of the ieference the two branches between SomeWeldingProcess Designations
=MMA 111 =sAW 121 =M I G 131

135= MAG
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|nadditiontospecifyingthewe|dingprocess,otherinformat ioncanbeadded levelthe workingposition acceptance tne-ilor as_ Iuch anove; (shown tail an open that must be usedfor and the fillermetaltype and EN 22553definesthe sequence thisinformation. can instruction to a specific A closedtail can alsobe usedintowhichreference be added- as shownbelow'
,,'\b. +CdW - nQ 144
WITHAWS 2.4 IN ACCORDANCE 8.12 WELDSYMBOLS

by EN 22553are the that are specified and conventions Manyof the symbols sameas thoseusedbYAWS' are. The majordifferences o o o line) lineis used(a continuous onl! one reference line the reference on the arrow side go underneath for welddetails S!ffibols on the other side go on top of the referenceline for welddetails Slr1bols
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side other
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Questions
Weldingsymbols as to BS EN 22553.
QUl.
Sketch/describe the weld shownbelow.
QU2.
Sketch/describe the weld shown below
QU 3 .
Drawthe symbol to representthe weld shown.
QU4.
Drawthe weld symbol to representthe following:A 1Ommfillet weld welded on both sides, eachweld 30mmin length,the distancebetweeneach weld 1Omm, welds to be staggered, welded on site (field weld).
Welding inspection Rev 0 Jun 06 Copyright@ 2006,TWI Ltd
QU8
Section09 Introductionto WeldingProcesses
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woRLDCENTREFoR MATEzuALSJOINING rEcHNoLocY
PROCESSES TO WELDING 9.0 INTRODUCTION

9.1 GENERAL
of the four main arc-weldingprocesses,MMA, TlG, Common characteristics & SAW are: MIG/MAG tr u a tr o occursacrossthe gap between discharge when an electrical An arc is created metal and Parent an electrode causesa sparkto form and the sparkcausesthe surrounding The discharge gasto ionise and electrode the gap between to flow across gas enables a current the ionised arc an creating basemetaltherebY heatfor fusionof the basemetal the arc generates by the arc also causes the heat generated of TIG welding, With the exception to the weld pool transfer can to melt andholten droplets surface the electrode to forma weld beador weldrun Heat input to the fusion zone dependson the arc voltage,arc currentand sPeed welding/travel
9.2 PRODUCTIVITY
so that weldingcan be done in lf the itemsto be weldedcan be manipulated, can be used which will increase the flat position,higherrates of metal deposition productivity the rate of transferof molten weldingprocesses, electrode For consumable density(the ratioof the current to the welding related metalto the weld poolis directly of the electrode). to the diameter current the moreenergythereis for fusionand the current, the higher ForTIG welding, thusthe higherthe rateat whichthe fillerwire can be addedto the weld pool.
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TECHNOLOCY
9.3 HEATINPUT
formula: fromthe following is calculated Heatinput(Hl)for arcwelding Hl= V o l tsxAmps TravelSpeedx 1000 in mm/second travelspeed heat input is given in kJ/mm
unitsfor formula:
by the travelspeed. influenced Heatinputis mainly on the travel havea majorinfluence and the weldingprocess Weldingposition used be speedthat can principles: are general welding the following For manualandsemi-automatic . there is progression tends to give the highestheat input because vertical-up 'weave' relatively speed is profile travel get the forward and suitable to need to slow of the fast tends to give the lowestheat input because welding vertical-down travelspeedthatcan be used welding is a relativelylow heat input welding position horizontal-vertical in thisposition cannot'weave' the welder because of the needto use low tendsto give low heatinputbecause welding overhead travel speed fast and relatively current (downhand) can be a low or high heatinputposition weldingin the flat position aboutthe travelspeedthatcan be used the welderhas moreflexibility because heatinput to give the highest processes, SAW has potential of the arc welding very low ratesand TIG & MIGiMAGcan produce and the highestdeposition heatinPut. heatinputweldingwill tend to be in the Typicalheatinputvaluesfor controlled -3,5 -1.0 kJ/mm. to range WE L D IN G P A R A ME TERS
. . r . .
9.4
Arc Voltage to the arc length. is related Arc voltage
Welding Inspection
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where the arc voltage is controlledby the power source (SAW, For processes MIG/MAG& FCAW)and can be variedindependently from the current, the voltage settingwill affectthe profileof the weld. is raised,the voltagealso needsto be raisedto 'spread' As weldingcurrent the weld metaland produce a widerand flatter deposit. For MIGiMAG, arcvoltage has a majorinfluence on droplet transfer across the arc. WeldingCurrent Weldingcurrenthas a major influence on the depth of fusion/penetration of into the basemetal andadjacent weldruns. As a general rule,the higherthe current the greater the depthof penetration. Penetration depth affectsdilutionof the weld depositby the parentmetal and it is particularly important to control thiswhendissimilar metalsarejoined. Polarity Polarity determines whethermost of the arc energy('theheat')is concentrated at the electrode surface or at the surface of the parentmaterial. The location of 'theheat'withrespect to polarity is not the samefor all processes and the affects/options/benefits for each of the main arc welding processesare summarised below:
PROCESS DC +VE
POLARITY DC .VE
AG
onlysuitable for some electrodes & whenarc blowis a problem required for Al/Alalloys to'break-up'the refractory oxidefilm not used
best lesspenetration but higher penetration MMA deposition rate(usedfor root passesand weld overlavino) rarelyuseddue usedfor all metals - except TIG to tungsten Al/Alalloys (& Mg/Mg overheatino allovs) usedfor all GMAW metalsand notused solid wires virtually all (MrG/MAG) situations FCAw/MCAW somepositional basicfluxed to run gas-shielded & mostcommon wiresare designed on -VE:somemetalcored self-shielded wiresmayalsobe usedon cored wires VE particularly for positional weldinq best SAW less penetration but higher penetration deposition rate(usedfor rootpassesand overlavinq)
Welding Inspection Rev0 Jun 06 lntroduction to Welding Processes Copyright TWI Ltd @2006,
not used
usedto avoidarc blow - particularly for multielectrode svstems
9.3
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CHARACTERISTICS SOURCE 9.5 POWER

a spark to generate highvoltageis required ln orderto strikean arc;a relatively voltage circuit open the as the electrodeand base metal.This is known between -50 to 90volts. from in the range (OCV)and it is typically the between thereis a relationship Oncean arc has beenstruckand stabilised, on the depends that arc voltageand the currentflowingthroughthe weldingcircuit source. of the power characteristics electrical and power is knownas the powersourcestaticcharacteristic This relationship voltage a or constant current to give a constant sourcesare manufactured characteristic. 9.5,1 C ON S T A N T C URRENT POW ER SOURCE (MMA & manual welding typeof powersourcefor manual This is the preferred
TrG).
for a constantcurrentpower source is shown in The volt-amprelationship 'no (the OCV)and fromthis pointthereare position current' Figure1. This showsthe on the power curvesthat dependfor the variouscurrentsettings ari voltage/current source. current setsthe required TIG)the welder (MMA& manual welding For manual welder the length that arc by the on the powersource,buf arc voltageis controlled uses. A welderhas to workwithina fairlynarrowrangeof arc lengthfor a particular - if it is too longand the arc will extinguish and if it is too shortand the setting current 'stub' intothe weldpoolandthe arc will be extinguished. may electrode to by reference is illustrated principle of thistypeof powersource The operating 1. F i g u re The welder tries to hold a fairlyconstantarc length(B in Figure 1) for the and it constant he cannotkeepthe arc length (YJthat has beenset. However, current hand normal to due 1) will vary over a small working range (A to C in Figure welding. during movement The power source is designedto ensure that these small changes in arc (X to Z). Thus, in current will giveonly smallchanges welding duringnormal voltage that the ensures and this constant to be essentially the currentcln be considered of fusion. control welderis ableto maintain currentpower curveshave led to constant shape of the volt-amp The 'drooping' a'drooping'characteristic. to as having beingreferred sometimes sources
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9.5.2
SOURCE POWER VOLTAGE CONSTANT
This is the preferredtype of power sourcefor weldingprocessesthat have a FCAWandSAW). wirefeeder(MIG/MAG, Wire feed spieedand currentare directlyrelatedso that as the currentis increasein the and thereis a corresponding the feed speedis increased increased voltage' length/arc the arc maintain rateto burn-off to by reference is illustrated principle of thistype of powersource The operating 2 Figure Y on the powersource. B andthe current A weldersetsthe voltage in weld profileor as the to C (dueto a variation lf the arc lengthis decreased welding)there will be a welder'shand moves up and down during semi-automatic Z, givesa higherburncurrent The higher Z. to current in welding increase momentary pre-set value. to the (& back voltage) off rateandthis bringsthe arc length arc
Simi|ar|y,ifthearclengthincreasesthecurrentquicklyfa||stoXandthe levelB. backto the pre-set so thatthe arc lengthis brought off rateis reduced
in the changes welding during doesvarya little the arc voltage Thus,although currentthatrestorethevo|tagetothepre-Setva|uehappenextreme|yquick|ysotha to remainconstant. can be considered the voltage betweenvoltageand currentand their relatively relationship The straight-line small gradientii the reasonwhy this type of powersourceis often referredto as a 'flat characteristic'. having
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Figure 1 Typical volt-amp curves for a constant current power source
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Figure 2 Typical volt-amp curues for a constant voltage power source
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Questions Introductionto welding process QUl. what arethe four essentiat factorsfor fusionwerding?
QU2.
Name the static characteristic for power sources and give example for the welding process that suitable for those characteristics.
QU3.
Namefive energysourcesfor fusion welding.
QU4' ,?ir:i,tlr" *ffi:""
the dirferences between a rusion werdand a
QUs'
what do you understand by the term
o.c.v. anddutycycre?
QU9
Section10 MMAWelding
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1O.O M M AW E L D I N G
10.1 MANUALMETAL-ARC / SHIELDED METALARC WELDING (MMA/ SMAW).
Manualmetal arc welding(MMA) was first invented in Russiain 1ggg. lt involved a bare metal rod with no flux coatingto give a protective gas shield.The development of coated electrodes did not occur until the early tgiO0s, when the process Kjellberg was invented in Swedenand the Quasi-arc method was introduced in the UK. The most versatileof the welding processes, manual metal arc weldingis suitablefor welding most ferrous and non-ferrous metals,over a wide range of thicknesses. The MMAweldingprocess can be usedin all positions, with reasonable easeof use and relatively economically. The finalweldquatity is primarily dependent on theskillof thewelder. Whenan arc is struckbetween the coatedelectrode and the work piece,both the electrodeand work piece surface melt to form a weld pool. The average temperature of the arc is approximately 6000'c, whichis sufficient to simultaneously meltthe parentmetal,the consumable corewire and the flux coating.The flux forms gas and slag, which protectsthe weld pool from oxygen and- nitrogenin the surrounding atmosphere. The molten slagsolidifies andcoolsand mustbe"chipped off the weld bead once the weld run is complete(or beforethe next weld pass is deposited). The processallowsonly short lengthsof weld to be produced beforea newelectrode needsto be inserted in the holder.
*13-;lroCe atJig ;f gtjP tr thl !rDirr.Sntal C-nr:Stjrl Able giAlr+de f::[+rr]lia: *cre
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The Manual Metat Arc Wetding process.

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METAL ARCWELDING BASICEQUIPMENT 10.2 MANUAL REQUIREMENTS
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10)
(Constant current type) PowersourceTransformer/Rectifier "C) Hofding oven (Holdsat temperatures up to 150 Inverter power source. (Morecompactand poftable) rating) amperage Efectrodeholder (Of a suitable rating) amperage Power cable (Of a suitable Welding visor (Withcorrectratingfor the amperage/process) rating) Power return cable (Of a suitable amperage rating) Electrodes(Of a suitable type & amperage Efectrodeoven (Bakeselectrodes at up to 350 "C) Controlpanel (OnlOff/Amperage/Polarity/OCV)
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10,3 POWER REQUIREMENTS

ManualMetal Arc weldingcan be carriedout using either direct (DC) or (AC) current. alternating With DC weldingcurrent (+ve)or negative eitherpositive (ve) polarity can be used, so currentis flowingin one direction. AC weldingcurrent flowsfrom negative to positive, and is two directional. Powersourcesfor MMA weldingare, eithertransformers (whichtransforms mainAC to AC suitable for welding), transformer-rectiflers (whichrectifies AC to DC), (preferred dieselor petroldrivengenerators for site work)or inverters (a morerecent powersources). to welding addition For MMAwelding a powersource withA Constant Current(drooping) outputcharacteristic must be used. The powersourcemustprovide: . . o r o An OpenCircuit Voltage(OCV)to initiate the arc.Between 50 and 90 volts. Welding Voltage to maintain the arc during welding. Between 20 and 30 volts A suitable current range.Typically 30 -350amps A stable arc. Rapidarc recovery or arc re-ignition without current surge. A constant weldingcurrent. The arc lengthmay changeduringwelding, but consistent electrode burn off rateand weld penetration characteristics must be maintained during welding.
1 0 . 4 W E L D IN G V A R IA B L ES Otherfactors, or welding variables, whichaffect the finalquality of the MMAweld,are: (amperage) Current Voltage Travelspeed Polarity Typeof electrode ) ) AffectsHeatInput
)
EXAMPLESOF THE MMA WELDINGPROCESS
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10.4.1
CURRENT (AMPERAGE)
The flow of electrons through the circuitis the weldingcurrent, measured in amperes (l). Amperage controls burnoff rateand depthof penetration. Welding current levelis - manufacturers determined by the sizeof electrode recommend the normaloperating rangeand current Incorrect amperage settings whenusingMMAcan contribute to the following: Amperage too low: poorfusionor penetration, irregular weld beadshape,slag inclusion unstable arc, arc stumble, porosity, potential arc strikes. Excessivepenetration, burn through,undercut,spatter, porosity, deep craters, electrode damage due to overheating, high depositionmaking positional welding difficult.
Amperage too high:
10.4.2
VOLTAGE
potential Welding or pressure required for current to flowthrough the circuit is the voltage(U). For MMAwelding the voltagerequired to initiate the arc is calledthe open circuit voltage (OCV), which is the voltage measuredbetweenthe output terminals of the powersource whenno current is flowing through thewelding circuit. For safetyreasons the OCV shouldnot exceed100V,and is usuallybetween 50 - 90 volts.Arc voltageis the voltagerequired to maintain the arc duringwelding and is usually between 20 - 40 volts.Arc voltage is a function of arc length. WithMMA the weldercontrols the arc lengthand therefore the arc voltage. Arc voltage controls weldpoolfluidity. The effects of having the wrongarc voltage can be: Arc Voltage too low: Poor penetration,electrode stubbing, lack of fusion defects,potential for arc strikes,slag inclusion, unstable arc condition, irregular weld beadshape. Excessivespatter, porosity,arc wander, irregularweld bead shape, slag inclusions, fluid weld pool making positional welding difficutt.
Arc voltage too high:
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ocv 100v
Normal Arc voltage Range
Normalarc len
Welding amperage (DROOPTNG) CURRENT GoNSTANT OUTPUT CHARACTERTSTTC Largechangein arc voltage= small changein welding amperage t 5 volts = t 10 amps
10.4.3
TRAVEL SPEED
The rate of weld progression, the third factor that affectsheat input, and therefore metallurgical and mechanical conditions. The potential defectsassociated welding process withincorrect speeds whenusingthe MMAwelding are. Travelspeedtoo fast: Travelspeedtoo slow: Narrow thin weld bead, fast cooling, slag inclusions, poorfusion/penetration undercut, Coldlap,excesswelddeposition, irregular beadshape, undercut.
10.4.4
(TYPE POLARTTY OF CURRENT)
Polarity will determine the distribution of heat energyat the weldingarc. The preferred polarity of the MMA systemdependsprimarily upon the electrode being properties usedand the desired of the weld. DirectCurrent(DC) Directcurrentis the flow of currentin one direction. For MMAweldingit refers to the polarity of the electrode.
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DirectCurrent.Electrodepositive(DCEP/ DC+;. Whenthe electrode poleof the weldingcircuit; is on the positive the workpiece pole. the negative therefore becomes Electron flow direction is from the workpiece to the electrode. When the electrodeis positivelycharged (DCEP) and the workpieceis negatively chargedthis has the effectof generating two thirdsof the available heat energy,at the tip of the electrode, with the remaining one third of the available heat in the parentmaterial energybeing generated this will resultin an increasein the depthof the weldpenetration. Directcurrent..Electrodenegative(DCEN/ DC-) Whenthe electrode poleof the welding is on the negative circuit, the workpiece pole. Electron becomes the positive therefore flow direction is from the electrode to The distribution the workpiece. of energyis now reversed. One third of the available heat energyis generated at the tip of the electrode; the remaining two thirdsof the available heatenergy is nowin the parent material. Directcurrent with a negatively (DCEN)causesheatto build charged electrode Increasing up on the electrode, the electrode melting rateand decreasing the depthof theweld penetration. . The welding arcwhenusingdirectcurrent can be affected by arc blow*. The deflection of the arc from itsnormalpath due to magneticforces.
Alternating current(AG) Thecurrenta|ternatesinthewe|dingcircuit,flowingfirstinonedirecti thenthe other.With alternating current, the direction of flowchanges100to 120times per second, 50 to 60 cyclesper second(cps). Alternating is the flow of current current in two directions. Therefore distribution of heatenergyat the arc is equal,50% at the electrode, 50% at theworkpiece.
10.4.5
TYPEOF CONSUMABLE ELECTRODE
For manualmetalarcwelding thereare threegeneric typesof flux covering: Rutite electrodescontaina high proportion of titanium oxide (rutile)in the coating. promotes Titaniumoxide easy arc ignition, smootharc operation and low spatter. Theseelectrodes are general-purpose electrodes with goodweldingproperties. They can be usedwithAC and DC powersources The electrodes are and in all positions. especially suitable for welding (HA/)position. filletjointsin the horizontal/vertical
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Features: . rTloderate weldmetalmechanical properties . . . goodbeadprofile produced through theviscous slag positionarwerding possibre witha fruid srag(containing fruoride) easily removable slag
Basic electrodes. containa high proportion of calcium. carbonate(fimestone) and calciumfluoride(fluorspar) in thl coating. This makei tn"i, slag coatingmore fluid - this is alsofastfreezing thanrutilecoatings *ni.n .t.ists weldingin the vertical and position' overhead Theseelectrodes are usedfor werding mediuniand heavy section fabrications where higherweld quality, gooJ r".n.ri."l properties and resistance to cracking (dueto highrestraint) aie requiieO. Features: . low hydrogen weldmetal o rguires highwelding currents/speeds r poorbeadprofile (convex andcoarse surface profile) . slag removal difficult cellulosic electrodescontaina high proportion of ceilulose in the coatingand are characterised by a deeplypenetratin-g arc.and a rapidburn-off rategivinghighwelding speeds'weld depositcan be coarseand with fluid slag,deslagging can be difficult. Theseelectrodes are easy to use in any poiition rnJ'are notedfor 'stovepipe' their use in the welding technique. Features: . deeppenetration in all positions r suitability for vertical downwelding . reasonably goodmechanical properties ' high level of hydrogen - risk of cracking generated in the heat affectedzone (HAZ) It shouldbe notedthat withinthesethreegeneric groupsthereare sub-groups of covered electrodes providing a widerangeof erectrode choice. MMA electrodes are designed to operatewith alternating current(AC) and directcurrent (DC)powersources. Although AC electrodes can be usedon DC,not all DC electrodes can be usedwithAC powersources.
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*Operatinq Factor:(O/F)The percentage (o/o) of "Arc On Time"in a giventimespan. When compared with semi automatic weldingprocesses the MMA weldingprocess has a low O/F of approximately 30% Manualsemiautomatic MIGiMAG O/F is in the region60% with fully automatedMIG/I\IAG in the regionof g0% O/F. A welding processoperating Factor can be direcilylinkedto productivity. Operating Factorshouldnot to be confused with the term Dutv Cvcle,which is a safetyvaluegivenas the % of time a conductor can carrya current anOis givenas a specificcurrentat 60% and 100o/o of 10 minutesi.e. 3-50amps 60% and 300amps 10oo/o 10.5 SUMMARY OF MMA/SMAW Equipment requirements 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) A Transformer/Rectifier, generator, inverte r. (con stantamperagetype) A powerand powerreturncable.(of a suitable amperage.rating) Electrode holder.(Of a suitable amperage rating) (Of a suitabletype & amperage Electrodes rating. Correct visoriglass, all safetyclothing andgoodextraction
Parameters & InspectionPoints Amperage OpenCircuit Voltage. (OCV) AC/DC& Polarity Speedof travel Electrode type& diameter Dutycycles Electrode condition Connections e) Insulation/extraction 1 0 ) Any special electrode treatment TypicalWelding lmperfections
1)
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)
Slag inclusions caused by poor weldingtechnique or insufficient inter-run cleaning. Porosity from using damp or damaged electrodesor when welding contaminated or unclean material. Lack of root fusion or penetrationcausedby in-correct settings of the amps, rootgapor facewidth.
10.8
2l
3)
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4)
Undercutcausedby too high amperage for the position or by a poorwetding technique e.g. travelspeedtoo fast or too slow, arc length vottage) 1tfiere'tore variations particularly during excessive weaving. Arc strikes causedby incorrect arc strikingprocedure, or lack of skill.These maybe alsocaused by incorrectly fitted/secured powerreturnleadclamps. Hydrogencracks causedby the use of incorrect electrode type or incorrect procedure baking and/or control of basiccoatedelectrodes
5) 6)
Successful welding withthe MMA process is relianton a number of factors, not Ieastof whichis the skillrequired to produce a soundweld.This is dependent on the welder's ability to matchthe arc tength (thedistance fromthe tip of the electrode to the workpiece), to the burnoff rate,(therateat whichthe electrode is consumed). Advantages & Disadvantages Advantages 1) Field or shopuse 2) Range of consumables 3) All positional 4) Veryportable 5) Simple equipment Disadvantages 1) Highskillfactorrequired 2) Arc strikesiSlag inclusions 3) LowOperating Factor 4) Highlevelof generated fumes 5) Hydrogen control
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Welding process- MMA
Questions
QUl.
state the main werdingvariabres for the MMA werdingprocess.
QU2.
what type of power source characteristicsis considered essentialfor MMA welding process?
QU3.
Givethree advantagesof the MMAwelding processwhen comparedto the MAG welding process.
QU4.
Namethe three criteriathat will governthe number of weld passesin an MMA weldedjoint.
QUs'
Statetwo types of electricaloutput and give the advantages of each.
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QU10
11 Section TIGWelding
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11.0 TIGWELDTNG
11.1 PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS
ln the USAthe TIG process is alsocalledGas Tungsten Arc Welding(GTAW). TIG weldingis a processwhere meltingis produced by-heating with ,n'"r. struck between a non-consumable tungsten eteitroo'e and thl wort<piece. An inertgas is usedto shieldthe electrode and weld zoneto prevent oxidation of the tungsten electrode and atmospheric contamination of theweldand hot flllerwire (asshownbelow).
S h i e l d i n gg a s i n
G a sn o z z l e
Contact lube
Non consunrahle tungsten electrode

-Gaseous shielrl
O p t i o n ac l o p p e ib a c k i n g bar Wekl rnetal
Schematic of manualTtGwelding Tungsten is usedbecause it hasa melting pointof 3370"C, whichis wellabove anyother common metal. 1 1 . 2 PR OC E S S V A R IA B L ES Themainvariables in TIGwelding are: 1. 2. 3. 4. Welding current Current typeand polarity Travelspeed Shapeof tungsten electrode tip andvertexangle
11.1
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5. 6.
gas flowrate Shielding extension Electrode
sub-sections. in moredetailin the following is considered Eachof thesevariables
1'1.2.1
r . . .
CURRENT WELDING
current related to welding is directly wld penetration the arc lengthis kept constant, arc but the is increased current if the welding voltage the necessary to change For this reasonit is voltagewill increase. in orderto keepa fixedarc length is adjusted whenthe current setting heated and tip will not be properly low, the electrode is too current welding if the arc mayresult an unstable and melt, tip mightoverheat is set too high,the electrode current if the welding inclusions to tungsten leading
11.2.2
. . o
TYPEAND POLARITY CURRENT
negative with DC electrode obtained results are usually the bestwelding can hinderfusion or magnesium oxidessuchas thoseof aluminium refractory positive DC electrode AC or by using but thesecan be removed at the electrode heat is concentrated electrode, connected with a DC positively needsto be of greater weldingthe electrode for DC positive tip and therefore is to be of the tungsten if overheating than when usingDC negative diameter positive is used if DC is recommended torch avoided.A watercooled is aboutone tenththat electrode capacity of a DC positive the currentcarrying sections welding limited to and it is therefore one of a negative
Current Heatbalance Weldprofile action Cleaninq
DCEN
70% at work 30% at electrode
50% at work 50% at electrode
DCEP 35% at work 65% at electrode
Shallow.wide Medium Yes Yes- everyhalfcycle Poor Good Excellent capacity (3,2 Electrode (3,2mm12254) (6,4mm/120A) mm/400A)
Deep,narrow
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11.2.3
TRAVELSPEED
a a
travelspeedaffectsbothweld widthand penetration but the effecton widthis morepronounced thanthaton penetration. increasing the travelspeedreduces the penetration and width reducing the travelspeedincreases the penetration and width
11.2.4
TUNGSTEN ELECTRODE TYPES
Different typesof tungsten electrodes can be usedto suitdifferent applications: pure tungstenelectrodes are usedwhenwelding lightmetals withAC because of their abilityto maintain a clean balledenO.Hlwever they possespoor arc initiation and arc stability in AC modecompared to othertypei thoriated electrodesare alloyedwith thoriumoxide (tihoria) to improvearc initiation. They have higher current carryingcapacitythan pure tungsten electrodes and maintain a sharptip for longei Uniortunately, thoriais st'rgnily radioactive (emitting cr radiation) and the dust generated duringtip griniing shouldnot be inhaled. Electrode grinding machines usedfor tnoriiteotinjsten grinding shouldbe fittedwitha dustextraction system. ceriated & lanthaniatedelectrodes are alloyedwith ceriumand lanthanum oxides, for the samereasonas thoriated electrodes. They operate successfully with DC or AC but sinceceriumand lanthanum are not rjdioactive, thesetypes havebeenusedas replacements for thoriated electrodes zirconiated electrodes are alloyed with zirconium oxide. operating characteristics of these electrodes fall betweenthe thoriated types and pure tungsten. However, sincethey are able to retaina balledend duringwelding, they are recommended for AC welding. Also, they have a high reJistance to contamination and so they are used for high integrity welds where tungsten inclusions mustbe avoided.
11.2.5
r ' ' . . . . '
SHAPEOF TUNGSTEN ELECTRODE TIP
with DC electrode negative,thoriated,ceriated or lanthanatedtungsten electrodes are usedwith the end is groundto a specific angle(theelectrode tip angleor vertexangle- shownbelow) as a generalrule,the lengthof the groundportionof the tip of the electrode should have a length equal to approximately 2 to 2.5 times the electrode diameter the tip of the electrode is groundflat to minimise the risk of the tip breaking off whenthe arc is initiated or duringwelding (shown below) if the vertexangleis increased, the penetration increases if the vertexangleis decreased, beadwidthincreases for AC welding, pureor zirconiated tungsten electrodes are used theseare usedwith a hemispherical ('balled') end (as shownbelow) in orderto produce a 'balled' end the electrode is grounded, an arc initiated and the current increased untilit meltsthe tip of the electrode
11 . 3
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w[t ffiyo];';^
IMI
y9y-".:ryryI": "
ebctrodetip arigle (orvertex angle)
electrode tip withflat end
electrode tip with a 'balled'end
11,2.6
SHIELDING GASES
gasescanbe usedas shielding gases inert Thefollowing for TIGwelding: . o argon helium mixtures of argonand helium
stainless steelsand some cupro-nickel Note:For austenitic alloys,argonwith up to - 5% hydrogen penetration porosity may be usedto improve and reduce
Argon Lower thanwithhelium. whichcan be helpfulwhen Less welding thinsections. in arcvoltage with change variations in arc lenqth. thanwithhelium, Lower whichgivesreduced penetration. Pertormance item Arc voltage Helium Higher thanwithargon. Arc is hotter whichis helpful in welding thicksections andviscous (e.9.nickel). metals
Heatingpowerof the Highwhichcan be of advantage arc whenwelding metals with high thermalconductivity and thick materials. Argonis heavier thanair,and Protection Helium is lighter of weld thanair and lessgas to shield so requires requires moregasto properly in the flat and horizontal shield the weld.Exception: positions. Also,better overhead welding. drauqhtresistance. Obtained fromthe Availability from by separation and cost Obtained gas- loweravailability by the atmosphere natural separation of liquefied air and higher cost. lowercostand greater availabilitv. Characteristicsof argon and helium shielding gases for TIG welding
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11.2.6.1 SHIELDING GAS FLOWRATE

. . o if the gasflow rateis too -low,the shielding gas cannot remove the air fromthe weldareaand this may resultin porosity and contamination. if the gasflowrate is too high,turbulence occurs at the baseof the shielding gas column. Air tendsto be sucked in fromthe surrounding atmosphere, and thismay alsogive porosity and contamination. gas flow ratesaretypically shielding in the range-10 to -12 litres/minute
- i ' 1
flow ratetoo low
w
*TEIT
il 15
'::-
flow rate too high
1 1 . 2 .6 .2
B A C K P U R GING
It is necessary to protectthe backof the weld from excessive oxidation during TIGwelding andthisis achieved by the usea purge gas- usually pureargon. For pipewelding, it is relatively easyto purgethe pipebore,but for plate/sheet welding it is necessaryto use a purge channelor sometimesanother operator positions and movesa backpurgenozzle as the weldprogresses. The initial stageof backpurging is to exclude all the air at the backof the weld and havingallowedsufficient time for this the flow rate shouldbe reducedprior to -4|lmin). starting to weldsuchthatthereis positive flow (typically Backpurging shouldcontinue untiltwo or moreweld layersof weld have been deposited. For C & C-Mn steelsit is possible to make satisfactory weldswithouta back purge- and may be used in situations when it is particularly difficult to introduce an purge. effective 11.2.7 o . E L E C T R OD E EXTENSION
electrode extension is the distance fromthe contact tubeto the tungsten tip because the contact tube is recessed insidethe gas nozzle, this parameter can - as shownbelow be checked indirectly by measuring the stickout length
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Stickout
tip will not be adequately is too short,the electrode extension if the electrode arc to an unstable leading heated tip might overheat, is set too long, the electrode extension if the electrode inclusions and leadto tungsten causemelting diameter shouldbe 2 to 3 timesthe electrode length rule,stickout as a general
WIRES 11.3 FILLER

to the parent composition to use fillerwiresthat havesimilar It is usualpractice that will combinewith any of elements metal but they may containsmall additions and nitrogen oxygen Present.
NN C L U S I O N S 1 1 . 4T U N G S T ET
Small fragmentsof tungstenthat enter a weld will always show up on (be-ause of the relativelyhigh density of this metal) and for most radiographs will not be acceptable. applications to enterthe weld pool smallfragments causing shockto the tungsten Thermal and is the reasonwhy modernpower is a commoncause of tungsteninclusions thisrisk. minimise to havea current'slope-up'device sources to riseto the set valueovera shortperiodand so allowsthe current Thisdevice moreslowlyand gently. is heated the tungsten
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11.5 CRATER CRACKTNG

is one formof solidification cracking and somefillermetalscan 9l."tercracking , oe senstilve to tt_ 'slope-out' powersources Modern havea current deviceso thatat the end of a weldwhenthe welderswitches off the current it reduces gradually andthe weld pool getssmaller and shallower. Thismean:jl?ithe weldp.ool hasa morefavourabte shapewhenit finaly solidifies and cratercracking can be avoided.
11.6 COMMON APPLIGATIONS OF THETIG PROCESS

Theseincludeautogenous welding of longitudinal seams,in thin walled pipes and tubes,in stainless steeland otheralloys, on iontinuous forming mills. Usingfillerwires,TIG is usedfor making jointsin heavier highquality gauge pipeand tubingfor the chemical, petroleum ano powlr generitingindustries. It is alsoin the aerospace industry for suchitemsas airframes and rocketmotor cases.
11.7 ADVANTAGES OF THETIGPROGESS

' ' ' ' ' it produces superior qualitywelds,with very low levelsof diffusible hydrogen and so thereis lessdangerof coldcracking. it does not give weld spatternor slag inclusions whichmakesTIG particularly suitable for applications thatrequire a highdegreeof cleanliness (e.g. " pipework for the food & df nks industry, semiconductors manufacturing, etc). it can be usedwith or without fillermetal and on thin sections withoutfiller, it can produceweldsat relatively highspeed. it enables welding variables to be accurately controlled and is particularly good for controlling weldrootpenetration in all positions of welding. it can be usedto weldalmostall weldable metals, including joints,but d'issimilar is not generally usedfor thosewithlow melting pointssuchas leadand tin.The methodis especially useful in weldingthe ieactive metals with very stable oxides suchas aluminium, magnesium,litanium andzirconium. the heatsourceand fillermetaladditions are controlled independenily and thus it is verygoodfor joiningthinbasemetals.
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OF THETIG PROCESS 11.8 DISADVANTAGES

a a
a
O
processes' withotherarc welding ratescompared it giveslow deposition thanwith MIG/MAG and welderco-ordination thereis needfor higherdexterity or MMAwelding. than-10 mm. thicker for sections than MMAor MIG/MAG it is lesseconomical and so may not conditions to fullyshieldthe weld zonein draughty it is difficult welding for site/field be suitable is allowedto contactthe weld can occur if the electrode inclusions tungsten pool. for actionand so has low tolerance ih" pro."rs does not have any cleaning on filleror basemetals' contaminants
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woRLD CENTRE FOR MATERTALSJOTNTNG rEcHNoI,ocy
Questions
Weldingprocess - TIG
QU1.
Statethe processvariablesfor TIG process
QUz.
what porarityare normailyused for the TrG wetdingprocessfor werdingof carbonsteerand aruminium-or magnesium and give descriptionwhy?
Qu3'
statethe two typesof inertgasesthat mainry usedin TrG process andgivethe advantages of each.
QU4.
which erectrode or tungsten type is suitabre to be used for weldingof carbonsteeland aluminium?
QUs.
Give the advantages and disadvantages of ilG process.
Q U1 1
Section12 Welding MIG/MAG
T\[/I
wt m:'.:*"
FoR woRLDCENTRE
12.0MIG/MAG WELDING
12.1 THEPROCESS
Knownin the USAas Gas MetalArc Welding (GMAW). The MIG/MAG welding process is a versatiletechniquesuitablefor both thin sheet and thick section components in most metallic materials. ln the process, an arc is struckbetween the end of a wireelectrode and the workpiece,melting bothto forma weldpool.The wire servesas the sourceof heat (via the arc at the wire tip) and fillermetalfor the joint. The wire is fed througha copper contacttube (also called a contacttip) which conductswelding current into the wire. The weld pool is protectedfrom the surrounding atmosphere by a shielding gasfedthrough anozzle surrounding the wire. gas selection Shielding depends on the material Oeing weldedand the aiplication. The wire is fed from a reel by a motordrive,and the welderor machinemovesthe gun or torchalongthe joint line.The process welding offershigh productivity and is economical because the consumable wireis continuously fed.A schematic diagram of the process is shownin Fig.1. The MIG/MAG process uses semiautomatic, mechanised, or automatic equipment. In semiautomatic welding, the wirefeedrateand arc length are controlled automatically, but the travelspeedand wire position are undermanualcontrol. In mechanised welding, all parameters are underautomatic control, but they can be variedmanually duringwelding, e.g.steering of the welding headand adjustment of wire feed speed and arc voltage. With automatic equipment, there is no manual intervention duringwelding.Fig 1.7 shows equipment required for the MIGiMAG process.
Contatt tube
Consumableeleetrode Gas nozzle

Gas shield
-1
'i. ::t:
::: -- .':-::
-:. ;;: 1.:. .-,:4,:
Weld metal
Fig 1 Schematic of MIG/MAGWelding
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woRLDCENTREFoR
vccl
MArER-rALrrorNNc
Vltre ele6lrode
\..:,.,'' -.-a
aSSernttly
.---i7j
! 4 i
$Jeld;ng gEn
i,lj
Sc-cling uEit ioptiD4el) 5- Vt4re electtoGe in liner Relorn lesd S Pnmary !np{t Fovrer ftblding c:rrte4t q;hle 7. Gun switch circuit Cooling'.vatef in and cut Shietding gas trcm cylinder
or:o-'*fr
saJl eann
iSeek HSE gilidancei 1. 2. 3. 4.
Fig 1.1 Schematic of MIG4MAGWelding equipment
of the MIG/MAG Advantages Process: . . . . . . . . . . . wirefeed Continuous of the arc length self-regulation Automatic locations of stop/start number rateand minimal Highdeposition efficiency Highconsumable 0.1-2.OkJ/mm in the range Heatinputs Lowhydrogen Process Potential of weldpoolandjointline hasgoodvisibility Welder cleaning weld Littleor no Post (diptransfer) Canbe usedin all positions possibilities control Goodprocess of aPPlication Widerange
Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . of filleraddition control No independent levels spatter parameters to minimise to set up optimum Difficult weldments on thicker Riskof lackof fusionwhenusingdiptransfer maintenance equipment of level High values heatinputcanleadto highhardness Lower arc)welding (manual metal costthanMMA equipment Higher draftswhichmaydisturb precautions to exclude special requires Sitewelding the gasshield inertgas) Jointand partaccessis not as goodas MMAor TIG (tungsten welding - slagprocesses greater contamination can tolerate of basemetal Cleanliness
12.2
T\[|I WoRLDcENTREFoR
Welding lnspection Rev 0 Jun 06 MIG/MAGWelding Copyrighto 2006, TWI Ltd
wct Y#fff"t::f^^'
12.2 PROCESS VARIABLES

The primary variables in MIG/MAG welding are. . . . r . . . . . Welding currenVwire feedspeed Voltage Gases Travelspeedand electrode orientation Inductance Contact tip to workdistance Nozzle to workdistance gas nozzle Shielding Typeof metaltransfer WIR E F E E D S P EED
12.2.1
lncreasing thewirefeedspeedautomatically increases the current in thewire. yro d u ceid Wires areg e n e ra l lp n 0.6,0.8, 1.0,1.2,1.4 & 1.6m m dlam eter .
12,2"2
VOLTAGE
The voltage settingis the mostimportant setting in spray transfer as it controls the arc length.In dip transferit also effectsthe rise of currentand the overallheat input into the weld, An increaseof both Wire Feed Speed/current and voltagewill increase heatinput.The welding connections needto be checked for soundness, as any loose connections will result in resistance andwillcausethe voltage to dropin the circuitand will affectthe characteristic of the weldingarc. The voltagewill affectthe type of transfer achievable, but this is also highly dependenton the type of gas beingused.
r=
' ' t
il H
12.3
n tl
t t
tl
t t IJ
a
I
3
lncreasing arc voltage Reduced penetration, increased width Excessive voltage can cause porosity, spatter and undercut
Fig 2 The effect of arc voltage

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TWI woRLDcENTRE FoR
vootl'ff##;';^^"
12.2.3
GASES Ar
Fig 3. Gas composition effect on weld beadprofile
(suchas Al, Ni & Cu) an inertshielding metals and theiralloys For non-ferrous pure Argon or an Argon rich gas with a either This is usually used. gas must be gas is the reasonwhy the processis also fully inert The use of a Heliumaddition. this name precise use of terminology calledMIG welding(MetalInertGas) and for metals of non-ferrous to the welding onlybe usedwhenreferring should heatconcentration to Argongivesa moreuniform of someHelium The addition profile.Argonweld bead the shape of the withinthe arc plasmaand this affects 'hotter' for welding give a arc and so they are beneficial effectively Heliummixtures Copper or e.g, conductivity thermal with higher those materials base thicker Al u m i n i u m. - all grades, steels- thereneedsto be stainless including of steels Forwelding a stablearc and in orderto generate dioxide or carbon of oxygen addition a controlled metalthey molten the with react these additions wetting.Because give good droplet (Metal Active Gas) to as activegasesand hencethe nameMAG welding Ire referred of steels. to the welding termthat is usewhenreferring is the technical co 2 100% of the gas is Potential as the lonisation spraytransfer, CO2gas cannotsustain but potential it givesvery good penetration, of this high ionisation too high.Because spatter. lots of and arc very unstable a also globular transfer droplet promotes 02 Argon +15to 20o/o on the typeof steel (COz) depends or oxygen dioxide percentage of carbon The has a much lower Argon used. being beingweldedand the mode of metaltransfer and can sustainspray transferabove 24 weldingvolts. Argon lonisltion potential than COz. We mix both but lowerpenetration givesa verystablearc and littlespatter, of to get the benefit in argon 2oo/o COz 5 between gas of in mixtures irgon and bOz CO2 little spatter. very and arc penetration a stable with $as is gasesi.e. good bo-th low some and carbon and is widelyusedfor than argonor its mixtures muctrlcheaper alloysteels Argon +1 to 5o/oOz steelsand somelow alloysteels' usedfor stainless Widely
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v[o, lffi*'"'*o
hlaterial lhrckce-qsirtrlil.c I B:ptransfer .A.rgon.,i.Qu neslu 165
F 6
,0.,t r 12 li lr
15+
Argon'O.mixlur5
Argon.COa mirtures
l+!sx.qq:.
Figure4 Activeshietding gas mixtures for M.AG welding of carbon,carbon-manganese and low alloy steels (Blue is a cooler gasmixture; redis a hotter mixture). - Helium Gas mixtures in place of argongivesa hotter arc,morefluidweldpool and betterweld profile. Thesequaternary mixtuiespermithigheiwetolnj speeds, but maynotbe suitable forthinsections. Stainless steels Austenitic stainless steelsare typically weldedwith argon-CozlOz mixtures for spraytransfer, or argon-helium-COz mixtures for all modesof transfer. fn" oxidising potential of the mixtures are kept to a minim um (2-2.5%maximumCO2content) in order to stabilisethe arc, but with the minimumeffect on corrosionplrforrance. Because austenitic steelshave a high thermalconductivity, the addition of helium helpsto avoidlack of fusiondefectsand overcome the high heat dissifation into the material. Heliumadditions are up to 85%, compared with -21o/o for mixtures usedfor carbonand low alloy steels.Co2 -containing mixtures are sometimes avoided to eliminate potential carbon pick-up.
Materiat nickness imm).
Argon - QICOI rnixturei {sI}fag t|nnsfer .rnfy)
Figure 5 Active shietding gas mixtures for MAG wetding of stainless sfee/s (Blueis a coolergas mixture; red is a hotter mixture)
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TVORLD CENTREFOR MATERIALS JOINTNC TECHNOLOGY
:*.
.-t r i
'j+:-=
-.'... f {
,
,
'
adviceshouldbe sought. specialist steels, and duplexstainless For martensitic for weldingduplex available are 2.5%N2 up to containing Some Ar-He mixtures steels. stainless and copper and nickel and their Light alloys,e.g. Aluminiumand magnesium, alloys to oxidation. lnert gasesare usedfor lightalloysand alloysthat are sensitive purity to than commercial purchased rather gases be should grade inert Welding qualitY. goodweld ensure Argon surfaceoxide becausethere is sufficient Argon can be used for aluminium such as to oxygen, sensitive that are materials For the arc. to stabilise available gases in inert with to achieve may be difficult and nickelalloys,arc stability titanium of air. that 1.4 times The densityof argon is approximately some applications. at position, heavyargon is very effective the relatively in the downhand Therefore, risk is a there spaces, in working confined when is that disadvantage A air. displacing thewelder. and asphyxiating levels up to dangerous building of argon mixtures Argon-helium used for MIG weldingof light alloys,but some is Argon most commonly Helium mixtures. can be gainedby the use of heliumand argon/helium advantage produces pool than argon.The hotterweld possesses a higherthermalconductivity give contents Highhelium speed. in welding penetration and/or an increase improved With lessthan 80% profile, highspatterlevels. but produce a deep broadpenetration the welder globular-type transfer, possible. With argon,a true spraytransferis not 'buried' problematic in helium can be Arc stability spatter. arc to minimise use a sh-ould thereis therefore and voltage, the arc raises helium since mixtures, and argon-helium require mixtures Helium length. arc respect to a largerchangein arc voltagewith gas protection. the same in orderto provide highelflow ratesthanargonshielding There is a reducedrisk of lack of fusion defectswhen using argon-helium will offsetthe Ar-Hegas mixtures particularly on thick sectionaluminium. mixtures, 3mmthickness. overabout in material highheatdissipation
I I
Mater;alirli':knessintrnl,g I
.l
,i
i0
!t
ll
11 1-1
Argon - Heliufi mrxturos
Figure 6lnert shielding gas mixturesfor MtG welding of aluminium,magnesium, iitanium, nickeland copper altoYs mixture) red is a hotter (Blueis a coolergas mixture;
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woRLDCENTREFoR MATERIALTToINING
A summarytable of shieldinggases and mixturesused for differentbase materials is givenin Table1.

Metal I steel Shieldinggas Argon-CO2 Reaction behaviour Slightly oxidising Characteristics lncreasing COz content gives hotter arc, improved arc stability, deeper penetration, transition from 'finger-type to bowl-shaped penetration profile,more fluid weld pool giving flatter weld bead with good wetting,increased spatterlevels,bettertoughness than CO2.Min 80% Argon for axial spray transfer. Generalpurpose mixture: Argon-1 0-15o/o CO2. Stiffer arc than Ar- COz mixtures, minimises undercutting, suited to spray transfer mode, 'finger,lowerpenetration than Ar- CO2mixtures, type weld bead penetrationat high current levels. General-purpose mixture: Argon-3% Cor' Substitution of helium for argongiveshotterarc, higherarc voltage, more fluid weld pool,flatter bead profile, more bowl-shaped and deeper penetration profileand higherweldingspeeds, compared withAr- CO2 mixtures. Highcost. Arc voltages 2-3V higher thanAr- CO2mixtures, best penetration, higher welding speeds, dip transferor buried arc techniqueonly, narrow working range, highspatter levels, lowcost. Good arc stability with minimum effecl on corrosion resistance(carbon pickup), higher heliumcontents designed for dip transfer, lower heliumcontentsdesigned for pulse and spray transfer. gas: He-Ar-2VoCO2. General-purpose Spraytransferonly, minimises undercutting on heavier goodbeadprofile. sections, Good arc stability, low spatter, and generalpurposegas. Titaniumalloys requireinert gas backing and trailing shields to prevent air contamination. Higherheat input offsetshigh heat dissipation on thick sections,lower risk of lack of fusion defects, higher spatter, higher costthanArgon.
I Carnon
Argon- 02
Slightly oxidising
Ar-He-C02
Slightly oxidising
COz
Oxidising
Stainless steels
He-Ar- CO2
Slightly oxidising
Argon- 02
Slightly oxidising
Aluminium, Argon Inert copper, nickel, titanium alloys Argon-helium Inert
Table 1 Shielding gas mixtures for MIG/MAGwelding - summary
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12.2.4
ORIENTATION AND ELEGTRODE TRAVELSPEED
beadwidthand the narrower The fasterthe travelspeedthe less penetration, higherriskof undercut
o '
Increasing travel speed Reduced penetration and width, undercut
Figure 7 The effect of travel speed
Moderate Shallow Deep Penetration Minimum Moderate metal Maximum weld Excess Severe ModerateMinimum Undercut
Figure I The effect of torch angle
12,2.5
TIPTO WORKPIECEDISTANCE OF CONTACT EFFECT (GTWD)
over the weldingcurrentbecauseof resistive The CTWD has an influence to melt (see Fig 9). The weldingcurrentrequired extension heatingin the electrode as the reduces speed) feed wire (to the match at the requiredrate the electrode for penetration, of can cause lack extensions Long electrode CTWD is increased. gun. of the welding example,in narrow gap joints, or with poor manipulation This provides is reduced. CTWD when the increases current welding the Conversely, but can welding, during current the welderwith a meansof controlling the experienced power source' voltage witha constant penetration welding in manual resultin variable for a given rate increases the burn-off is increased, extension As the electrode extension, the electrode lncreasing heating. resistive due to increased current welding
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vcct
e.g. in mechanised applications, is therefore one methodof increasing deposition rates,as the wirefeedspeedis increased to maintain the required welding'current. Resistive heating dependson the resistivity of the electrode, the lengthof the electrode extension and the wire diameter. The effectis therefore more pronounced for welding materialswhich have high resistivity, such as steels. The electrode extension shouldbe kept smallwhen smalldiameter wiresare beingusedto prevent excessive heating in the wireand avoidthe resulting poorbeadshape.
Fig 9 Contact tip to work piece distance; electrodeextension;and nozzle to work piece distance Stable condition
Arc length L = 6,4 mm Arc voltage = 24V Welding current = 2504
Suddenchangein gun position

Arc fengthL' = 12,7mm Arc voltage= Increases Welding current = Drops
1 9m m
L'
f
Fig 10 The effect of increasing the contact tip to work piece distance
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WoRLDCENTREFoR
WOt
ffit-storNnvc
->
lncreasedextension
extension Fig 11 The effectof increasingelectrode of the heatfromthe weld poolcan causeoverheating At shortCTWDs,radiated increased and contacttube and weldingtorch.This can lead to spatteradherence tube. wearof the contact conditions up welding whensetting be checked should extension The electrode to the tube contact the from measured tube. Normally or when fittinga new contact modesare: metaltransfer for the principal CTWDs workpiece(Fig.12),suggested Metaltransfermode
Dip
Contact tube to work piece distance (CTWD) ( mm ) 10-15
Sorav Pulse
20-25
15-20
tip Gontact extension (0-3,2 mm)
tip Gontact recessed (3-5mm)
set up for spraytransfer
set up for Diptransfer
Fig llSuggested contacttip to work distance
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JON'ITNG YJ:IET]TLJ
woRLDcENTREFoR
12.2.6
EFFECT OF NOZZLE TO WORKDISTANGE
Nozzle to work distance(See Fig 12) has a considerable effect on gas shielding efficiency; a decrease havingthe effectof stiffening the column. The nozzle to work distanceis typically12-15mm.lf the CTWD is simultaneously reduced, however,the depositionrate at a given current is decreasedand visibilityand accessibility are affected; so, in practice, a compromise is necessary. The following givessuggested settings for the modeof metaltransfer beingused Metaltransfermode
Dip
Gontacttip position relativeto nozzte 2mminside to 2mm protruding

4-8mm inside 6 - 1 0 m mi n s i d e
Sprav (a l u mi n i u m) Sprav 12.2.7
S H IE L D IN G GA S NOZZLE
The purposeof the shielding gas nozzleis to producea laminargas flow in orderto protectthe weld pool from atmospheric contamination. Nozzlesizes range from13mmto 22mmdiameter. The nozzle diameter should be increased in relationlo the sizeof the weldpool.Therefore, largerdiameter nozzles are usedfor highcurrent, spraytransferapplications, and smallerdiameternozzlesfor dip transfer. The flow rate must also be tuned to the nozzlediameterand shieldinggas type to give sufficient weld poolcoverage. Gas nozzles for dip transfer welding tendto be tapered at the outletof the nozzle Joint accessand joint type shouldalso be considered when selecting the gas nozzleand flow rate.Use of too smalla nozzle required may causeit to become obstructed by spattermorequicklyand, if the wire bendson leaving the contact tube theshielding envelope andarc location maynotcoincide. 12.2.8 TYPES OF METAL TRANSFER
:> q!
.{
Jransltrcn reqic.:r Gl+bir''ar ifrnstr 'r'u eld:r'rg cutiel]!.
I
l I
.i
Fig 13.Arc characteristicc.!rue, schematic

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1)
Dip Transfer:
Key - characteristics: intothe weld pool or shortcircuiting by wire'dipping' . Metaltransfer low heatinputprocess . Relatively . LowweldPoolfluiditY lessthan3'2mm, andtypically 0.8mm metal above . Usedforthinsheet and rootrunsin openbuttjoints section of thicker welding positional tuned if poorly can be a problem and spatter . stability Process set up and applied . Lackof fusionriskif poorly and alloys metals . Notusedfor non-ferrous the arc between50 - 200 timesisecond. the wire short-circuits In dip transfer of COz& argon$?S+ or mixtures with COz achieved is normally This type oi transfer volts< 24 volts. low amps& welding
*.:=:."=J]
Fig 14.DiPtransfer 2l SprayTransfer:
Key characteristics: . metaltransfer free-flight . highheatinPut rate . highdeposition o stablearc SlTtooth, above3mmthick alloys 6mmthickandaluminium above . usdon steels Abovethe transition and highvoltages. occursat high currents Spraytransfer which are transferis in the form of a fine spray of small droplets, current,'meial The high weldingcurrentproduces projected aq1olsthe arc with low spatterlevels. 'pinch effect')that cause the molten forces (knownas the strongelectromagnetic detachfrom the tip of the to neckdown.The droplets the droplet supporting filamJnt detach at which the droplets acrossthe arc gap.The frequency wire and accelera[e at the to the wirediameter sizeequates Th; droplet current. with increasing increases At very as the weldingcurrentincreases. signiflcantly levelbut decreases threshold (rotating rotate to start can droplets molten hign .rrr"nts (wire feed speedJ;,tne The arc currentis flowingfor the entire periodof the drop detachment, trJnsfer). arc voltage When the correct penetration and a highheatinput. in maximum resulting is used,the arc is shortwiththe wiretip 1-3mmfromthe surface to give-pray transfer of the plate.
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With steelsit can be used only in down-hand butts and HA/ filletwelds,but giveshigherdeposition rate, penetration and fusionthan dip transferbecause of the > 3mm but has arc heating.lt is mainlyused for steelplatethicknesses continuous welding largeweldpoolinvolved. due to the potential limited usefor positional
Fig 15 Spraytransfer
3)
PulsedTransfer:
Key characteristics: working range . overthe entire transfer without short-circuiting droplet free-flight . spatter verylow . lowerheatinputthanspraytransfer . withdip transfer riskof lackof fusioncompared reduced . loadedparts for dynamically of weldbeadprofile control . process control/flexibility - more plates . wireswiththinner lessexpensive diameter, useof larger ehobles welding) for aluminium advantage fed (a particular easily well operation the rangeof spraytransfer the weldingcurrentextends Pulsing spatter-free Thisallowssmooth, from dip to spraytransfer. transition belowthe natural level,e.g.50-150A belowthe transition at meancurrents to be obtained spraytransfer transfer for control of metal originally Pulsing was introduced and at lowerheatinputs. high alternately on the arc systemby applying cyclicoperation artificial by imposing andlowcurrents. are shownin variables pulsewaveform and the mainpulsewelding A typical the arc, maintain to 20-80A)is supplied current(typically Fig 16.A low background average keepthe wiretip molten,give stableanodeand cathoderootsand maintain occursduringa high currentpulse at currentduringthe cycle. Dropletdetachment very currentlevel.The pulseof currentgenerates currentlevelsabovethe transition filament pinch metal on the effect forces,whichcausea strong highelectromagnetic acrossthe arc gap. and is projected the dropletis detached the droplet; supporting high to ensure that spray Pulse currentand current density must be sufficiently positional can be used. welding globular) so that (not always occurs transfer
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Pulse transfer usespulses of current to fire a singleglobule of metalacrossthe arc gap at a frequencybetween 50-300 Pulses/second. Pulse transfer is a development of spray transfer,that gives positional weldingcapability for steels, combined with controlled heat input,good fusion,and high productivity. lt may be > 1mm,but is mainlyusedfor positional usedfor all sheetsteelthickness welding of > 6mm. steels
'd c
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Fig 16.Pulsed weldingwaveform and parameters 4l Globular Transfer:
Key characteristics: . irregular metaltransfer . rildium heatinput . rTrdium deposition rate . riskof spatter o hotwidely usedin the UK;canbe usedfor mechanised welding of medium thickness steels(typically 3-6mm) in the ftat(pA) position The globulartransferrange occupiesthe transitional range of arc voltage between free flightand fullyshort-circuiting transfer. lrregular droplet transfer and arc instability particularly are inherent, when operating near the transition threshold. In globular transfer, a moltendropletof severaltimes the electrode diameter forms on the wire tip. Gravityeventually detachesthe globulewhen its weight overcomes surfacetensionforces,and transfer takes placeoftenwith excessive spatter.Before transfer occurs, the arc wanders and its conecoversa largearea,dissipating energy. Thereis a shortduration shortcircuit whenthe dropletcontacts with the moltenpool, but ratherthan causing droplet transfer, it occursas a resultof it. Although the short circuitis of very short duration, some inductance is necessary to reducespatter, althoughto the operator the short circuitsare not discernible and the arc has the appearance of a freeflighttype. To further minimise spatter levels, it is commonto operate witha veryshortarc length, and in some casesa buried arc technique is adopted. Globular transfer can
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onlybe usedin the flat position and is oftenassociated with lackof penetration, fusion defects and uneven weld beads,because of the irregular transfer andtendency for arc wander.
12.2.9
TNDUCTANCE
Whatdoes inductance do? WhenMIG weldingin the dip transfer mode,the welding electrode touches the weld pool, causinga short circuit.Duringthe short circuit, the arc voltageis nearly zero. lf the constantvoltage power supply responded instantly, very high current wouldimmediately beginto flow through the weldingcircuit. The rapidrise in current to a high value would melt the short-circuited electrode free with explosive force, dispelling theweldmetalandcausing considerable spatter. Inductance is the property in an electrical circuitthat slows down the rate of currentrise (Figure17).The currenttravelling throughan inductance coil createsa magnetic field.This magnetic fieldcreates a current in the welding circuit that is in opposition to the welding current. lncreasing the inductance will alsoincrease the arc timeand decrease the frequency of short-circuiting.
No Inductance
*t
(u
tr
Inductance added
li ta
Time Figure17 Relationship between inductance and currentrise Foreachelectrode feedrate,thereis an optimum valueof inductance. Too little inductance results in excessive spatter. lf too muchinductance is used,the current will not rise fast enoughand the moltentip of the electrode is not heatedsufficiently causing the electrode to stub into the base metal.Modernelectronic powersources automatically set the inductance give to a smooth arc and metaltransfer.
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12.3 ARC CHARACTERISTIC FORMIG& MAG:

In MIG/MAGweldingwe requiredifferentweldingequipment than used for is controlled by voltage. MMA& TlG, as the arc length Weldingcircuit welding, ln MIG/MAG an arc is established between the wire electrode and the the arc requires work piece.To do this properly, a smoothflow of electricity through with minimum electrical circuit, resistance. This requires the complete a stablepower with appropriate staticand dynamic characteristics source and goodelectrical contact tube.Consideration mustalsobe givento otherelectrical at the contact connections in such as those on the weldingpowercableand the currentreturnclamp. the circuit, circuit resistance or causeresistance Thesecan increase to vary.Damaged cablesor shouldbe replaced. connectors The returnclampshouldbe attached to cleanbaremetal.Welders oftenmake painted panel work mistake of attaching the clamp to a or rusty Bothof the a surface. insulators are electrical and do not allowthe weldingcurrentto flow thesesurfaces properly. weldingarc will be difficult The resulting to establish and not very stable. electrical connection ate a work clampthat is hot to the Othersignsof an improper thatgenerate heat. touchor cables when attaching Anotherkey pointto consider the weldingreturnclamp is to place it on the piece being welded.Weldingcurrentwill seek the path of least so; if care is not taken to placethe weldingreturncloseto the arc, the resistance, to the operator and destroycomponents weldingcurrentmay find a path unknown The location of the return circuit, e.g, manipulators. unintended to be in the welding the likelihood of arc blorar. caninfluence clamp fromelectric the operator earthleadsmay alsobe required to protect Additional power shock.To achievethis we requirea ConstantVoltage(Flat) characteristic seefig 18. source,
Voltage
(v)
Figure 18 Constant Voltage(Flat) Characteristic

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The slopeof a 'flat'outputcharacteristic is typicatly 2-6Vper 100A.This means (voltage) in arclength thatany change brings abouta largechange in welding current. produces This characteristic an arc that remainsstableas it responds rapidly to any (dueto movement changesin arc lengthor electrode extension of the work pieceor pick-up of feeding torch,lackof smoothness the wire in the gun or erratic current at the This is power tube). oftenreferred contact to as a self-adjusting arc, as the sourceis notthe operator. the arc length, Thereis someinherent controlling self-adjustment due heatingin the electrical to resistive stickout, but a CV powersourcedesignhelpsto give a more rapid response. The flat characteristic also providesa rapid surge of whenthe wirefirstshort-circuits with the workat the startof a weld,so it gives current performance. arc starting Manypowersources excellent allowadjustment of the slope to control the peak shortcircuitcurrent; of the characteristic some have a fixedslope for a particular and are designed condition of welding.
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- BASICEQUIPMENT GASWELDING 12.4 METALINERT REQUIREMENTS
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7)
(Constant type) Voltage Powersource.Transformer/Rectifier Inverterpower source. Powerhose assembly.(Liner.Powercable.Waterhose. Gas hose) Liner Sparecontact tips. Torch head assembly. cable & clamp Power-return
8)15kgwirespoo|(Coppercoated&uncoatedwires) Powercontrol panel. 9) 10) Externalwire feed unit.
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Wire DriveAssembly The MIG/MAG 1) An internal wiredrivesystem
1) Flatplain topdriveroller
driveroller. 2) Halfgroovebottom
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3) Wireguide.
WoRLDcENTREFoR MATERTALSToINING
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TheMIGTorchHeadAssembly
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1) 2) 3) 4)
Torchbody. On/offor latching switch Spotweldingspacer attachment. Contact tips. Gasdiffuser. Spare shrouds. Torchheadassembly. (Lessthe shroud)
s)
6) t)
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WORLDCENTRE FOR MATERIAI.S JOINING TECHNOLOOY
INSPECTION 12.5 IMPORTANT POINTS/CHECKS WHENMIG/MAG WELDING

The WeldingEquipment: 1) equipment is in goodcondition. be madeto ensure thewelding should check A visual The ElectrodeWire 2l and the quality of the wire are the main inspection The diameter,specification of the wire is an important The level of de-oxidation factorwith Single, headings. wiresbeingavailable. & Triplede-oxidised Double in the wire, then the lower is the chance of The higher the level of de-oxidants of the wirewinding, in the weld.The quality coppercoating, and of porosity occurrence wirefeed problems. factors in minimising are alsoimportant temper Qualityof wire windings and increasingcosts (a)Randomwound. (b)Layerwound.(c) Precision layerwound. The DriveRollsand Liner 3) is only size for the wire and that the pressure Checkthe driverollsare of the correct the wire will deform to drivethe wire.Any excesspressure handtight,or just sufficient to drivethrough the linerand Thiswill makethe wireverydifficult shape. to an ovular wearof the contact tip and liner. tip andexcessive in arcingin the contact result Checkthat the liner is the correcttype and size for the wire. A size of liner will S teel g e n e ra l lfi yt 2 si ze so f w i rei .e .( 0.6& 0.8)( 1.0& 1.2)( 1.4& 1.6)mm diameter. wires. liners for aluminium are usedfor steelwiresandTeflon liners 4l The ContactTip. Checkthat the contacttip is the correctsize for the wire beingdriven,and checkthe the wire and contacttip will Any loss of contactbetween amountof wear frequently. of currentpick.Moststeelwiresare coppercoatedto maximise the efficiency reduce 2 coppersurfacesat the contacttip, this the transferof currentby contactbetween regulady. be replaced Thecontact tip should corrosion. alsoinhibits 5) The Connections. settings. is controlled by the voltage welding arc in MIG/MAG The lengthof the electric the inside This is achievedby using a constantvoltage volUampcharacteristic will affectthe natureand stability circuit in the welding Any poorconnection equipment. point. arc,and is thusis a majorinspection of the electric Gas& Gas Flow Rate. 6) welding, as is the flow rate to MIG/MAG important The type of gas used is extremely over the solidifying whichmust be adequate to give good coverage fromthe cylinder, and porosity. metalto avoidoxidation and molten
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OtherVariableWeldingParameters' 7) WIRE FEEDSPEED'Voltage,SPeedof travel, CiecXs shouldbe madefor Correct welding given on the aPProved and all other essentialvariablesof the process procedure. Checks: SafetY 8) or duty cycleof equipment capacity, checks shouldbe madeon the currentcarrying Correct extractiohiystems should be in use to avoid and electricalinsulation. to ozoneandfumes' exposure A check shourdarwaysbe madeto ensurethat the beingemPloYed' procedure : TypicalWelding lmPerfections 1) 2) 3) 4) cleaning' by pgorinter-run steelsonly)caused Siticainclusions,(onferritic vertically section thick welding i""I of sidewallfusion duringdip transfer down. to contaminants p"ioiity caused fromlossof gas shieldand lowtolerance on sheetmetal' mode metaltransfer Burn th?oughfromusingtheincorrect werderis quarifiedto weld the
12'6ADVANTAGESoFFLUXGoREDARcWELD|NG
FCAW and dual-shielded of self-shielded ln the mid 80's the development and welding, automatic semi of on-site application was a majorstep in the successful to be welded' of materials a muchwiderrange hasalsoenabled flux.This flux can a granular of a metalsheathcontaining The wire consists and so the process be usedin MMAelectrodes that wouldnormally elements contain hasa verywiderangeof applications. to the and compounds elements we can alsoadd gas producing ln addition which gas shield, of a separate flux and so the processcan becomeindependent "Dual weldingin manyfield applications. MIG/MAG the use of conventional restricted of flux and separate Shield"wires obtain their gas shieldingfrom a combination gas. shielding forms of with vario-us and hermetically Most wires are sealedmechanically point of coredwire of the joint of the wire is an inspection joint.The effectiveness can easily be moisture as basic fluxes, with wires containing welding,particularly or poorseam. intoa damaged absorbed practise when usingbasicwiresthat the firstfew metersof It is the accepted up the can be absorbed as moisture off and discarded wire from the reel is stripped is wires cored of Baking stored. .ot" of flux if incorrectly f""gtn of tn" wirethrougi'''th" a within flux of a contaminated to restorethe condition and will do riothing ineifective wire. 12.22 TWI WORLD CENTRE FOR Welding lnsPection
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A majoradvantage of fluxedcoredwiresis thatthey produce good extremely penetration. This is causedby the amountof currentdensityin the wire, or in otner wordsthe amount of current carried in the available CSAof the conductor.
12.7 SUMMARY OF SOLIDWIREMIG/MAG GMAW

Equipment requ irements: . . . . . . . . ff Transformer/Rectifier. (Constant voltage type) A powerand powerreturncable. An Inert, active, or mixed gas.(Argon shielding or COz) Gas hose,flowmeter,& gas regulator. MIGtorchwithhose,liner,diffuser, contact tip & nozzle. Wirefeedunitwithcorrect driverolls. Electrode wireto correct specification anddiameter. correctvisoriglass, all safetyclothing and goodextraction.
Parameters & InspectionPoints: . . . . . . . . . ' . . WireFeedSpeediAmperage OpenCircuit &Welding voltage. Wiretype& diameter. Gastype& flowrate. Contact tip sizeandcondition. Roller type,sizeandpressure. Liner si ze . Inductance settings. lnsulation/extraction. (Voltage Connections. drops) Dutycycles. Travel speed, direction & angles.
TypicalWeldinglmperfections : Silica inclusions. (Diptransfer) Lackof fusion. Surface Porosity. Advantages& Disadvantages: Advantages: Highproductivity Easily automated. (Dip& Pulse) All positional Material thickness range Continuous electrode
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Disadvantages: Lackof fusion. (DipTransfer) Smallrange of consumables. Protection for siteworking. Complex equipment Highozone levels 12.23
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woRLDcENTRE FoR MATERTALs JorNrNG

TECHNOLOGY
Questions
Weldingprocess- M|G/MAG QU1. statethe process variables for MIG/MAG weldingprocess
QU2.
What is the suitablepowersource characteristic for MIG/MAG process?
QU3.
Give fouradvantagesof the MAGwelding processwhen comparedto the MMAwelding process.
QU4-
state the four modes of transferin MIG/MAG process.
QUs.
state the importantinspectionpoint for MIG/MAG process
QU6.
state the typicarweldingimperfection with MIG/MAG process.
Weldinginspection Rev 0 Jun 06 Copyright@ 2006, TWI Ltd
QU12
Section13 Arc Welding Submerged
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woRLDcENTREFoR MATERIALSToINING TEcHNoLoGY
13.0 S U B M E R G EA DR CW E L D I N G
1 3 . 1 T H EP R O G E S S
Abbreviated as SAW,this is a weldingprocess wherean arc is struckbetween bare wire and the parentplate. The arc, electrode a continuous end and the molten pool are submerged in an agglomerated powdered or fused flux,whichturns,into a slag in its lowerlayerswhensubjected to the heatof the arc, thus protecting the weld from contamination. The wire electrode is fed continuously by a feed unit of motorwhichusually are voltage-controlled drivenrollers, to ensurean arc of constant length. The flux is fed from a hopperflxedto the weldinghead,and a tube from the hopper the flux in a continuous spreads elongated moundin frontof the arc alongthe line of weld and of sufficient the intended depthto submerge the arc completely so thatthere the weld is shielded is no spatter, fromthe atmosphere, and thereare no ultra-violet or infra-red radiation effects(seefigurebelow). Unmelted flux is reclaimed for use. The flux restricts use of powdered the process to the flat and horizontal-vertical welding positions.
Solidrleg Wrld mrtel
Work connrstion Runon plrtr
y4,
Submerged arc weldingis noted for its abilityto employhigh weld currents properties givedeep penetration owingto the and functions of the flux.Suchcurrents and high dilutionwhere twice as much parentmetal as wire electrode is melted. positivepolarityis employed Generally a DC electrode up to about 1000 amps (i.e. cladding becauseit producesa deep penetration. On some applications penetration DC electrodenegativeis used due to the shallower operations) and reduceddilution. At highercurrents or in case of multiple electrode AC is systems, to avoidthe problemof arc blow (whenused with multiple often preferred electrode positive DC electrode is used for the lead arc and AG is used for the trail systems, arc).
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sometimesarise in ensuring conformityof the weld with a Difficulties a guide effectof the flux.Wherepossible, line owingto the obscuring predetermined joint flux positioned welding head and preparation in front of the is wheelto run in the hoppers. of ships, pressure arc weldingis widely used in the fabrication Submerged long welds are required.lt where pipe, anywhere and railway carriages line vessels, from 1,5 mm upwards. can be usedto weldthicknesses joined Materials o . o o o steels of carbon wlding resisting) (e.9. andcreep finegrained lowalloysteels welding steels stainless welding alloys Nickel wlding resistance wearand corrosion to improve to basemetals cladding
13.2 FLUXES
mixedto various mineral compounds as granular The fluxesmay be defined formulations.
(morestable weld arc,improved Welding characteristics welding speeds) higher easierslagremoval, appearance, (YS,UTSand CVN ) Weldmetalmechanicalpr:operties of Mn and Si amount
Typeof fluxes
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are dry mixedand melted whenthe constituents The fusedfluxesare produced pouring granulated the moltenmixtureinto by in an electricfurnaceand thereafter to and screened are crushed theseparticles wateror ontoan ice block.Subsequently, product. glass-like yielda uniform of fusedfluxes: Advantages o . r . goodchemical homogeneitY are easier and storage thus handling lesshygroscopic in composition powders) without changes (fine removed to be allowfines changein throughthe systemwithoutsignificant they can easilybe recycled particle sizeor composition
of fusedfluxes: Disadvantages . . such as basic carbonates as some components in composition limitations process the melting to withstand wouldbe unable high (dueto segregation or extremely andferro-alloys to add deoxidises difficult loss)
may be bondedby mixingthe dry fluxesconstituents In case of agglomerated is then pelletised, This wet mixture or SodiumSilicate. with Potassium constituents to size. screened and crushed dried, fluxes: of agglomerated Advantages . r . the to the flux to adjust can easilybe added elements and alloying deoxidises weldmetalcomposition whenwelding fluxlayer a thicker allow coding by colour canbe identified
fluxes: of agglomerated Disadvantages . o . (requires baking) morehygroscopic aregenerally to porosity leading is melted, fromthe slagas it g?s may be evolved there may be changes in weld metal chemical compositionfrom the handlingof the of fine particlesproducedby the mechanical segregation granulated flux
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VARIABLES 13,3 PROCESS

which when changedcan have an effecton the There are severalvariables properties: and mechanical weldappearance Welding current distribution flux and particle Typeof 2. Arcvoltage 3. speed Travel 4. size Electrode 5. extension Electrode 6. Typeof electrode 7. Widthand depthof the layerof flux 8. (Leading, Trailing) angle, Electrode 9. 1 0 . Polarity system or multiwire double 1 1 . Single,
1.
13.3.1
.
WELDINGCURRENT
rate penetration andwiremelt-off increases current increasing
35 V arc voltage (2,4mm electrode diameter, effecton weldprofile current Welding sPeed) travel and61 cm/min . o to arc with a tendency a deep penetrating high currentproduces excessively prone cracking to solidification bead narrow or a high, undercut burn-through, and low currentproducesan unstablearc, lack of penetration XCssively possibly lackof fusion ARG VOLTAGE
13.3.2
and the electrode variesthe lengthof the arc between Arc voltageadjustment vice and the arc lengthincreases the moltenweld metal.lf the arc voltageincreases, the shapeof the weld bead crosssection determines versa.The voltageprincipally appearance. and its external
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45V 25V 35V (2,4mm electrode current diameter, 500 A welding effecton weldprofile Arc voltage travelspeed) and 61 cm/min withconstant current and travelspeedwill. the arcvoliage lncreasing o . . . " produce andwiderbead a flatter fluxconsumption increase porosity causedby rustor scaleon steel tendto reduce whenfit-upis poor rootopening excessive helpto bridge pickup from the fluxwhenthey are present alloying elements of increase
will: higharcvoltage Excessively r . c o o cracking to solidification produce a widebeadshapethatis subject welds in groove difficult makeslagremoval to cracking weld thatmay be subject fillet produce shaped a concave of filletwelds alongthe edge(s) undercut increase flux via the metal, weld the overalloy
andtravelspeedwill: current with constant the arc voltage Reducing o penetration in a deep weld grooveand produce arc which improves a "stiffer" arc blow resists
will: low arc voltage Excessively o . produce a high,narrowbead alongthe weldtoes slagremoval difficult causes
13.3.3
SPEED TRAVEL
lf the travelspeedis increased: . . r heatinputper unitlengthof weldis decreased lessexcess per unitlength of weld,and consequently lessfillermetalis applied weldmetal smaller and thusthe weldbeadbecomes poetration decreases
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30,5cm/min 61 cm/min 122 cmlmin (2,4mm electrode 500A welding diameter, current Travelspeedeffecton weldprofile and 35V arc voltage)
13.3.4
SIZE ELECTRODE
size affects: Electrode . a highcurrent at a givencurrent: the weld beadshapeandthe depthof penetration "stiff" penetrates a metal. Conversely, into the base arc that densityresultsin a "soft' arc that is less resultsin a in the same size electrode lowercurrentdensity penetrating. will electrode setting, a smalldiameter rate:at any givenamperage the deposition a molten metal than rateof deposition current density and a higher havea higher can carry more electrode However, a largerdiameter electrode. largerdiameter produce a can ultimately electrode, so the largerelectrode than a smaller current rateat higher amperage higher deposition
3 ,2mm
4.0mm
5.0
(600A welding 30V arc voltage and 76 Electrode sizeeffecton weldprofile current, cm/min travelspeed)
13.3.5
ELECTRODE EXTENSION
protrudes is the distancethe continuous electrode The electrode extension resistance heating of the electrode tip. At highcurrentdensities, beyondthe contact melting tip and the arc can be utilised to increase the electrode between the contact rate (as much as 25-50%) The longer the extension, the greaterthe amountof the melting rate. (seebelow heating andthe higher )
30mm 45mm 60mm 80mm
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13.3.6
TYPEOF ELECTRODE
steel,can with suchas stainless conductivity, witha low electrical An electrode Thus for the heating' greaterresistance experience extension a normalelectrode will be steererectrode rateof a stainress the mertin-g and current, samesize erectrode steelelectrode' thanthat of a carbon higher
,13,3.7
OF FLUX WIDTHAND DEPTH
and the appearance flux influence The widthand depthof the layerof granular layeris weld as well as-theweldingaction'lf the granular of the finished soundness is appearance and a roughweld with a rope-like too deep, the arc is too confined as to referred often surface flat aleas on the likelyto result,it may alsoproduce.local andthe surface escape, readi|y we|ding during gasf|ats. rne gasesgun"ot"o 9"1t9J granular shallow' layeris..too Oitto.t"O-lf .the of the moltenwetJmliaf is irregula1-y The occur' will spattering and Flashing in flux. the arc will not O" "ntiteiysunmErgeO porosity' andit mayshow weldwillhavea poorappearance, 1 3 . 4 S T OR A GE A N D GA RE OF CONSUM ABLES they may be for SAW which,although care must be givento fluxessupplied storage'In suchcases during to nignhumidity may be exposed dry whenpackaged, before recommendations with thl manufacturer's they shouldbe driedin iccordance may result' or cracking u.e, or porosity copper are usually electrodes feeding as continuous wirecoilssupplied Ferrous contacts ensuresgood electrical coated.This providesSomecorrosionresistance' in such be avoided should damage Rustand mechanical feeding. and helpsin smooth smoothfeedingof the e|ectrode. Rust wil| be interrupt as they wi|| bothproducts, (maycontain material sincerust is a hygroscopic generally to weld quality detrimental cracking' induced lnO tirui it canleadto hydrogen or absorbmoisture) such as oil' grease'paintand materials by carboncontaining Contamination pick-upin the is eipeciallyharmfulwith ferrousmetals. Carbon drawinglubr,icants such in properties' change undesirable and usually weld metalcan causea'marked in the weldpool' oeingabsorbed mav aisoresultin hydrogen contaminants Weldersshou|da|waysfollowthemanufacturer'srecommendationsfor andhandling' storage consumables
SOURCES 13.5 POWER
|narcwe|dingitisprincipal|ythecurrentwhichdeterm inestheamountofhea and parentmetaland also the meliingof the.electrode and this-controls generated are also ,titp" and size' Voltageand arc length and Oead suchfactorsas penetration increasingarc length and importantfactors with increasing*ft"gu leading to
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WORLD CENTRE FOR MATERIALS JOINING IECHNOLOGY
power In SAW weldingusuallya constant voltage(or flat) characteristic vice-versa. is used. source with a flat characteristic or Powercan be suppliedfrom a weldinggenerator voltages of approximately arranged to giveoutput 14-50V froma transformerlrectifier according to the outputof the unitthesecan be in excessof a and rangesof current 1000 Amps. characteristic curve is usuallydesigned The voltage-current to have a slight (see below) slope
YL
Vr,r
A I rr
LrtrrEnt
----------+
Volt-ampere curales of constantvoltage(flat) characteristic This unitwill maintain an almostconstant irrespective of the current arc voltage with whichthe wire feed flowing. The wirefeed motorhas an adjustable speedcontrol for a givenweldingoperation. Oncepre-set mustbe pre-set the motorfeedsthe wire speed. For the arc to function correctly the rate of wire feed to the arc at constant balanced by the rate keep burn-off to the arc length constant. must be exactly indicated Suppose the normalarc lengthis that with voltageVrrr at M in the above (manually for this lengthiS ly ?mperes.lf the arc shortens or figure and the current in motorspeed)to S (the voltageis now V5) the currentnow due to slightvariation rate,and the arc is lengthened the burn-off to M. Similarly increases to ls, increasing to L, currentdecreases to lr_ and burn-off rate decreases and the if the arc lengthens to M. arc shortens
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rvoRLD FoR CENTRE
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TWI
JEET tE3-
FoR woRLDcENTRE
JOINING NHTERJALS TECHNOLOGY
Questions Welding process - Submerged arc Statethe processvariablesfor submergedarc welding process.
eU1.
eU2.
and Statetwo types of flux used in SAW and give the advantages both' of disadvantages
QU3.
List typical imperfectionthat may be found in sAW welds?
QU4.
of the SAW process' Statethe advantagesand disadvantages
eUS.
State the power source characteristicrequiredfor SAW welding ma ch i n e
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QU13
Section14 WeldingConsumables
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woRLD CENTRE FoR MATERIALSJOINING
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rEcHNoLocY
14.0WELDING CONSUMABLES
14,1INTRODUCTION
Welding consumables are defined as all those thingsthat are used up in the production of a weld. This list could includemany things including electrical energy,howeverwe normally referto welding consumables as thosethingl usedup ny a ffiicular welding process.
14.1.1
MMA ELEGTRODES
MMA electrodes can be categorised according to the type of coveringthey haveand consequently the characteriitics thatit confeis. ForC-Mnand low alloysteels thereare 3 generic typesof electrodes, namely. . . . Cellulosic electrodes Rutile electrode Basicelectrodes
Thesegeneric names indicate thetypeof mineral/compound thatis dominant in the covering.
14.1.2
COVEREDELECTRODEMANUFACTURE
Electrode manufacturers produce electrodes by: . . ' ' . ' . Straightening and cutting corewireto standard lengths (typically 300, 350,& 450mmdepending on electrode ctassification & diameter) Making a 'dry'mix of powdered compounds/minerals (preciselevels. of additionsdependon individualmanufacturers formulations) 'wet' Making a mix by adding the dry powders to a liquidbinder Extruding the covering (concentrically) on to the corewire Hardening the covering by drying the electrodes carryingout batchtests - as required for electrode certification Packing the electrodes intosuitable containers
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bake f/iis r'sa higtt temperature 1 . For low hydrogen electrodes
- >--450oC
into packagingthat is packed electrodes are packed in smallquantities Vacuum 'tmmeantetq pick-up vacuumsealed- to ensureno moisture and as this are packedinto standardpackets that needto be re-baked Electrodes they do not be sealed, may..not iay ne some time afterbaking,and the packaging tow hydrogencondition,they thereforerequire in a guaranteed reich the end-user 2 hours, Note! You for approximately of 35OoC re-bakingat a typical temperature recommendations. itways fo1owthe manufacturers shoutd 2. For individual batchceriificationthis witt require the manufactureof a fesf pad for of a fesf weld from which a chemical analysisand may require manufacture pieces are tested fesf tensiletestand CharpyV-notch 14.1.3 ELECTRODE COVERINGS
Core wires used for most C-Mn electrodes,and some low alloy steel of the coveringthat is a very low C steel* and it is the formulation electrodes, determinesthe compositionof the depositedweld metal and the operating of the electrode. characteristics (- Typically 0.06%C,-0.S%Mn) to aid the manufacturing The flux coveringon an electrodeis formulated welding' during of functions a number process and to provide are: functions welding The major andgivearc stabilisation arc ignition/re-ignition 1. To facilitate by air metalfromcontamination the arc and molten gas for shielding 2. To generate into and flux impurities weld metalto give de-oxidation with the molten 3. To interact metal weld the molten the slagto cleanseirefine of the hot weldmetalfromair contamination 4. To forma slagfor protection properties mechanical to givethe weldmetalthe required elements 5. To provide that freezea temperatures weldingby meansof slagformers 6. To enablepositional metal weld the of range temperature abovethe solidification
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MATERIALS JONTNC
WUt
rEcHNoLocY
14.1.4
1 . S i ze :
INSPECTTON POINTS FORMMA CONSUMABLES

Wire Diameter& length.
2. Gondition:
Gracks,chips & concentricity.
3. Type (Specification):Gorrectspecification/code.
checks shouldalso be made to ensure that basic electrodeshave been through the correct pre-use fio""orr". i"uing' [."n baked to the correct "then temperature (typically. 300-350"i) for t hour and held in a holdingoven at 150 'c beforebeing issuedto the welders in heated quivers. coatingswiil deteriorate frux rapidrywhen damp rno "rL shourd Most erectrode oe taten lo inspect storagefacilities to ensureinai tney are,adbqu"Grv ow, and that all electrodes storedin conditions are of controiled temperature and humidity.
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14.5.1
EN 499
EN 499 - Coveredelectrodesfor manualmetal arc welding of non-alloyand fine grainsteels(SeeFigure1) This is the designation printon to eachelectrode that manufacturers so that it can be easilyidentified. The classification is splitintotwo sections, namely: CompulsorySection- thisincludes the symbols for: type of product strength properties impact chemical composition typeof electrode covering Optional Section- thisincludes the symbols for. weld metalrecovery the typeof current positions the welding the hydrogen content Thedesignation, Comqulsorv (Strength, Toughness & Coatingincluding any lightalloyingelements) must be identified on the electrode, however the optional (position, hydrogenlevels etc are not mandatory and may not be shown on all electrodes.
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Symbol 35 3B 42 46 50
TensileStrenoth N/mm2 440-570 470-600 500-&o 530-680 -l 560-720
Yield Strength min. N/mm2
Eloogation min.7o
Symbol
355 380 420 460 500
22 20 20 20 18
1 3 5
W e l d i n gp o s i t i o n All oositions All posilions, exceptvertiml down Flat butt weld, llat fillet weld. horizontal-verticat fiilet weld Flat butl weld, llat lillet weld Verticaldown and positions according to symbol 3
Symbol 1 2 5 6 7 8
Metal recovery, To
Type ot current AC+DC DC AC+DC DC AC+DC DC AC+DC DC
< 105 < 105 > 105 = 125 >.to5< 125 > 125 = 160 > 125<.160 > 160 > 160
E 4 6
I
Covered electrode fot manual metal arc welding
1Ni
I
Symbol B C
R
H5
I
Acid Basic Cellulosic Ru t il e A u t i l e( t h i c kc o a l e d ) R u t il e - C e l l u l o s i c Rutile-Acid Flulile-Basic
RR RC RA
Symbol Symbol lmplct Energy Charpy-V Iemp "C for 47J min No requirements +20 No symbol Mo MnMo 1Ni 2Ni 3Ni MnlNi l NiMo
Chemical composilion
' ol all -weld metal , o/o
7 0 2 5
Mn 2.O 1.4 > 1 . 4- 2 . O 't.4 '1.4 1.4 > 1 . 4- 2 . O 't.4
Mo
Ni
o.a- o.u o.3- o.6
o -20
30 -40 -60
z
'
o.a- o.u
)the. aoreed comoosit on
1 . 8- 2 _ 6 > 2 _ 6- 3 . 8 0.6- 1.2 0 _ 6- 1 . 2
- 'r., o-u
lf not specified Mo< 0.2. Ni <O.3, Cr< O-2,V< 0.O5. Nb < 0.05. Cu < 0,3 Single values shown in the table mean maximum values
Figure 1 The electrode classificationsystemof EN 499
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14.5.2
2003 AWS A5.1/5.1M:
2003, specificationfor carbonsteel electrodesfor shielded AWS A5.1/5.1M: metalarc welding(SeeFigure3) of covered for classification the requirements establishes This specification include electrodeswith carbon steel cores for MMA welding. Requirements of mechanicalpropertiesof weld metal; weld metal soundness;and usability moisture metal, weld the of for chemicalcomposition Requirements eiectrooes. electrodes,standard sizes and lengths, marking' hydrogen low of content is A guideto the use of the standard are alsoincluded. and iacfiging -optionat manutacturing include improved reguirements supplementary given in an appendix. limits' hydrogen difiusible and contents lowermoisture and ductility, ioughness and and optionaldesignators systemhas mandatory The AWS classification optional designatorsand ?ny requires that both the manditory classification part of digitsof the mandatory two last The Olsijnatorsbe printedon eachelectrode. and coating/covering the type of electrode are used to designate the classification below' are shown of someof the morewidelyusedelectrodes examples AWSA5.1 Classification E6010 1 E601 E6012 3 E601 E7014 E7015 E7016 E7018 E7024 TensileStrength(N/mm')
414
Typeof Coating Cellulosic Cellulosic Rutile Rutile ironpowder Rutile, Basic Basic ironpowder Basic, highrecoverY Rutile
482
Figure 2 Examplesof sorne of the commonly usedAWS A5'1 Electrodes'
to AWS A5.1 Typicalelectrode
Designates: an electrode
strength thetensile Designates; (min.) in ksiof the weldmetal
Designates: the welding Position the tYPe of covering the kind of current
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Figure 3 Mandatory Classification Designators 14.10 TWI
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Description General
Gellulosicelectrodes (For vertic al-downwelding 'Stovepipe welding' of pipelinegifth welds)
EN 499 E383C21 E4232C21 E4632C21 E423C25 E 4 6 4 1 NC i 25
AWS A5.1/ 5.5 E6010 E7010- G E8010- G E7010- P 1 1 E8010-P E601 3 E6013
* P = speciallvdesiqnatedpipinq electrodes
Rutileelectrodes
E382R12
(For general purposefabricationof E 4 2 0 R 1 2 low strengfhsfee/s - can be used for Ldown) excepfveftica all positions Heavycoatedrutile electrodes (lron-powder electrodes) (For higherproductivityweldingfor of low strength generalfabrication only be used sfee/s- can generally fillet or standing for downhand welding) Basicelectrodes E 4 2 2 B 1 2H 1 0 E 4 2 0 R R1 3 E 420 RR 74
E6013 E7024
E7016
E7018 (For higher strength stee/s, thicker E 4 2 4 B 3 2 H 5 sfee/swherethereis riskof H section Bi 1 2 H 5 E 7016- G cracking;for all applicationsrequiring E 4 6 6 M n l N good fractu re tough ness) Bi 3 2 H 5 E8018-C1 E556MnlN E4651Ni845H5. E 55 5 ZzNa B 45 Hsl E8018- G F901_8-G
E 62 5 ZzNi B 45 H5* E 1 0 0 1 8 - G * Vertical-down low H electrodes

Table1 Common electrodesthat are classifiedto BS EN 499 & AWS A5.1/ 5.5
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Wflt
WIRES 14.6 TIG FILLER

very similarto for TIG weldinghave compositions Fillerwrresmanufactured additionsof small very contain However,they may base materialcompositions. any as a meansof scavenging with oxygenand nitrogen that will combine elements or fromthe atmosphere. of the basematerial fromthe surface contaminants to the BS EN 440 and are For manualTlG, the wires are manufactured have (typically 1.2,1.6,and 2.4mmdia.)and for identification in 1m tengths provided with a (in accordance itattenedends on-whicfris stampedthe wire designation number' grades, batch a and,for some standard) particular
TIG cansumableidentificationis sfamped at the end of the wire
for automated root runs for pipe butt welds (particularly For makingprecision the same material can be usedthat are madefrom inserts consumable TIG welding) withit. or are compatible as the basematerial, pipean diameter maybe a ringbutfor larger pipe, the insert Forsmalldiameter of examples which is madefrom shapedstrip/wire, diameter insertof the appropriate are shownbelow.
1 4 . 6 .1
T IG S H IE L D ING GASES
and is the pure Argonis the shielding gas that is usedfor most applications - 8 to 12 typically are gas rates flow gr. ior TIG weldingoi sleet and preferred for shielding. litres/minute the arc and weld pool but alsois the medium as not onlyprotects The shielding by beingeasy to ionise.A stablearc cannotbe a stable-arc requiredto establiJh gas in air and hencethe welderwouldnot be ableto weld if the shielding established on. werenot switched
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-30% may be usedwhena 'hotter' - typically Argonwith a Heliumaddition arc is needed such as when weldingmetalswith high thermalconductivity, such as alloys or thicker section aluminium/aluminium alloys. copper/copper gasesare beneficial, Thereare somecircumstances whenspecial shielding for example: stainless steelsand Cu-Nialloys Ar + 3 to 5% H for austenitic N for duplexstainless steels Ar + -3o/o
14.6.2
TIG BACK-PURGING
the underside of a weldrootbeadneedsto be protected by For mostmaterials, - typically- 6 to B litres/minute duringwelding. an inertgas (a back-purge) < 2.5% it may not additions For C steelsand low alloysteelswith totalalloying steelsand mostother to use a back-purge but for higheralloyed alwaysbe necessary - and riskof lackof fusionif a back-purge oxidation theremay be excessive materials i s n o tu se d . 1 4 . 7 MIG/MA G F IL L E R WIRES Solid filler wires manufacturedfor MIG/MAG generally have chemical for particular base materials and the wires that have been formulated compositions steelswith Solidwiresfor welding to thesebasematerials. similar havecomposltions gasesare deoxidised to avoidporosity. with manganese and silicon activeshielding Mild steel filler wires are additions. There may also be titaniumand aluminium known as doubleor triple de-oxidised with differentlevelsof deoxidants, available of the wiresare moreexpensive but are moretolerant wires.More highlydeoxidised rust,oil, paintand dust.Theremay, platesurface e.g. mill scale,surface condition, welding. of the steelbefore in the amountof cleaning be a reduction therefore, yielda smallamount slagon the surface of 'glassy' additions Thesedeoxidiser of These smallpockets referred as silica deposits. commonly to of the weld deposit, painting galvanising or after with lightbrushing; but when slag are easilyremoved practice to During welding, it is common to use shot blasting. welding, it is necessary a thick slag, and they weld over these small islandssince they do not represent when multipass of the weld bead. However, usuallyspall off duringthe contraction level causingweld defects welding,the slag level may build up to an unacceptable arcstarting. andunreliable Steel wires usuallyhave a flash coatingof copperto improvecurrentpick-up the coppercoatingcan sometimes and to extendthe shelf life of the wire. However, particularly if thereis flakeoff and be drawninto the linerand wire feed mechanism, and erratic wirefeed. in the wire feed system. This may causeclogging misalignment contact may not be electrical as an alternative, although wiresare available Uncoated
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may be temperatures tip operating wires,and contact as good as with copper-coated higher. are: of steelwireconsumables for speciflcation Standards Sometypical metal - Wire electrodes for gas shielded and deposits EN 440: Weldingconsumables and finegrainsteels classification. of non-alloy arcwelding for gas - Wire electrodes, wires,rods and deposits EN 12534:Weldingconsumables steels Classification' of highstrength metalarc welding shielded but the most in the range0.6 to 2.4mmdiameter Wire sizes are tYPicallY on layerwound used sizes are 0.8, 1.0, 1.2 and 1.6mmand provided commonly feeding. for consistent spools of the wire and its' Spools should be labelledto show the classification diameter. althoughthe wires are also used extensively and metal-cored Flux-cored (Metal MCAW to as FGAW (Fluxcored Arc welding) and processis then referred CoredArc Welding)
14.7.1
GAS SHIELDING MIG'MAG
(suchas Al, Ni & Cu) an inertshielding andtheiralloys metals For non-ferrous pure Argonor an Argon rich gas with a either gas must be used.This is usually a d d i ti o n . Helium The use of a fully inertgas is the reasonwhy the processis also calledMIG onlybe thisnameshould useof terminology (Metal InertGai) andfor precise welding metals of non-ferrous to the welding usedwhenreferring heatconcentration to Argongivesa moreuniform of someHelium The addition profile bead weld the shapeof the andthis affects withinthe arc plasma arc and so they are beneficial givea 'hotter' effectively mixtures Argon-Helium e.g. Copper conductivity thermal higher with those thickerbase materials for weldirig o r Al u mi n i u m. - thereneedsto be - all grades, steels stainless including of steels Forwelding a stablearc and in orderto generate of oxygenoicarbon dioxide addition a controlled metalthey molten the with react additions Eecausethese -g"."r tive gooOdropletwetting. Gas) (Metal Active welding and hencethe nameMAG to as active are referred of steels. to the welding termthatis usewhenreferring is the technical on the typeof steel depends (COz) or oxygen dioxide of carbon The percentage below'indicated as beingused beingweldedand the modeof metaltransfer
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Y#fJMLSJONONG
'
1 0 0 %C Oz
for low carbon (Figure4) steelto givedeeperpenetration andfaster welding globular this gas promotes droplet transfer and giveshigh levelsof spatter andwelding fume
widelyusedfor carbon Argon + and somelow alloysteels(and 15 to 25o/oCOz FCAWof stainless steels)
Argon + 1 to 5o/oOz
widelyusedfor stainless steelsand somelow alloysteels
A
ARGON ARGON.HELIUM HELIUM
DIOXIDE UIUXIUE CARBON CAHtsUN
Figure 4 The effects of shieldinggas compositionon weld penetrationand profile

(r:rfiir th;ck;:ess lvtateriai
D;Ftrensier Argon-CO, nlxtures
mixtures Argoo"O, -Pulselilsfl; Argon-CO, rnixtures
Figure 5 Active shielding gas mixtures for MAG welding of carbon, carhon-manganese and low alloy steels Blue is a coolergas mixture;red is a hottermixture.
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- Heliumin placeof argongivesa hotterarc, morefluidweldpool Gas mixtures but permithigherweldingspeeds, mixtures Thesequaternary and betterweld profile. for thinsections. may not be suitable
STEELS .1,1 STAINLESS 14.7

for lOzmixtures weldedwith argon-COz steelsare typically stainless Austenitic The oxidising for all modesof transfer. mixtures or argon-helium-COz spraytransfer, in are kept to a minimum(2-2.5%maximumCOz content) potentiat of the mixtures performance. on corrosion effect minimum with the but the arc, order to stabilise the additionof helium steels have a high thermalconductivity, Becauseaustenitic into the the high heat dissipation helpsto avoidlack of fusiondefectsand overcome -25% usedfor for mixtures with are up to 85%,compared Heliumadditions maierial. -containing to avoided sometimes are mixtures steels. COz low alloy carbonand pick-up. potential carbon eliminate
0 lfricknes-cimm], Materrai
Ail s! nilic e/i C territic (lC. Argnr - t-iiiilnl - 0.S-?'-l'i'
10 11 12 ' !3 14 15+
A:gon . Gti4O'; rnixttt-res {spray transfer oniy)
sfee/s Figure6 Activeshieldinggas mixturesfor MAGweldingof stainless mixture. gas mixture; redis a hotter Blueis a cooler be sought. should advice steels, specialist stainless and duplex For martensitic welding duplex for are available to 2,So/oNz up containing Some Ar-He mixtures steels. stainless 14.7,1.2 L I G H T A L L O Y S , E . G . A L U M I N I U MA N D M A G N E S I U M ,A N D
ALLOYS ANDTHEIR AND NIGKEL COPPER

to oxidation. Inertgasesare used for lightalloysand alloysthat are sensitive purity to purchased commercial rather than gases be should Weldinggrade inert goodweldquality. ensure Ar g on : surfaceoxide becausethere is sufficient Argon can be used for aluminium such as oxygen, to that are sensitive the arc. For materials to stabilise available gases in with inert to achieve may be difficult and nickelalloys,arc stability titanium someapplications.
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The densityof argonis approximately 1.4 times that of air. Therefore, in the position, the relatively downhand heavy argon is very effective at displacing air. A is thatwhenworking disadvantage in confined spaces, thereis a riskof argonbuilding levels up to dangerous andasphyxiating thewelder. Argon-hel ium mixtures : Argon is most commonly used for MIG weldingof light alloys,but some advantage can be gainedby the use of heliumand argon/helium mixtures. Helium possesses a higherthermalconductivity than argon.The hotterweld pool produces penetration improved and/oran increase in welding speed.Highheliumcontents give penetration profile, produce a deep broad but highspatterlevels.With lesstnan A0% argon,a true spraytransferis not possible. With globulartype transfer, the welder usea 'buried' arcto minimise should spatter. Arc stability can be problematic in helium mixtures, and argon-helium sinceheliumraises the arc voltage, and therefore thereis a largerchangein arc voltagewith respectto arc length.Heliummixturesrequire higher flow ratesthanargonshielding in orderto provide the samegas protection. There is a reducedrisk of lack of fusiondefectswhen using argon-helium particularly mixtures, on thicksection aluminium. Ar-Hegas mixtures will offsetthe highheatdissipation in material overabout3mmthickness.
liateriaiir:i{knessimrn} ir I : -1 I .s ,ti f 11- + i{t i, l:. lj l4
4.r._:lcr.- rieli ulr rlt::{lljre5
shielding gas mixturesfor MIGweldingof aluminium,magnesium, Figure7 lnerT titanium,nickeland copperalloys Blueis a coolergas mixture; red is a hottermixture. gases and mixtures A summarytable of shielding used for different base materiafs is givenin Table2.
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.1,3 SUMMARY 14.7

Metal Carbon steel Shielding qas ArgonCO, Reaction behaviour Slightly oxidising Gharacteristics glvesno[er arc' content CO2 lncreasing penetration, deeper stability, arc improved 'finger'-type bowl-shaped to from transition profile, morefluidweldpool penetration weldbeadwithgoodwetting, giving flatter toughness better levels, spatter increased spray for axial Argon thanCOr.Min80% 0Argon-1 mixture: General-purpose transfer.
15o/oCO,.
Argono2
Slightly oxidising
ArgonheliumCOt
Slightly oxidising
CO,
Oxidising
Stainless steels
He-ArCO,
Slightly oxidising
minimises arcthanAr- COrmixtures, Stiffer mode, transfer spray to suited undercutting, thanAr- CO,mixtures, lowerpenetration 'fingeri-type at high weldbeadpenetration mixture: General-purpose lervels. current COr. Arqon-3% for argongiveshotter of helium SuOstitution morefluidweldpool' arc,higherarcvoltage, and bowl-shaped profile, more bead flatter welding higher proflle and deeperpenetration mixtures. withAr- COz compared speeds, Hiqhcost. thanAr- COz 2-3Vhigher Arc voltages welding higher bestpenetration, mixtures, arc technique or buried diptransfer speeds, spatter high range, working only,narrow low cost. levels, on etrect with minimum Goodarc stability pickup), higher (carbon resistance corrosion for dip transfer, designed contents helium for pulseand designed contents lowerhelium gas:Ar-40General-purpose spraytransfer.
6Oo/o{e-2o/o COz.
Argon-O, Argon A l u m i n i u m, copper, nickel, titanium Argonalloys helium

Mures
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Slightly oxidisinq lnert
lnert
undercutting only,minimises Spraytransfer goodbeadprofile. sections, on heavier and generallow spatter, Goodarc stability, inert require alloys gas.Titanium purpose air prevent to shields and trailing gas backing contamination. highheat neatinputoffsets Higner lowerriskof on thicksections, diJsipation higher spatter, higher lackof fusiondefects, costthanArqon.
welding'summary for MIG4MAG
14.18
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woRLDcENTREFoR JoINING MATERIALS TECHNOLOCY
14,8 SAW FILLER WIRES

Filler wires for SAW are made to AWS and EN standardsand the most commonly usedsizes are 2.4, 3.2,4.0 and 5.0 mm diameter and are available for welding a wide range of steels and some non-ferrousapplications, they have similar to the base materialbut for certification compositions standardsrequire flux/wire weldmetaldeposits to be madefor analysis and testingas required
14.8,1
SAW FLUXTYPES
Fluxescan be categorised into two types, namelyfused and agglomerated (Agglomerated fluxesare sometimes called'bonded' fluxes- particularly in the USA) 14.8.1.1 FUSED FLUX
This type are manufactured by mixingcertainsuitableminerals/compounds, fusing themtogether, crushing the solidmassand then sieving the crushed massto granules recover within a particular sizerange. Fusedfluxeshavethe following characteristics/properties: . . . . They containa high proportion of silica (up to - 60%) and so the flux granules havesimilar glass- irregular in appearance to crushed shaped & hard- andhavea smooth, andslightly shiny, surface Duringre-circulation they havegood resistance to breaking down intofine particles referred to as 'fines' They have very low moisture contentas manufactured and do not absorb moisture duringexposure and so they shouldalwaysgive low hydrogen weldmetal They give welds beads with good surfacefinish and profileand de-slag easilY
-.
The main disadvantage of fusedfluxesis that the compounds that give deoxidation cannotbe addedso that weldshavehighoxygencontent and so steelweld metaldoesnot havegoodtoughness at sub-zero temperatures.
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14.8.1.2 AGGLOMERATEDFLUX
by mixing fine powderedminerals/compounds' This type is manufactured size. of the required addinga wet binder,ro-tutn"r mixingto form.flux.granules containers in sealed packaged sievedand to removemoistrjre, Theseare dried/baked 'low to the user' whensupplied condition' hydrogen to "niui" theyare in to used in thesefluxescannotbe subjected some of the minerals/compounds down break would they to makefusedfluxesbecause required the hightemperaturei welding. during needed thatare and lole the properties characteristics: fluxeshavethe following Agglomerated ' . , . finish and havea dull/matt tendto be morespherical The granules and so are together' held weakly powders, of fine are consist The granules duringhandling/requitesoft and easilybe brokendowninto fine powders circulation will tendto absorbmoisture and the binderitself, Someof the compounds, is procedure* handling and a controlled if leftexposed fromthe atmospnbre essential and the weld by fusedfluxes. The stat is less fluid than those generated to remove required tendsto be moreconvexand moreeffortis oeaopr6iite the slag
and * Agglomerated fluxes are similarto fluxes usedfor basic coveredelectrodes are cold and left exposed' pick-upwhen.they b moisture ,5r"i6pf,Of" the manufacturer's, A typicat controttid hindting practice-isto transferflux from drum/bagtoaheatedsi/o(Jtzoto150"C)'Ihisacfsliketheholdingovenforbasic electrodes. and at (usuallyunheated) Warm ftux is transferredto the flux hopperon the machine in welding,the hopperflux the end of a shiftor when there is to'ne an interruption to the silo' be transferred should fluxesis there abilityto give weld of agglomerated advantage The particular with steelweldmetalto be produced with towo*yi"n Conteitand ttiii enaOles metals toughness. goodsub-zero
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Questions Welding consumables
QU1
List 4 inspectionpoints of welding consumables and comment on each point in relationto MMA electrodes?
Q U2
what standard is the following electrode classification taken from and briefly discuss each separate part of the electrode coding:E8018-G
QU3
Why is cellulose electrodes commonlyusedfor weldingof pressure pipelines?
QU4
What type of gas are suitableto he used when welding carbon steeland aluminium processand give description with MIG/MAG why?
QU5
Explain the following parts of an electrode coding and what standardsis the following electrodetaken from. E424 8 B 3.ZH ,5'---. :----,.. it -..
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15 Section Testing Non-Destructive
InsPection Welding Rev0 Jun 06 @2006,TWI Ltd Copyright
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OF WELDS: EXAMINATION 15.0NON.DESTRUCTIVE METHODS OF THECOMMON APPRECIATION

lntroduction and magneticparticlemethodsare dye-penetrant ultrasonic, Radiographic, of the methodsare and limitations advantages The relative below. brieflydescribed welds, of the examination to in termsof theirapplicability discussed 1 5 . 1 R A D IOGR A P H IC METHODS passing a beam to weldsinvolve as applied methods In all casesradiographic is collected radiation The transmitted throughthe test object. radiation of penetrating of intensities relative the of measuring is capable which sensor, of by some form will be a sensor this cases ln most it. upon impinging pbnetrating radiations increase. the is on devices film, howeverthe use of variouselectronic radiographic may be seenin and examples realtimeradiography so-called facilitate Thesedevices the storingof has enabled technology Digital checkareaat mostairports. the security radiography to film conflned present is discussion The usingcomputers. radiographi welds. to applied method thisis stillby far the mostcommon since 1 5 . 1 .1 S OU R C E S OF PENETRATING RADIATION
in beams, penetrating electron from high-energy may be generated radiations in (atomic fission), disintegrations whichcasethey ire termedX-rays,or fromnuclear existbut they radiation Otherformsof penetrating whichcasethey are termedy-rays. radiography. in weld interest areof limited
15.1.2
X.RAYS
of welds generallyhave photon X-rays used in the industrialradiography by energiesin tne range 30keV up to 20MeV.Up to 400keVthey are generated portable or for suitable may be uponoutput X-raytubeswhichdependant convlntional portability radiation and kilovoltage with increasing falls off rapidly fixedinstallations. and as betatrons such devices produced using are X-rays 400keV output.Above fixed of use outside for generally suitable not are Thesedevices linearaccelerators. All sources of X-rays producea continuousspectrumof radiation, installations. Low withinthe electron.beam. the spreadof kineticenergiesof electrons reflecting energyiadiations are more easily absorbedand the presenceof low energy contrastand within the X-ray beam, gives rise to better radiographic radialions, with than is the case sensitivity T-rayswhich are thereforebetter radiographic high quality X-ray units are capableof performing below.Conventional discussed are and linear accelerators on steel of up to 60 mm thick, betatrons radiography of steel. mm in excessof 300 of penetrating capable
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.3 15.1
Y-RAYS
were in general radiography The early sourcesof T-raysused in industrial was not very iadium.The activityof these sources occurring of naturatty composed even for quite tfreyweie pnysiiallyratherlargeby modernstandards high,theretore not of a were by them and the radiograpntproduced modestoutputsof radiation to the user hazardous were alsoextremely Sources Radium highstandard. particularly reaction' fission the product of radongas as a of radioactive due to the production produce artificially to possibre since the advent of the nucrearage it hls been do which and actiiitythan those occuningnaturally of muchnign;r specific isotopes do not y-sources sources not producenazardiusfissionproducti.Unlikethe X-ray a number produce energies' of quantum Y-Sources distribution a continuous produce Four isotope' particular of specificquantumenergieswhicl'rare unique for any order ascending of welds,they are in for the radiography. us-e are in common isotopes 60' In termsof 192andCobalt t69,-lridium "n"rgy''fnrtirt 90,Ytterbiuti of radiation to that of 7mm or so, it's energyis similar g0 is usefulup to a thickness steelThulium produced be can sources activity.useful of 90keVX-raysand due to it's highspecific 169 has onlyfairlyrecently Ytterbium tnt' b.S than less of dimensions with physical use, it's energyis similarto that of as an isotopefor industrial becomeavailable 12mm of steelup to approximately ior the;adiography and it is useful X-rays 120keV of source isotopic encountered m 1g2 is probablythe most c6mmonty thick. lridiu specific high relatively a of welds,it has examination usedin the radiographic radiation of 2-3 mm are in common dimensio.ns physical with and hlgh outpui.6ur"". activity and it is useful to that of 500 keV X-rays equivalent it'senergyii lpproximately. usage, has an energy 60 cobart mm. oi,i"er in theini.knessrange1o-7s for the radiography 'tfrat suitable energy high of 1.2 MeV X-rays,OrL tnis relatively to approximaiing reason rr" t.rgu and ratherheavy.cobalt 60 sourcesare for this sourcecontainers range of steelin the thickness in"y ti" usefulfor the radiography not fully portabte. (a) The are overX-rays sources of usingiso-topic mm.The maloiadvantages 40-150 (c) Lower (b) Th6 lack of thl need for a powersourceand portaOiiity'and increased producedby y-ray cfsts. Againstthis the quality of radiographs initialequipment to personnel the hazards by X-raylechniques' to that produced is inferior techniques or if the operating is not pioperlymaintained, may be increased lit tn" equipment lifespannew nave inslmcienttraining),and due to their limiteduseful personnel costsof a ya'regularbasis(so that the operating haveto be purchased_on isotopes thoseof an X-raysource)' raysourcemay exceed 1 5 . 1.4 R A D IOGR A P HY OF W ELDS
of in absorption differe.nces. dependupon detecting techniques Radiographic in orderto reveal of thJtest object, thickness in the effective the beami.e.:cfranges (exceptin some inclusions areas.Viumetric weld defectssuch as slag defective doesthe weld than to a greiter extent radiation cases*nerl ine slagabsorbs special by radiographic metal) and various forms of g"t-potoiity are -6asily detectedthe parentmetal "ntotpiion differentebetween due to the largenegative techniques of side wall or interun and the slag or g.r. ift"n"r d6fectssuch as cracksor lack such defectsmay since iess likelyto be detectedby radiography fusionare much
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Wheredefectsof this type are thickness. causelitle or no changein the penetrated to testing are preferable ultrasonic such as r,r"rv to occur other tioE tecnniques unsuitable an makesradiography defects to planar This lackof sensitivity ,uJi6gt.pny. is taken when assessingthe approach technlquewhere a fitness-for-purpose recordof the a permanent produces film radiography of a weld.However, acceptability providesan it also weld condiiion,which can be archivedfor future reference; and for these reasonsit is the welder'sperformance meansof assessing excellent for newconstruction' method oftenstillthe preferred
Figure 1: X-RaYEquiPment
Figure 2 Gamma-RaYEquiPment
Figure 3: X-Rayof a welded seamshowing Porosity

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roR woRLD CENTRE NIATERIALSJoNINc TECHNoLocY
METHODS 15.2 ULTRASONIC

for that material is a constant in any givenmaterial of ultrasound The velocity when materials' homogeneous . and ultrasonicbeams travel in straiin"tlines in second a to velocity wavespassfrom a givenmiterialwith a giveniound ultrasonic beamwill occurat sound the of reflection and refraction velocity with different material to The samelawsof physicsapplyequally the two materials' netween the boundary at refracted are waves ultrasonic wavesas theydo to lightwaves.Because ultrasonic be probes may properties, acoustic different having two materials between a boundary (within certainlimits)any given at which.rn b"", soundinto-amateriar constructed at a boundarybetweentwo materialshaving angle. Becausesound is reflecteO tool for the detection of weld differentacoustic pioperties ultrasoundis a useful sound and because for anygivenmaterial is a constant the velocity Because defects. to can also be utilised ultrasound equipmeni; line (withthe right -about'a travelsin a straight of the observation given ieflector'Careful information positional giveaccurate is moved probe and it's beiaviouras the ultrasonic reflector "positional echo patternof a given of the obtainedabove and a knowledge information togetherwith the reflector the to classify operator ultrasonic the experienced 6nables history component as say slaglackof fusionor a crack'
15.2.1EQU|PMENTFoRULTRASoN|GTEST|NG
of: consists testing ultrasonic for manual Equipment A) . of: comPrising A flawdetector generator, A Pulse 1) delaycontrol' withan adjustable time basegenerator An adjustable 2) display' ray tube withfullyrectified A cathode 3i l or attenuator) gaincontrol implifierwith i graduated A caiibrated 4)
B)
of: probecomprising An ultrasonic element capable of converting electrical crys[al piezo-electric A 1) vi b ra ti o n sto mechanica|vibr ationsandvice- ver sa crystalis firmly n pionu shoe, normaly " Fur.p"* blockto which the 2) adhesive usinga suitable attached 3 ) E | e c t r i c a | "ringing)'" and/or'""n*i""lcrysta|dampingfacilitiestoprevent excessive portable'Automatedor semiand extremely -same is lightweight such equipment although basicequipment systemsfor ultralonictestingutilisethe automated and less bulkier is the equipment thiswill be multich"nn"i"quipment sincein general form of some and portable.Probes for automatedsystems are set in arrays aboutthe probesto information in orderto iu"J positional is necessary manipulator amountsof data and make large syste*. g"n"r"ie very Automated the computer. UT "RAM"of the computer. in automated advances Rec-ent uponthe largedemands weld' of length given for a have led to a reducedamountof OataO"inj 1.".o1.ded
probe ;tr"vt h;u" g'""tiv ;;1';90^th:--1?Tf',:TY,,.:-t^j:t::?^, simplified :1ji:: provide now ur svstems Automated
task "'p-"ii6ur'r ;JlX#:?Jr:;:i;;-i; J".,.,.y;;

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wherea large as pipelines on suchconstructions to radiography alternative a serious to be reduced allowthe unitcostof systemdevelopment inspections of similar number level. to a competitive
Figure 4: UltrasonicEquipment
Figure 5 CompressionProbe& a Shear wave Probe
Figure 6 Exampte of a scanning Technique with a shear wave Probe
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Figure 7 Typical screen display when using a Shear wave Probe
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TESTING VS. RADIOGRAPHY 15.3 ULTRASONIC

Radioqraphv
causes to personnel: Hazardous production. to interruptions to two sidesof a access Requires in orderto carryout a test. component for useon weldswith Notsuitable geometry welds, e.g.nozzle complicated tee-ioints etc. nodewelds,structural expensive. Relativelv levelof onlya medium Requires personnel andcapabilitv. traininq record, which a permanent Produces integrity the needfor operator reduces
UltrasonicTestinq Non-hazardous. to onlya single Requires access surface. for use on virtually Suitable all possible weldgeometries.
Normallvcheaoerthan radioqraphv.
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Requires a higherlevelof operator trainino and capabilitv. no direct ManualUT provides permanent recordand is heavily on ooerator inteqritv. deoendent produced automated Records by easy to relatively are Radiographs to systemsmay not be straightforuvard interpret. interoret. to volumetric sensitivitv Reasonable volumetric defects. to sensitivity High defects. to planar defects Hiqhsensitivitv defects. to planar sensitivity Variable (to 0.5 mm for within Gives accurate information Givesonlytwo-dimensional threesystems) someautomated sizeand position. defect about defect about information dimensional sizeand position. a having andalloys to metals Applicable and alloys to allmetals Applicable and whichare finegrainstructure Ferritic Weldsin wrought homogeneous. in for welds steelare easyto test, steelare not easily instance stainless tested. andfree mustbe smooth require a highdegree Testsurfaces Doesnotnormally preparation. fromloosematerials. of surface mm or moreof Ferritic Cantest 10,000 Ferritic steel. Cantest up to 300 mm of steel.
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TESTING PARTICLE 15.4 MAGNETIC
S u rfa ce b re a ki n g o rV er ynear sur facediscontinuitiesinfer r om agneti c m ater i al s These flux are applied' qive rise to "teaka!. ii"rot; *n"n nijn tevetsol t3q?"tic to themselves (finelyoivioedmagnetite) ;ttract magneticpa"rtictes i""r,rdtilld;;;' may particles magnetic The reJs to thiformation of an indi-cation. and this process or substrate with the providecontrast visibtyor ftuoresc;;tlt tgtented in,orderto in racquer background tne suosiiat!hay ne rigntiroated with a white particlesprovide the conversery magnetic order to contrastwitn tn" particlJs.Fluorescent and this will be in a li[uid suspension will normally ine particles sensitivity. greatest by a applied be may ln certaincasesdry particles by spraying. be apptred normally are which materials' onlyto feiromagnetic is appficaUe genle jet of air.The tecnnique field will be tetow the curie ;;ti (aOolt 650'C)' The leakage This means at a temperature field' to the magnetic angles lyingat rig'nt for lineardiscontinuities greatest be normally appliedin two test the t"gnEti.JiJtO m.u.st that for a comprehensive to carryout both The test is economical perpendiiular' whichare mutualty directions, training of operator The rever costs'"no ,"piJity of inspection. in termsof equipment low' is relativelY iequired
yoke Figure8 MagneticPafticle lnspection using a
lnspection Figure9 Crackfound using MagneticParticle 15.8
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15.5 DYEPENETRANT TESTING

Any liquidthat has goodwettingproperties penetrants will act as a penetrant. are attracted intos.urfage breaking discontinuities penetrant, by capillary forces. which has entereda tight discontinuity, will remain even when the excess penetrant is removed' Application of a suitable developer will encourage penetrani the within such discontinuities to "bleed out".lf thereis a suitable contrasi between the penetrant and the developer an indication visibleto the eye will be formed.This contrastmay be provided by eithervisibleor fluorescent dyes. Use of fluorescent dyes considerably increases the sensitivity of the technique. The technique is not appricanie al extremes of temperature. At low temperatures (below5'C) the penetrant vehicle,normally oil will becomeexcessively viscousand this will cause an increase in ine penetration timewitha consequent decrease in sensitivity. At hightemperatures (above 60"C)the penetrant will dry out andthe technique will notworkl
Figure 10 Methods of applying the RedDye during Dye-penetrant lnspection
Figure 11 Crack found using Dye-penetrantlnspection
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TESTING VS. DYEPENETRANT PARTICLE 15.6 MAGNETIC

moretime costsslightly equipment costs,rapidinspection Lower Lowequipment to ferromagnetic onlY Applicable materials verygood materials, On ferromagnetic to smalldefects. sensitivity bre-aking surface of detecting Capable (within 3 mm of) and nearsurface levelof a moderate onlY nequires preParatlon. surface overa widerangeof Applicable (e.9.0-300"C)temperature to all metalsand alloys. Applicable in for smalldefects sensitivity Reasonable materials. all non-porous surface onlY of detecting Capable defects. breaking clean ffre test surfacemust be perfectly smooth. andalsofairlY temperature a limited over Applicable
ranqe(e.q.5-60"C
15.6.1
(MAGNETIC SURFACECRACK DETECTION GENERAL PENETRANT): PARTICLE/DYE
the relativevalue of NDE techniquesit should not be when considering that most catistrophicfailuresinitiatefrom the surfaceof a component, forgotten shouldnot techniques particle and dye penetrant the valueof the magnetic therefore easily defects may noi detectnear surface inspection Uttrasonic ;;;;";;stimateo. geometry from the component arising by echoes may be masked sincethe indications surfacecrack detection appropriate an by thereforebe supplemented inj srrourd testconfidence' for maximum technique
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Questions
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Non-destructive testing QU1 Name four non-destructive testingmethods.
QU2
state the two types of rays used in radiography and the limitations of each.
QU3
Give the advantages and disadvantages of both ultrasonic testing and radiographic testing.
QU4
Statethe main limitations of magneticparticleinspection and give at least three methodsof applyingmagnetismto a steel component.
QUs
state the main limitationsof dye penetrantinspection
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Section16 Weld Repairs
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16.0WELDREPAIRS
Weldrepairs can be divided intotwo specific areas: 1) 2l repairs Production In service repairs
The reasonsfor makinga repairare many and varied.Typically, they range from the removal of weld defects induced during manufacture to a quick and plant.In theseterms,the subject running-repair to an itemof production temporary of with maintenance weldingrepairsis also wide and varied and often confused and wherethe workcan be scheduled. refurbishment maintenance With planned and refurbishment, sufficient timecan be allowed to pressures withoutproduction enable the tasks to be completed being applied.In repairsare usuallyunplanned and may resultin shortcuts contrast, being taken to programme production the to continue. lt is, allow therefore, advisable for a fabricator policyon repairsand to have repairmethods and procedures to have an established in place. processes controlled welding arethe easiest to use,particularly if The manually the mostfrequently usedof out on site.Probably it is a localrepairor one to be carried portable is manual metalarc (MMA)as this is versatile, and readily theseprocesses consumables. to many alloysbecauseof the wide range of off-the-shelf applicable increased stresses and distortion Repairsalmostalwaysresultin higherresidual and low/medium alloy comparedwith 'first time' welds. With carbon-manganese maybe required. of preheat and post-weld heattreatments the application steels, There are a number of key factors that need to be consideredbefore anyrepair. undertaking worthwhile. it is financially beinga judgement as to whether The mostimportant can be made, the fabricator needs to answerthe following Beforethis judgement questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. integrity be achieved if the itemis repaired? Canstructural to welding? Arethereanyalternatives again? the defectand is it likelyto happen Whatcaused process is to be used? Howis the defect to be removed and whatwelding removal (NDT)is required complete to ensure Testing WhichNonDestructive of the defect?
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wot ffi#otl'#^^'
6. 7. 8. g.
approval/re-approval? procedures require will the welding stress? and residual distortion Whatwill be the effectof welding be required? Will heattreatment of the repairbe and howcan acceptability what NDTis required demonstrated? - if yes,howand by whom? of the repairbe required will approval
10.
activity,in rnany straightforward Althougha weld repair may be a relatively may needto be disciplines engineering ind various it cin be quitecomplex instances outcome' to ensurea successful involved of the typT of defectbe analysis that therebe an ongoing It is recommended the likelyreasonfor their occurrence, to discover out by the Q/c department carried or Skillrelated). (Material/Process involves: repair a welding In generalterms, 1. Thismay involve of the defect. to findoutthe extremity assessment A detailed NDTmethods' or sub surface the use of a surface
2'C|eaningtherepairarea,(remova|ofpaintgreaseetc) 3. 4. 5. 6. out' and marked identified sitemustbe clearly the excavation Onceestablished arc-air (method usedi'e' grinding' may be required procedure An excavation etc)' preheat requirements gouging, its removal' and confirm the defect NDTshouldbe usedto locate welding withthe appropriate" statement repairprocedure/method A welding heatinputand interpass controlled technique, consumable, process, etc will needto be approved' iemperatures welders. Useof aPProved the weld and finalvisual' Dressing thatthe defect outto ensure prepared and carried NDTprocedure/technique and repaired' removed has beensuccessfully requirements' Any postrepairheattreatment out afterheattreatment and carried prepared FinalNDTprocedure/technique requirements.
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7. 8. g.
10. 11.
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(painting protective treatments etc as required). Applying
means suitablefor the alloys being repairedand may not apply in (.Appropriate' situations) specific
REPAIRS: 16.1 PRODUCTION

of the evaluation inspection, duringproduction are usuallyidentify Repairs operator, NDT or Inspector, Welding out by the carried usually reports is in the welds are only classedas defectswhen they are outsidethe discontinuities codeor standardby the applied permitted rangepermitted needto be fulfilled: of elements a number the repaircan commence, Before Analysis at the fusionface the problem and has occurred As this defectis surfacebreaking the is foundto be cracking lf defect fusion. the sidewall lack of or be cracking could procedure, if the however welding or the with the material causemay be associated of the lack of skill to the defectis lack of sidewallfusion this can be apportioned welder. Assessment ln this particularcase as the defect is open to the surface,MagneticParticle (DPl)may be usedto gaugethe length Inspection (MPl)or Dye Penetrant Inspection (Ufi) to gaugethe depth. used Testing Ultrasonic of the defectand defectis shownbelow. A typical
PlanView of defect
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Excavation be a is being used i'e' Arc-Airgougingit--may lf a thermalmethodof excavation the on affect an have may the hiat generated to qualifya procedure.as requirement parent material in the riskof craikingin the weldor resulting structure, metallurgical
to applya preh.eat' it maybe necessary cracking To prevent to 1 (width)i d e a l l y1 t o 1 . 5 ratioihall not be less than 1 (depth) to widthfne Oeptn (ratio: depth1 to thewidth1'5) wouldbe recommended
for deepdefect SideViewof excavation
for full rootrepair SideViewof excavation
r--
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Gleaningof the excavation due to the risk of carbon At this rt.g" grindingof the repair area is important, material' weld metal/parent the into impregnated becoming metal' 3 to 4 mm to bright ground backtypically It shouldbe
of excavation G.onfirmation At this stage NDT shouldbe used to confirmthat the defecthas been completely fromthe areaexcavated
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of the excavation Re-welding of the excavation a detailedrepairweldingprocedure/method Prior to re-welding shallbe approved. statement
Typicalsideviewof weld repair
of successfulrepair NDTconfirmation has been filledthe weldment shouldthen undergoa complete After the excavation used to establish the original as previously retestusingthe same NDT techniques by the repair,this is carriedout to ensureno furtherdefectshave been introduced process. any additional may need to be further applied after NDT also welding repair has beencarried postweldheattreatment out.
REPAIRS 16.2 IN SERVICE

is as the component Mostin servicerepairscan be of a very complexnature, than it was during very likely to be in a differentweldingpositionand condition production. fluidshencea with toxicor combustible lt may also have been in contact prior The repair out. permitto workwill needto be sought to any work beingcarried procedure production due to procedure may lookvery different to the original welding elements. in these changes such as the effectof heat Otherfactorsmay also be takeninto consideration, components, or materials i.e. electrical areasof the component on any surrounding in difficulty This may alsoinclude damaged by the repairprocedure. that may become and a possible carryingout any requiredpre or post welding heat treatments it is likely thatthe For largefabrications to the areato be repaired. of access restriction whichmay a shutdownof operations, repairmustalsotake placeon site and without that needto be considered. bringotherelements of theseand manyother defects may require consideration of in service Repair than production more complicated factors,and as such are generallyconsidered repairs.
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oftenplay a vital role in the repairand maintenance technologies of Joining parts replaced, worn Parts can be or can be built corroded up, and cracks structures. can be repaired. to determine When a repairis requiredit is important two things:firstly,the can the component actually be repaired? The latter reasonfor failureand, secondly, point infers that the materialtype is known. For metals,particularly those to be composition is vitallyimportant. Failure the chemical modesoftenindicate the welded, to makea soundrepair. Whenthe cause-effect required analysis, however approach simple, is not followedthrough it is often the case that the repair is unsafe so. disastrously sometimes the Standardor Code used io designthe structure In many instances, will on the definethe type of repairthat can be carriedout and will also give guidance Standards implythatwhendesigning to be followed. or manufacturing a new methods productit is important to considera maintenance regimeand repairprocedures. and this situation should also be Repairsmay be requiredduring manufacture considered. thereis morethan one way of making a repair. For example, cracks Normally, riveting, welding, or be heldtogether or repaired by:pinning, bolting, in castironmight will dependon factors for the failure, chosen suchas the reason The method brazing. and the sizeand shapeof and cleanliness, the environment composition the maierial the component. as weldingare not regarded It is very importantthat repairand maintenance a repairmay seem In many instances whichare simpleor straightforward. activities, failure of gettingit wrong can be catastrophic but the consequences undemanding consequences. withdisastrous ls weldingthe bestmethodof repair? or a shallow defect, a component has a localirregularity for because lf repairis called lt wellbe acceptable. might grinding and blending to a smooth contour outanydefects if the steel has poor weldability or if fatigueloadingis be preferable will certainly factorof safetyslightly, than to risk severe.lt is oftenbetterto reducethe so-called intoa brittle material. putting concentrations and residual stresses stress defects,
|nfactbritt|emateria|s-whichcaninc|udeSomestee|s(particular|yinthick imposed by stresses the residual as well as castirons- may not be ableto withstand particularly removed, leaving stress if defects arc not all heavy weld repairs, cracking. to initiate concentrations ls the repairreallylike earlierrepairs? to however, for manyyears.lt is important, Repairs of one sortmay havebeenroutine may thickness the section Forexample, checkthatthe nextone is not subtlydifferent. be greater;the steel to be repairedmay be differentand less Weldable,or the questions. lf thereis anydoubt, answer the remaining higher. restraint
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wflr mi:'"';*"
what is the compositionand weldabilityof the base metal? the although will usuallygive sot" ideaof the steelinvolved, drawings ine original not may specification and the less stringent, limitsriay tnen nave-been specification free-machining detailsto be helpful.lf sulphur-bearing give enoughcomposiiional welding' during problems it couldgivehot cracking Iteet is inv-olved, shouldbe carriedout. analysis a chemical lf thereis any doubtaboutthe composition, (Ni' cr, Mo, Cu' whichmay affectweldability for all elements, to analyse It is important Mn)' and (C,S' P' Si specified V, Nb and B) as wellas thoseusually, by illbeingruined component valuable a couldprevent costspenton analysis A small the need.forpreheatif the or avoiding prep"reorepairsor, savehon"y by reducing is known,a welding composition the Onie were leanerthan expected. composition can be devised procedure What strength is requiredfrom the repair? will be the residual greater The higherthe yielditrengthof the repairweld metal,the the greaterthe cracking, of risk the the greater welding, stressleveton completioriof the welding in formulating andhore difficulty clampingneededto avoid distortion steel of conventional limitfor the yield strength ln any case,the practical procedure. is about1000N/mm'' weldmetals Can preheatbe tolerated? the for the welder; moredifficult makeconditions Notonrvdoesa highlevelof preheat ln other at a low ternperature' if it has beentempered parentsteelcan n"eOamaged excessive by damaged are casesthe steelbeingrepJiredmay containitems,which hydrogen of urtra-low n".iing. preheattev6tscan be reducedby usingconsumabres may needsome electrodes of these,austenitic weld metals. or by non-Ferritic content the lattermay do not' However, nickelalloysusually but the moreexpensive preheat, into if diluted parent steel in the contents and phosphorui to highsulphur be sensitive theweldmetal. tolerated? can softeningor hardeningof the HeatAffectedZone (HAZ)be strengthsteels' high affectedzone) is likely in very Softeningof the HAZ (hea-t cannotbe Suchsoftening at lowtemperatures. if theyhavebeentempered particularly vulnerable Hard HM's are particularly avoided,but its extent can be minimised. HzS containing solutions where service conditionscan lead to stress corrosion. fresh although (22 HRC) below248 HV hardness' may demand sutphidef lnyorogen hard HM's Excessively HV. 450 about to up ipp"itt to tolerate aeratedseawatei soften them but may, therefore,|."quir" Post weld Heat Treatment(PWHT) to has beenavoided provided cracking ls PWHTPracticable? for the same reasonsthat PWHTmay not be possible it may be desirable, Although but care localPWHTmay be possible' For largestruciures, is not possible. preheating introduce to easy too all is it codes,because shouldbe takentb abideby the r6levant PWHT' executed improperly by stresses newresidual
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ls PWHTnecessary? and the reasonmust be known PWHT may be neededfor one of severalreasons, whether it can be avoided. considering beforre Will the fatigue resistanceof the repair be adequate? if the by fatigue,and particularly lf the repairis in an area,which is highlystressed unlessthe fatiguelife can be expected repairis of a fatiguecrack,inferior attempted are left. Filletwelds,in which weld surfaceis groundsmoothand no surfacedefects stress. ground not tolerable in areas of highfatigue smooth, are the rootcannotbe Will the repair resist its environment? of stress corrosion, Besidescorrosion,it is importantto considerthe possibility fatigue oxidation in service. and thermal fatigue, corrosion of the filler that the composition resistance usuallyrequires and oxidation Corrosion as the parentmetal.For corrosion resistant metal is at least as noble or oxidation may needto be smoothed. weldprofile the repair resistance, fatigue To resist stress corrosion,PWHT may be necessaryto restore the correct stressleft by the repair. the residual reducehardness and reduce microstructure, Can the repair be inspectedand tested? are oftendesirable, examination and/orultrasonic radiography service, For onerous such used; moreover, filler is nickel alloy steelor are likelyif stainless but problems In such cases, it is repairscannot be assessedby magneticparticleinspection. to tests for repairsvery critically, particularly to carry out the procedural important welder-induced serious of no likelihood cracking and no risks of are there ensurethat defects. motivated are properly welds,it is vitalto ensurethatthe welders for all repair Indeed, supervised. carefully and As-weldedrepairs Repairwithout PWHT is, of course,normalwhere the originalweld was not heat PWHTto require components but somealloysteelsand manythick-sectioned treated, PWHT However, etc. resistance corrosion levelof toughness, a reasonable maintain and localPWHTmay in serviceis not alwayseasy or even possible, of components structures. thanit solvesexceptin simple giveriseto moreproblems
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woRLDcENTRE 'oR
Questions
Weld repairs Statethe importancepoint need to be consideredbefore undertaking any repair
QU1.
QUz.
Statetwo NDTmethodsthat may be appliedto a repair in a weld.
QU3.
Stateany documents,which the inspectorshould referto when carryingout repairs.
QU4.
In some cases why might a specificationnot allow a crack to be repaired,regardlessof size and orientation
QU 16
Section17 ResidualStressand Distortion
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STRESS 17.0RESIDUAL AND DISTORTION

,17.1WHATCAUSES DISTORTION?
weldinginvolveshighlylocalised Because heatingof joint edges to fuse the stresses non-uniform are set up in the component material, because of expansion and material. of the heated contraction compressive stresses Initially, are created in the surrounding cold parentmetal when the weld pool is formeddue to the thermalexpansion of the hot metal (heat to the weld pool.However, zone)adjacent affected tensilestresses occuron cooling of the weld metaland immediate when the contraction heataffected zone is resisted parent metal. by the bulkof the cold The magnitude of thermalstresses inducedinto the material can be seen by in the weldareaon solidification change the volume and subsequent cooling to room For example, when weldingC-Mnsteel,the moltenweld metalvolume temperature. will be reduced by approximately 3ohon solidiflcation and the volumeof the solidified zonewill be reduced weld metal/heat affected 7o/o by a further as its temperature falls pointof steelto roomtemperature. fromthe melting generated from thermalexpansion/contraction lf the stresses exceedthe yield plastic deformation of the metaloccurs. Plastic strength of the parentmetal,localised permanent causes a reduction in the component dimensions and distorts deformation the structure.
17.2 WHATARE THE MAINTYPESOF DTSTORTION?

in several ways: Distortion occurs shrinkage Longitudinal Transverse shrinkage distortion Angular Bowing anddishing Buckling of the weld area on cooling results in both transverse and Contraction longitudinal shrinkage. (throughthickness) producesangular distortion as Non-uniform contraction wellas longitudinal andtransverse shrinking.
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For example,in a singleV butt weld,the first weld run produces longitudinal and transverse shrinkage and rotation. The secondrun causesthe platesto rotate usingthe firstwelddeposit as a fulcrum. Therefore balanced weldingin a doubleside V buttjointcan be usedto produce jngular distortion. uniform contraction and prevent Similarly, in a singlesidedfilletweld,non-uniform contraction will pioduceangular distortion of the upstanding leg. Double-sided filletwelds can therefore be used to control distortion in the upstanding filletbut because the weld is onlydeposited on one sideof the baseplate,angular distortion willnow be produced in the ptaie. Longitudinal bowing in weldedplateshappenswhen the weld centreis not coincident with the neutralaxis of the sectionso that longitudinal shrinkage in the weldsbendsthe section intoa curved shape. Cladplatetendsto bowin two directions due to iongitudinal and transverse shrinkage of the cladding. This produces a dished shape. Dishing is also producedin stiffenedplating.Plates usuallydish inwards between the stiffeners, because of angular distortion at the stiffener attichment welds. In plating, long rangecompressive stresses can causeelasticbuckling in thin plates, resulting in dishing, bowing or rippling. (seeFigurebelow)
Examples of distortion Increasing the leglength of fillet welds, in particular, increases shrinkage. 1 7 . 3 WH A T A R E T H E F ACTORS AFFEGT]NG DISTORTION? lf a metalis uniformly heatedand cooledtherewould be almostno distortion. However, becausethe materialis locallyheatedand restrained by the surrounding cold metal, stressesare generatedhigherthan the materialyieid stress causing permanent distortion. The principal factors affecting the type and-degree of distortion are:
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. . . . .
properties Parent material of restraint Amount Jointdesign part fit-up procedure Welding
17.3.1
PARENT MATERIAL PROPERTIES
properties, Parentmaterial whichinfluence distortion, are coefficient of thermal heatper unitvolume. andspecific As distortion expansion is determined by expansion of the material, the coefficient and contraction of thermalexpansion of the material playsa significant role in determining generated the stresses duringweldingand, hence, the degree of distortion.For example,as stainlesssteel has a higher of expansionthan plain carbon steel, it is more likely to suffer from coefficient distortion.
17.3.2
RESTRAINT
lf a component is weldedwithoutany external restraint, it distorts to relieve the 'strong-backs' So, methodsof restraint, such as weldingstresses. in butt welds,can preventmovementand reduce distortion. As restraintproduceshigher levels of there is a greaterrisk of crackingin weld metaland residual stressin the material, in crack-sensitive materials. HAZespecially
,17.3.3
JOINTDESIGN
Both butt and filletjoints are proneto distortion. lt can be minimised in butt jointsby adopting a joint type,whichbalances the thermal stresses throughthe plate in preference For example, a double-sided weld.Doublethickness. to a single-sided angulardistortion member, sided fillet welds should eliminate of the upstanding if the two weldsare deposited at the sametime. especially 17.3.4 P A R T F IT -U P
shrinkage. Fit-up should be uniformto producepredictable and consistent joint gap can also increasethe degree of distortionby increasing the Excessive tacked amountof weld metalneededto fill the joint.The jointsshouldbe adequately relative movement between the partsduring welding. to prevent
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17.3.5
PROCEDURE WELDING
mainlythroughits effecton the heat the degreeof distortion This influences for reasons of quality and procedures selected usually are input. As welding As a generalrule, distortion. productivity, the welderhas limitedscopefor reducing andtechnique sequence Also,thewelding be keptto a minimum. should weldvolume neutral axis of the the around stresses induced thermally the shouldaim to balance component. 17.4 DISTORTION . PREVENTION BY PRE-SETTING, PRE-BENDING
OR USEOF RESTRAINT
by placing at the designstage,for example, couldoftenbe prevented Distortion the depositing welding and of reducing the amount neutral axis, the weldsaboutthe possible, is not ihis where In designs welding technique. weldmetalusinga balanced methods: by one of the following may be prevented distortion pre-setting of parts pre-bending of parts use of restraint of the by the size and complexity chosenwill be influenced The technique limit to need the and equipment the costof any restraining or assemblY, component stresses. residual
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Pre-settingof parts to produce correct alignment after welding a) Pre-settingof fitletioint to prevent angular distortion b) Pre-settingof buttioint to preventangular distortion
17.4.1
OF PARTS PRE-SETTING
(seefigureabove).ln welding and leftfreeto moveduring The partsare pre-set occurring so that distortion amount by a pre-determined practice, the partsare pre-set control. anddimensional alignment overall is usedto achieve welding during
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with the use of restraint are that thereis no The main advantages compared needed andtherewill be lowerresidual stressin the structure. equipment expensive as it is difficult to predictthe amountof pre-setting neededto Unfortunately, shrinkage, a number of required. accommodate trialweldswill be For example, when weldingbutt joints,the joint gap will normally close aheadof MMA or MIG/MAG arc welding; whensubmerged the jolntmay openup during welding. welding; When welds, it is trial also essential that the test structure is reasonably carryingout of the full sizestructure in orderto generate the levelof distortion likely representative pre-setting For these reasons, is a technique moresuitable for to occurin practice. or assemblies. components simple
Pre-bending,using strongbacksand wedges,to accommodate angular distortion in thin plafes.
17.4.2
PRE.BENDING OF PARTS
is a technique usedto welding Pre-bending, or pre-springing the partsbefore pre-stress As shownin above to counteract shrinkage duringwelding. the assembly and wedgescan be usedto pre-seta by meansof strongbacks figure,pre-bending after for angular Releasing the wedges welding to compensate distortion. seambefore the parts to movebackintoalignment. willallow welding jackusedto preshows bracings andcentre The mainphotograph the diagonal introduced though not the component. This counteracts the distortion bendthe fixture, welding. out-of-balance 1 7 . 4 .3 U S E OF R E S T RAINT
pre-setting restraint is the in applying and pre-bending, of the difficulty Because The basicprinciple is that the partsare placedin technique. more widelypractised When duringwelding. position any movement to minimise and held underrestraint of smallamount fromthe restraining a relatively equipment, the component removing a This can be curedby eitherapplying will occurdue to locked-in stresses. movement the restraint. beforeremoving of pre-set or stressrelieving smallamount parts shouldbe held in the When weldingassemblies, all the component correct positionuntil completionof welding and a suitablybalancedfabrication distortion. sequence usedto minimise
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residualstressesin the weld, will generateadditional Weldingwith restraint materials, a suitablewelding When weldingsusceptible which may cause cracking. will reduce thisrisk. andthe use of preheating sequence jigs and flxtures to holdthe is relatively simpleto applyusingclamps, Restraint parts welding. during
JIGSAND FIXTURES 17.4.3.1 WELDING

Jigs and fixturesare used to locatethe partsand to ensurethat dimensional They can be of a relatively simpleconstruction, whilstwelding. is maintained accuracy will need to ensurethat the as shown in figure a below but the weldingengineer easilyafterwelding. can be removed fabrication finished 1 7 . 4 .3 .2 F L E X IB L E C L AM PS
restraint but not onlyin applying can be effective clamp(Figb below) A flexible thejointgap (itcanalsobe usedto closea gapthat up and maintaining alsoin setting is toowide). forcesin the clampwill be transferred is that as the restraining A disadvantage stressacrossthejoint the levelof residual are removed, intothejointwhenthe clamps quite high. canbe
a) Weldingjig
clamps b) Flexible
c) strongbackswith wedges
d) Fully weldedstrongbacks
Restraint techniques to prevent distorTion
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(ANDWEDGES) 17.4.3.3 STRONGBACKS

for sitework. especially restraint meansof applying are a popular Strongbacks plate and helpto in distortion angular will prevent (Fig.cabove), WedgedstrJngbacks will allow shells.As thesetypes of strongback in weldingcylindrical prevJntpeakirig with fully greatly compared reduced be will tne iisti of cracking irrn.u"rr" shrinkage, weldedstrongbacks. (welded on bothsidesof the joint)(Frgd above)will Fullyweldedstrongbacks can stresses As significant shrinkage. and transverse distortion bothangular minimise care cracking, for any tendency b" g"n"r.ted acrossthe weld, which will increase of strongback' type this of use in the be taken snoutO 17,4,4 BEST PRACTICE
distortion: will helpto control techniques assembly the following Adopting . . . will achieveoverall alignmentand pre-set parts so that welding distortion stress of residual the minimum controlwith dimensional pre-bendjoint edges to counteractdistortionand achieve alignmentand stress' residual withminimum control dimensional Apply restraintduring welding by using jigs and fixtures,flexibleclamps, whichcan be the risk of cracking and tacliweldingbut consider strongbacks strongbacks. for fullywelded especially quitelignificant, for weldingand removalof welds for restraint Use an approvedprocedure in the which may need preheatto avoid formingimperfections techniques, surfacecomPonent
. PREVENTION BY DESIGN 17,5 DISTORTION

DesignprinciPles or at least can often be prevented, At the designstage,weldingdistortion bYconsidering: restricted, of welding elimination weld placement the volumeof weld metal reducing of runs the number reducing welding use of balanced
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17.5.1
OF WELDING ELIMINATION
resultof welding,good design are an inevitable and shrinkage As distortion requiresthat not only the amountof weldingis kept to a minimum,but also the at the Weldingcan oftenbe eliminated amountof weld metalis deposited. smallest in this as shown rolled section, plate or usinga standard the designstageby forming figure.
FF
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of weldsby: a) forming the plate;b) useof rolledor extrudedsection Etimination welds ratherthan a continuous the designshoulduse intermittent lf possible, plates, a stiffening in attaching For example, the amountof welding. run,to reduce substantialreductionin the amount of welding can often be achieved whilst strength. adequate maintaining
17.5.2
WELDPLACEMENT
placing and balancing for minimum in designing of welds are important the lower fabrication, a positioned of neutral axis the is io weld The closera distortion. of poor Examples forcesand the finaldistortion. effectof the shrinkage the leverage below' in thefigure are shown andgooddesigns
Neutral /axis
Good
by placingthe weldsaroundtheneutralaxis may be reduced Distortion can be away from the neutralaxis, distortion As most welds are deposited weld individual of an forces shrinkage so the fabrication the by designing minimised axis. neutral of the side opposite on the ny ptacinganotherweld are balance-O sides, opposite on Wheneverpossible,welding should be carriedout alternately if distortionis occurring one side first. ln large structures, insteadof completing for example, actions, to take corrective on one lide, it may be possible preferentially distortion. overall the control side to welding on the other by increasing
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17.5.3
REDUCING THEVOLUME OF WELDMETAL
To minimise distortion, as well as for economic reasons, the volumeof weld joint,the crossmetal should be limited to the design requirements. Fora single-sided section of the weld shouldbe keptas smallas possible to reducethe levelof angular in belowfigure. as illustrated distortion,
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Reducing theamountof angulardistortion and lateralshrinkage Waysof reducing angular distortion andlateral shrinkage a) b) reducing the volume of weldmetal, passweld using single
providing angleand root gap shouldbe minimised Jointpreparation the weld To facilitate access, it may be possible can be madesatisfactorily. to specifya larger preparation angle.By cutting rootgap and smaller downthe difference in the amount of weld metalat the root and the faceof the weld,the degreeof angular distortion will joints pass penetration reduced. Butt madein a single be correspondingly usingdeep distortion, have littleangular especially if a closedbuttjoint can be welded(Figure thin sectionmaterial above).For example, can be weldedusingplasmaand laser position, weldingprocesses and thicksectioncan be welded,in the vertical using processes. and electroslag Although can be elirninated, electrogas angular distortion willstillbe longitudinal andtransverse shrinkage. there In thick section material,as the cross sectionalarea of a double-Vjoint preparation preparation, is oftenonly halfthat of a single-V the volumeof weld metal joint preparation can be substantially reduced. The double-V to be deposited also permits welding balanced about the middle of thejointto eliminate angular distortion. As weldshrinkage is proportional to the amount of weldmetalbothpoorjointfitwill increase Angular in fillet up and over-welding distortion the amount of distortion. weldsis particularly affectedby over-welding. is basedon throat As designstrength thickness,over-welding to produce a convex weld bead does not increasethe allowable strength design butit will increase theshrinkage anddistortion.
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17.5.4
OFRUNS R E D U C I NT GH EN U M B E R
opinions it is betterto deposit a givenvolume on whether Thereare conflicting passes large weld or a number of small number large of of weldmetalusinga small joint, or a single-side filletweld, passes. showsthatfor a single-sided butt Experience giveslessangular welddeposit distortion than if the weldis madewith a a largesingle joint, the degreeof angular in an unrestrained numberof small runs. Generally, proportional passes. to the number of is approximately distortion thejointwith a smallnumber of largeweld deposits results in more Completing in transverse shrinkage than a weld completed larger number and a of longitudinal ln a multi-pass weld,previously deposited weld metalprovides restraint, smallpasses. per passdecreases distortion as the weld is builtup. Largedeposits so the angular particularly plate. in thinsection buckling the riskof elastic alsoincrease
17.5.5
WELDING USEOF BALANGED
in a weldingis an effective meansof controlling angulardistortion Balanced the welding sequenceto ensure that angular butt weld by arranging multi-pass welding. to accumulate during is continually beingcorrected and not allowed distortion one from welding and welding of angular balanced amounts distortion Comparative joint welding in this figure.The balanced first are shown schematically side of the joints. to fillet canalsobe applied technique
weldingto reduce theamountof angulardistortion Balanced or if onesidehas alternately on either sideof thejointis not possible, lf welding joint preparation may be usedwith moreweld first,an asymmetrical to be completed from resulting on the secondside. The greatercontraction metal being deposited on the distortion the sidewill helpcounteract the weld metalon the second depositing flrstside.
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17.5.6
BESTPRACTICE
The following designprinciples can control distortion: eliminate welding by forming the plateand usingrolledor extruded sections minimise the amount of weldmetal do notoverweld useintermittent welding in preference to a continuous weldpass placeweldsaboutthe neutral axis the welding balance about the middle jointin of thejointby usinga double-V joint preference to a single-V Adopting best practice principlescan have surprisingcost beneflts. For for a design example, filletleg length of 6mm,depositing an 8mm-leg length will result in the deposition of 57o/o additional weld metal.Besides the extra cost of depositing weld metaland the increase risk of distortion, it is costlyto removethis extraweld metallater.However, designing for distortion controlmay incuradditional fabrication joint preparation costs.For example, the use of a double-V is an excellent way to reduce weld volume and control distortion, but extra costs may be incurredin production manipulation through of the workpiece for the welderto access the reverse side.
. PREVENTION 17.6 DISTORTION BY FABRICATION TECHNIQUES 17.6.1 ASSEMBLY TECHNIQUES
In general, the welderhas littleinfluence on the choiceof weldingprocedure but assembly techniques can oftenbe crucial in minimising distortion. The principal assembly techniques are:
tack welding back-to-back assembly stiffening
1 7. 6 . 1 . 1 T A C KW E L D I N G
Tackweldsare idealfor setting and maintaining the joint gap but can alsobe used to resisttransverse shrinkage. To be effective, thoughtshouldbe givento the number of tackwelds,theirlengthand the distance between them.Withtoo few,there is the riskof thejoint progressively proceeds. closing up as welding In a longseam,
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lt shouldbe notedthat the joint edges may even overlap. usingMMA or MIG/MAG, arc process,the joint might open up if not adequately when using the submerged tacked. a uniformroot gap along to maintain is important The tack weldingsequence are shown in the joint. sequences tack-welding Three alternative the lengthof the figurebelow: to throughto the end of the joint (figurea). lt is necessary tack weld straight joint gap tacking during maintain the or to usewedgesto clampthe plates the rest for tacking technique tackweld one end and then use a backstepping joint (figure b) of the (figure c). by backstepping the tackwelding tackweldthe centreand complete
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+ 5 + + + < l = + ? + + C = { = +
+ + 6 ? + + 4 7 + +
procedures used for tackweldingto preventtransverseshrinkage Alternative the joint gap, for tacking is a useful techniquefor controlling Directional toowide. a jointgapwhichis (or hasbecome) closing example thattackswhichareto be fusedintothe main it is important Whentackwelding, qualified welders. procedure usingappropriately to an approved weld, are produced for the as specified consumable preheat and an approved may require The procedure in defects causing to avoid control careful needs also the tacks of mainweld.Removal surface. the component
ASSEMBLY 17.6.1.2 BACK.TO-BACK

of welding backto-back, components two identical or clamping By tackwelding assembly axisof the combined aroundthe neutral can be balanced bothcomponents relieved is stress assembly the that (seefigurea on next page).lt is recommended necessary be it may is not done, lf stressrelieving beforeseparating 'wedgelthe components. (figureb on next page) so when the betweenthe components to insert shapeor alignment. the partswill movebackto the correct are removed, wedges
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n t T T l 1
a) assemblies tacked together before welding
b)#b)useofwedgesforcomponentsthatdistorton 4 /J Jl Jl r F separation afterwelding A

\,\bdges
Back-to-back assembly to control distortion when welding two identical components
17.6.1 .3
STIFFENING
Access
Longitudinalstiffenerspreventbowingin butt weldedthin platejoints Longitudinal shrinkage in butt-welded seamsoftenresults in bowing, especially when fabricating thin plate structures. Longitudinal stiffeners in the form of flats or angles, welded along each side of the seam (Fig just above) are effective in preventing longitudinal bowing. Stiffener location is important: they mustbe placedat a sufficient distance fromthejointso theydo not interfere withwelding, unlesslocated on the reverse sideof a jointweldedfromoneside.
17.6,2
WELDING PROCEDURE
A suitable weldingprocedure is usually determined by productivity and quality requirements ratherthan the need to controldistortion. Nevertheless, the welding process, and sequence technique do influence the distortion level. WeldingProcess General rulesfor selecting a weldingprocess to prevent distortion are: angular deposit theweldmetalas quickly as possible usethe leastnumber of runsto fill thejoint
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weldingprocessbasedon these rulesmay a suitable selecting Unfortunately, in bowing and buckling. resulting longitudinalshrinkage increase to is preferred rate process, a high deposition In manualwelding,MIG/MAG, (MMA), or electrode diameter usingthe largest MMA.Weld metalshouldbe deposited As imperfections. (M|G/MAG), lack-of-fusion without causing currentlevel the highest heatingis much slower and more diffuse,gas welding normallyproducesmore thanthe arc processes. distortion angular rates and high welding high deposition combining techniques Mechanised is more preventing As potential for distortion. the distortion speedshave the greatest are more effectivein controlling such as pre-setting simple techniques consistent, distortion. angular WeldingTechnique are: distortion rulesfor preventing General size specified to the minimum keepthe weld(fillet) the neutral axis about welding usebalanced runsto a minimum keepthe timebetween
a17 10 a 6 4 ?
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by thenumberof runsin the filletweld of thejointas determined distortion Angular in bothfilletand buttjointswill be distortion angular of restraint, ln the absence of runs for a givencross joint number the geometry, weld size and of the a function of runs of the number as a function (measured in degrees) distortion Angular section. filletweldis shownin the figureabove' for a 10mmleg length weldingaroundthe neutralaxis shouldbe done, for balanced lf possible, ln butt simultaneously. welding filletjoints,by two people on double-sided example weldingcan be used to correct joints,the run ordermay be crucialin that balanced it develops. as distortion angular
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welding a) Back-step
b) Skipwelding
lJseof welding direction to control distortion Welding Sequence The welding sequence,or direction,of welding is importantand should be towards the free end of the joint. For long welds, the whole of the weld is not completedin one direction.Short runs, for example using the back-stepor skip control (figurejust above weldingtechnique,are very effectivein distortion
short adjacentweld lengths in the welding involvesdepositing Back-step progression (a in above figure to the general direction opposite evenlyspaced, in a predetermined, is layingshortweld lengths Skipwelding Weld lengths and the spaces alongthe seam (b in abovefigure). sequence betweenthem are generallyequal to the natural run-out length of one is the same,but it is not for eachelectrode of deposit The direction electrode. of general to the direction to be opposite for the weldingdirection necessary progression.
17.6.3
BESTPRACTICE
distortion. are usedto control techniques fabrication Thefollowing thejointgap tackweldsto set up and maintain using about weldedbackto backso weldingcan be balanced components identical axis the neutral bowingin buttwelds longitudinal to prevent stiffeners of longitudinal attachment plate structures of thin shouldaim process and technique wherethereis choiceof weldingprocedure, to preference in possible; quickly MIG/MAG as weld metal as the to deposit welding manual rather than and mechanised MMAor gaswelding backin one direction; in long runs,the wholeweld shouldnot be completed be used. should welding techniques stepor skip
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- CORRECTIVE 17.7 DISTORTION TECHNIQUES

Everyeffortshouldbe made to avoid distortion at the designstage and by usingsuitable fabrication procedures. As it is not alwayspossible tJ avoiddistortion duringfabrication, severalwell-established corrective [echniques can be employed. However, reworking to correct distortion shouldnot be undertaken lighilyas it is cosily and needs considerable skillto avoid damaging the component. In this issue, general guidelines are.provided on'best practice,for correcting distortion usingmechanical or thermal techniques. 17.7.1 MECHANICALTECHNIQUES
The principal mechanical techniques are hammering and pressing. Hammering may causesurface damage andworkhardening. In casesof bowing or angular distortion, the complete component can oftenbe straightened on a presswithout packing the disadvantages of hammering. piecesare insertedbetweenthe component and the plalensof the preJs. lt is importantto impose sufficient deformation to giveover-correction so that the normal elasiicspringbackwill allowthe component to assume its correct shaoe.
Useof press lo correct bowing in T buttjoint Pressing to correct bowingin a flanged plateis illustrated in Fig. 14. In long components, distortion is removed progressively in a seriesof incremen-tal pressingsl each one actingover a shortlength. In the caseof the flangedplate,the loadshould act on the flange to prevent local damage to the web-at the load points. As incremental pointloading will only produce an approximately straight component, it is betterto use a former to achievea straightcomponent or to producea smooth curvature.
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FORMECHANIGAL STRAIGHTENING BESTPRAGTICE
The following should be adopted when using pressing techniquesto remove distortion: . . . . pieces whichwill overcorrect the distortion so that spring-back Use packing will to the correct the component shape return is adequately supported duringpressing Checkthat the component to prevent buckling Use a former (or rolling)to achieve a straightcomponentor producea curyature packingpiecesmay fly out from the press,the following safe As unsecured practice mustbe adopted. - boltthe packing pieces to the platen - placea metalplateof adequate thickness to intercept the 'missile' - clearpersonnel fromthe hazardarea THERMALTECHNIQUES
17.7.2
is to create highlocal behind thermal techniques sufficiently The basicprinciple pulled into the is back shape. on cooling, component so that, stresses
Localised heatingto correctdistortion
fr)ww
AFIffi
whereplastic to a temperature by locallyheating the material This is achieved material tries to expandagainst will occuras the hot, low yieldstrength deformation yieldstrength the metal. to roomtemperature cold,higher On cooling the surrounding The stresses to shrinkto a smaller sizethan beforeheating. heatedareawill attempt (Seeflgure above) generated willpullthe component intothe required shape. thereby meansof correcting simplebut effective is, therefore, a relatively Localheating level is determined by size, number,locationand Shrinkage weldingdistortion. the areaof the and platesizedetermines of the heatedzones.Thickness temperature of of heatingzones are largelya question heatedzone. Numberand placement jobs, quantify level of shrinkage. will be needed to the For new tests often experience. correction heating techniques canall be usedin thermal Spot,line,or wedge-shaped of distortion.
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1 7 . 7 . 2 . 1 SPOTHEATING
Spotheatingfor correcting buckling Spot heating(figureabove),is used to removebuckling, for examplewhen a relatively thin sheethas been weldedto a stiffframe.Distortion is corrected by spot heatingon the convexside. lf the bucklingis regular,the spots can be arranged starting symmetrically, at the centreof the buckle and working outwards.
17.7.2.2 LINEHEATING
Lineheatingto correctangulardistortionin a fillet weld in straight linesis oftenusedto correct Heating angular distortion, for example, (above welds figure). The in fillet component is heatedalongthe line of the welded joint but on the opposite side to the weld so the induced will pull the flange stresses flat.
17.7.2.3 WEDGE-SHAPED HEATING

distortion in largercomplex To correct fabrications it may be necessary to heat in addition to employing lineheating. wholeareas The pattern one aimsat shrinking partof the fabrication to pullthe material backintoshape.
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lJseof wedge shapedheatingto straightenplate zoneshouldbe heating a wedge-shaped of thinpanels, Apartfromspotheating profile should be used, (tigureabove) from base to apex and the temperature it maybe necessary material, section Forthicker the platethickness. through uniform plate' of the side one on each to usetwo torches, dimensions plate(Fig.18)wedge a curved guideline, to straighten As a general be: should of the platewidth of wedge- two-thirds Length 1. 2. Widthof wedge(base)- one sixthof its length(baseto apex)
be 5mm in a 3m lengthof plate. will typically The degreeof straightening in a varietyof situations, neatingcan be used to correctdistortion Wedge-shaped figure): (Seefollowing 1. 2. 3. (Fig.a) in two planes, correction whichneeds section, rolled Standard (Figb) to rolling at edgeof plateas an alternative Buckle out of plane(Fig'c) whichis distorted fabrication, Boxsection
b) Buckled edge of Plate
a) Standard rolled steel section
c) Box fabrication
Wedge shaped heating to correct distortion
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17.7.2.4 GENERALPRECAUTIONS
are the risk of overThe dangersof using thermalstraightening techniques by heating metallurgical changes to too higha too largean areaor causing shrinking rule,whencorrecting in steelsthe temperature As a general distortion of temperature. restricted red be to approximately to 60" 650"C dull heat. area should the is interrupted, or the heatlost,the operator must allowthe metalto cool lf the heating again. andthenbegin
FORDISTORTION CORRECTION BY 17.7.2,5 BESTPRACTICE THERMAL HEATING

whenusingthermal distortion: shouldbe adopted techniques to remove Thefollowing . . o . . . to remove buckling in thinsheetstructures uSspotheating heating othr than in spot heatingof thin panels,use a wedge-shaped technique to correct angular distortion in plate lineheating US the areaof heating to avoidover-shrinking the component rstrict to 60' to 650"C (dull red heat) in steels to prevent limit the temperature damage metallurgical in wedge heating,heat from the base to the apex of the wedge, penetrate an eventemperature the platethickness and maintain evenlythrough
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Questions
Stressand distortion QU1. Whatcauses distortion in welds?
QU2'
Namethree directionsin which residualstresses form in a weld and types of distortionoccurs due to the residuar stresses.
QU3.
state four methods of controilingdistortion.
QU4.
What are the factors affectingdistortions?
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QU 17
Section18 of Steel& Weld Joints HeatTreatment
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18.0 HEATTREATMENT OF STEEL& WELDJOINTS

18.1 INTRODUCTION
The heat treatment given to a particular grade of steel by the should be shown on the materialtest certificate steelmaker/supplier and may be referred to as the'supply condition'. Weldinginspectors may need to refer to matedal test certificates and it is that they be familiarwith the terminology appropriate that is used and have some of the principlesof some of the most commonlyappliedheat understanding treatments. Weldedjointsmay needto be subjected to heattreatment afterwelding(postweld heat treatment) and the tasksof monitoring the thermalcycleand checking the records heattreatment are oftendelegated to welding inspectors. 1 8 . 2 H E A T T R E A T ME N T OF STEEL conditions for weldable The mainsupply steels are: as rolled hot rolled hot finished plateis hot rolled to finished sizeand allowed to air cool; the temperature at whichrolling finishes mayvaryfrom plate to plate and so strengthand toughness properties vary and are not optimised; appliedto relatively thin,lowerstrength C-steel
steelplategivenprecisely controlled thickness reductions during hot rollingwithin carefully controlled rolledtemperature ranges; thermo-mechanically finalrolling temperature is also carefully controlled; appliedto relatively thin, highstrength low alloysteels (HSLAsteels)and for somesteelswith goodtoughness at lowtemperatures, e.9.,cryogenic steels * TMCP = Thermo-Mechanical Controlled Processing
TMCP* control-rolled normalised
after workingthe steel (rollingor forging)to size, it is heatedto -900'C and then allowedto cool in air to ambient temperature;this optimises strength and properties toughness fromitemto item and givesuniform gradeof steel; for a particular appliedto C-Mnsteels and somelowalloysteels
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quenched & tempered
afterworking the steel(rolling or forging) to size,it is heated to -900"C and thencooledjs qricfly as possible by quenching in water or oif; after quenchiirg, the steel must be tempered (softened) to improvethJductilityof the'as-quenched' steel; appliedto somelow allo.y steelsto givehigherstrength, or toughness or wearresistance afterhot or coldworking to size,steelheatedto _1100"C and rapidlycooledby quenching into water to prevent any carbides or otherphases fromforming appliedto austenitic stainress steers suchas 304 & 316 grades
solutionannealed solution heattreated
Figures1, 2,3 & 4 are schematics of thermal cycles forthe mainsupply conditions.
18.3 POST WELDHEATTREATMENT (pwHT)

Postweld heattreatment has to be applied to someweldedsteelsin orderto ensure that the propertiesof the weldmentwill be suitable for their intended applications. The temperature at which PWHT is carriedout is usuallywell below the temperature where .phasechangescan occur (note 1), but high enougn to ailow residual stresses to be relievec quict<ty and to rott"n ltemper;any hardregionsin the HAZ. Thereare majorh-enefits of reducing residual stressand ensuring that the H47 hardness is nottoo highfor particular steeli for particular service applications. Examples of thesebenefits are: 1 2. 3' To improve the resistance of thejointto britfle fracture v To improve joint the resistance of the to stresscorrosion cracking v, To enable jointsto be machined welded to accurate dimensional tolerances
Becausethe main reasonfor (and benefitofl PWHT is to reduce residual stresses, PWHTis oftencalled,stressrelief,. Note 1: Thereare circumsfances whena wetded joint may needto be normalised to restoreHAZ toughness.However,fhese are retitively rare circumstances and it is necessary to ensure tha.t wetding consumabtes aie carefuily selected because normalising will significanilyreduce weldmetal strength
18.4 PWHT THERMAL CYCLE

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Standard/Code, will specifywhen PWHT is required to give The Application aboutthe thermal #1 or #2 aboveand alsogive guidance benefits cyclethat must be used. with a ln order to ensure that a PWHT cycle is carriedit in accordance particular is preparedand that the Code, it is essentialthat a PWHT procedure parameters are specified: following o . . . heating rate v' the maximum range v/ the soaktemperature (soak timeat the soaktemperature time) v theminimum cooling rate \,.' the maximum HEATING RATE
18.4.1
within the differences This must be controlledto avoid large temperature gradients) (large will thermal fabricateditem. Large differencesin temperature (or even produce and these may be high enoughto causedistortion largestresses cracking). Standardsusuallyrequirecontrolof the maximumheatingrate Application of the item is above-300"C. This is becausesteelsstart to when the temperature to and are moresusceptible abovethis temperature loss of strength showsignificant gradients. if thereare largethermal distortion duringthe thermal item must be monitored of the fabricated The temperature at a number surface to the attached is done by means of thermocouples and this cycle rangeof the item. the thickness representing of locations the rate of heatingcan be furnace,and item, temperatures By monitoring withinthe at all positions requirements with Code to ensurecompliance controlled item. of the for C-Mn steeldependon thickness Maximumheatingrates specified -60 -2lo"Clh. be in the range to itembuttendto ^
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18.4.2
SOAKTEMPERATURE
by the Codedependson the type of steeland specified The soaktemperature stresses to a low level. residual to reduce rangerequired thusthe temperature somelow alloy of -600'C whereas a soaktemperature C & C-Mnsteelsrequire service)requirehigher temperature steels(such as Cr-Mosteelsused for elevated - typically in the range-700"Cto -760"C. temperatures variable for a WPQR.Thus,it is very is an essential Nofe: Soaktemperature importantthat the it is controlledwithinthe specifiedlimitsotherwiseit the propertiesof to carryout a new WPQfesf fo validate may be necessary the item and at worstit may not be fit for purpose.
18.4.3
SOAKTIME
jointsto experience the specified to allowtimefor all the welded It is necessary the fulljointthickness. throughout temperature and it is the thermocouples is monitored by surface-contact The temperature for temperature that governsthe minimum time thickestjoint of the fabrication equalisation. soaktimesare t h per 25mmthickness. Typical specified 18.4.4 COOLING RATE
for the fromthe PWHTtemperature the rateof cooling to control It is necessary (or cracking) distortion to avoid needs to be controlled rate samereasonthat heating gradients. fromthermal due to highstresses the to -300'C. Belowthistemperature cooling specify controlled Codesusually is steel in air because to cool from a furnaceand allowed item can be withdrawn gradients to sufferplasticstrainby any temperature strongand is unlikely relatively thatmaydevelop. cycle. PWHTthermal of a typical Figure5 is a schematic 1 8 . 5 HE A T T R E A T ME N T FURNACES usedfor PWHTdo not allowflame thatoil and gas firedfurnaces It is important gradients. thermal large as this may induce withthe fabrication contact for oil fired furnaces) to ensurethat the fuel (particularly It is also important - suchas sulphur. impurities harmful highlevels of potentially doesnot contain
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18.6 LOCALPWHT
For a pipelineor pipe spool it is often necessary to apply post weld heat weldsby localapplication to individual of heat. treatment For this,a PWHTprocedure mustspecify parameters the previously described cyclebut it is alsonecessary the thermal for conirolling to specify the following: . . the widthof the heatedband(thatmustbe withinthe soaktemperature range) 'decay' the widthof the temperature band(soaktemp.to -300'C)
are: Other considerations o of the thermocouples the position withinin the heatedbandwidthand the decayband o in a particular if the itemneedsto be supported way to allow distortion movemenUavoid method of heating for localPWHTis by meansinsulated The commonest 'mats') (electrical to the weld. thatare attached electrical elements heating elements canalsobe used. radiant, Gasfired, 'control zones'for localised PWHTof a pipebuttweld. typical 6 shows Figure
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NORMALISING o rapidheating (100Yo austenite) to soaktemperature . short'soak' timeat temperature o coolin air to ambient temperature
() o
L
^ ,9 0 0 o C
f (5
L
c) o
E
F
Time
Figure 1 Schematic of a typical normalisingheat treatment appliedto C'Mn and some low alloy steels
QU E N C H IN& G TEM PERING . . (100%austenite) to soaktemperature rapidheating timeat temperature short'soak'
o rapidcooling in wateror oil by quenching o reheat soak& air cool temperature, to tempering
O o o
f
^ ,9 0 0 o C
(o
L
o q
E
F
o)
quenching cvcle
tempenng
cvcle
Time
Figure2
Schematicof a typical quenching & tempering heat treatment applied to some low alloy sleels
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slab heatingtemperature > ^, 1050oC
austenite
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+ ferrite austenite (y+cr)
= (o
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E
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+ pearlite ferrite (!* ironcarbide)

Time 'control-rolled' Comparisonof the (TMCP)and 'as-rolled' conditions (= hot rolling)
Figure 3
SOLUTION HEATTREATMENT . rapidheating to soaktemp.(100o/o austenite) 'soak' o short timeat temperature . rapidcoolcooling by quenching intowateror oil ^, > 1050oC
O o
o) L
f
(o
L
o o(D F
quenching
F i g u re 4
Time Schematic (solutionannealing) of a typical solutionheattreatment appliedto austenitic stalnlesssteels
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PWHT(G-Mnsteels) o controlledheatingrate from 300'C to soak temp. . minimumsoak time at temperature .

O o (o c) oL
controlledcooling to - 300"C
- 500oC
E
F
o)
- 3O0oC
controlled heating & cooling rates
soak time Time Figure 5
air cool
Schematic of a typical PWHT applied to C-Mnsteels
Figure6
Schematic of local PWHT of a pipe girth seam
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Questions
Heattreatment
QU1. List three methodsof appryingheat to a metal
QU2.
Give the namesof four heat treatments, which may be applied to steel
QU3.
Give a brief descriptionof the following heat treatments,and state the purposeof each. a) b) c) d) Normalising. Annealing Quenchharden. Tempering.
QU4'
Statethe factors,which requiremonitoringfor heat treatments.
QUs.
which heat treatment(s) is used to give maximum toughness values?
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QU 18
Section19 GuttingProcesses
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19.0CUTTING PROCESSES
19.1 OXY.FUEL CUTTING
Oxy-fuelcuttingprocesscut or removesmetal by the chemicalreactionof oxygen with the metal at elevatedtemperatures. The necessarytemperature is provided by a gas flame,which preheats and bringsthe materialup to the burning Oncethistemperature temperature. is achieved, a streamof oxygenis released. This oxygenstream rapidlyoxidisesmost of the metal and performsthe actualcutting Metaloxidestogether with moltenmetalare expelled operation. from the cut by the kinetic energyof the oxygenstream.Moving the torchacross produces the workpiece cutting action. a continuous
Oxygen
Ful gas aod xygen
Hcoijng ian'!6
\s*nr*,
Schematic of oxy-fuelcutting In order to be cut by oxy-fuel cutting process, a material must fulfil 2 conditions: simultaneously o . its burning temperature point mustbe belowthe parentmaterial melting the meltingtemperature of the oxidesformedduringthe cuttingprocessmust point be below the parent material melting
These 2 conditions are fulfilledby carbonsteelsand some low alloy steels. However, the oxidesof manyof the alloying elements in steels, such as aluminium have meltingpointshigherthan those of iron oxides.These high and chromium meltingpoint oxides(whichare refractory in nature!) in the may shieldthe material kerf so that fresh iron is not continuously exposedto the cuttingoxygenstream, leading to a decrease of the cutting process. speedand ultimately ln to an unstable
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<0.25o/oC, practice, limitedto low alloy steels containing the processis effectively <9%Ni. <5%Mn <57oMo, <So/oCt, and Advantagesof oxy-fuelcutting: . . . . r . . methods be cut fasterthanby mostmachining can generally steels that are difficultto produceby mechanical sectionshapesand thicknesses cutting can be cut economically by oxy-fuel means to machine tools costsare lowcompared basicequipment is very portable and can be usedon site equipment manual rapidly on a smallradius can be changed direction cutting in placeby moving canbe cut rapidly the torchrather thanthe plate largeplates method of plateedgepreparation is an economical
of oxy-fuelcutting: Disadvantages . . . . . . . poorer toolcapabilities are significantly thanmachine tolerances dimensional is essentially limited carbon and low alloysteels to cutting the process to fire and burn hazards red-hotslag present flame and expelled the preheat plantand personnel and oxidation of the metal requireproperfume controland fuel combustion ventilation adequate steels may requirepreheatand/or postheatadjacentto the cut hardenable properties metallurgical and mechanical structures edgesto controltheir process high alloy steelsand cast needed for cutting modifications are special or fluxaddition) irons(i.e.ironpowder process, during of the components expansion and shrinkage beinga thermal into consideration mustbe taken operation and aftercutting
19.1.1
FORGASES REQUIREMENTS
shouldhave a purityof 99,5%or higher. Oxygenused for cuttingoperations in consumption purity in a decrease in cutting speedand an increase will result Lower With oxygen of the cuttingoperation. the efficiency of cuttingoxygenthus reducing action that is usually purity below 95o/ocutting becomes a melt-and-wash unacceptable. operation: in the cutting functions flamehasthe following The preheating r o o . point of the steelto the ignition raisethetemperature reaction the cutting to the workto maintain add heatenergy provide a protectiveshield between the cutting oxygen stream and the atmosphere from the upper surfaceof the steel any rust, scale, paint or other dislodge of the substance that wouldstop or retardthe normalforwardprogress foreign action cutting
19.2
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whenselecting fuel gas: a particular to be considered Factors o . o r o for preheating whenstarting cuts the time required speedand productivity the effecton cutting costand availability pervolumeof fuelgas to obtaina neutral required flame Volume of oxygen and handling of gases safetyin transporting
Some of the more common fuel gases used are acetylene,natural gas propylene propadiene propane, (methane), and MAPPgas (methylacetylene mixture).
NS andtheira Fuelqas characteristics Maincharacteristics Fueloas focused, hightemperature flame Acetylene Highly preheating andpiercing Rapid Lowoxvqen requirement flame,highheat Lowtemperature Propane content and piercing Slowpreheating requirement Hiohoxvoen flame Medium temperature MAPP flame temperature Propvlene Medium flame Lowtemperature Methane
Applications
Cutting of thinplates Bevelcuts cuts Short.multi-pierce Cutting of thicker sections (100-300mm), longcuts undenruater Cuttinq of thicker sections Cuttinq sections Cuttino of thicker
19,1.2
GAS CUTTING OXY.FUEL QUALITY
by: cutsare characterised oxy-fuel Generally, . . o o largekerf(<2mm) (Ra<S0pm) values lowroughness (>0.7mm) pooredgesquareness wi d eH M (>1 mm)
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The face of a satisfactory cut has a sharp top edge,drag lines,which are fine andeven,littleoxideand a sharpbottom edge.underside is frejof slag.
A satisfactory cut is shownin the centre.lf the cut is too slow (left)the top edge is melted and thereare deepgrooves in the lowerportion of the face.Scaling is heairy and the bottomedgemay be rough,with adherent dross.lf the cut is too f-ast (right) theappearance is similar, withan irregular - 12 mm. cutedge.platethickness
In case of a very fast travelspeed,the drag linesare coarseand at angleto surface with excessive amountof slagsticking to bottomedge of plate(thisis due to jet trailing the oxygen with insufficient oxygenreaching bottom of the cut).
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A satisfactory cut is againshownin the centre. lf the preheating flameis too low (left)the mostnoticeable effecton the cut edgeis deepgougesin the lowerpartof the cut face. lf the preheating flame is too high (right) the top edge is melted,the cut is - 12 mm. irregular andthereis an excess of adherent dross. Plate thickness
As before, a satisfactory cut is shownin the centre. lf the blowpipe nozzle is too highabovethe work(left)excessive melting of thetop edgeoccurswith muchoxide.lf (right)unevenspacingof the drag lines can be the torch travel speed is irregular together with irregular observed bottomsurface and adherent oxide.Platethickness 1 2m m . 19.2 PLASMA ARC CUTTING Plasmaarc cuttingis an arc cuttingprocess that usesa constricted arc, which removesthe moltenmetal with a high velocityjet of ionisedgas issuingfrom the constricting orifice.First,a pilot arc is struck betweena tungstenelectrode and a water-cooled nozzle,The arc is then transferred to the workpiece,thus being
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gas passes through As plasma of the electrode. downstream by the orifice constricted as it and is accelerated expands to a high temperature, this arc, it is heatedrapidly directsthe The orifice the workpiece. orificetowards passesthroughthe constricting the arc When workpiece. the toward superheatedplasmastreamfrom the electrode arc jet blowsawaythe molten The cutting metal. the highvelocity meltsthe workpiece, "transfers" Arc to the work piece. This is known as the Transferred attachesto or method is a there conductors electrical are non where materials method.However polesare houseinside and Negative Arc wherethe Positive knonas Non Transferred the arc and the plasmajet streamtravelstowardthe work the torch body creating piece. Advantagesof Plasmaarc cutting: r whichare electrical to materials is not onlylimited plasma arc cutting all plasma is widelyusedfor cutting arc cutting as a consequence, conductors; conductive and non electrical materials non-ferrous steels, typesof stainless materials to oxyenergylevelcompared at a muchhigher operates plasma arc cutting speed in fastercutting resulting fuelcutting thisalso cutting; for interrupted particularly advantageous is start-up instant without allowscutting Preheat
o .
of plasmaarc cutting: Disadvantages . . toolcapabilities poorer thanmachine aresignificantly tolerances dimensional hazardssuch as fire, electricshock (due to the high the processintroduces light,fumes,gasesand noiselevelsthat may not be present OCV!),intense cutting,the level of with other prcceises. However,in case of underwater to a low level' and noiseare reduced fumes,UV radiation tendsto be more equipment plasma cutting arc cutting, corlparedto oxy-fuel power of electric a fairlylargeamount and requires expensive during of the components shrinkage and process, expansion beinga thermal mustbe takenintoconsideration operation and ifter cutting
r .
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Elodrods
Cmllrq
HalEt
Plawna gra
Transferred Arc
Non Transferred
Schematicof plasmaarc cutting
19.3 ARC-AIR GOUGING process, During arc air gouging the metal to be gouged or cut is melted withan jet electric arc and blownawaywith a highvelocity of compressed air.A special torch air streamalongthe electrode directs the compressed and underneath it. The torchis connected to an arc weldingmachine and any compressed air line,whichdelivers 690 kPa of compressed pressure approximately air. Since the is not critical,a regulator is not necessary. The electrode is madeout of graphite and is copper coated to increasethe currentpick-upand operating life This processis usuallyused for gouging and bevelling, being ableto produce U andJ preps. lt can be applied to both ferrous and non-ferrous materials.
lorch stickout 7in (178mm)max electrode torch heads i+)
copper peel back %in ('19mm)
to 2in(50mm)
<-?ll'
<-
travel
workpiece(-)
Schematic of arc-air gouging
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of arc-airgouging: Advantages . o thanchipping 5 timesfaster fast- it is approximately Defectsare clearlyvisible removesdefectswith precision. ?silycontrollable, and slag easilyregulated is of cut The depth with ease. followed be may and action. or hamperthe cutting doesnot deflect excepton are necessary or regulators cost - no gas cylinders low equipment site. - no oxygenor fuel gas required. The weldermay also to operate economical for thisoperation!). requirements (thereare no qualification do the gouging exceptthe torch equipment to MMA is similar easyto operate the equipment hose. andairsuPPlY - the torch is not muchlargerthan a MMAelectrode holder,allowing cofi'tpact areas. workin confined Versatile
o .
of arc-airgouging: Disadvantages . r o cut produce a betterandquicker processes usually othercutting air of compressed volume a large fQUires in caseof cast in hardness to an increase the carboncontentleading increase steelsit can lead to carbide metals.In case of stainless iron and hardenable of the carburedlayer For this reason,grinding precipitation and sensitisation. gouging. arc-air follows usually of sparksand moltenmetal), such as fire (dueto discharge hazards introduces light. intense noise and fumes,
METALARC GOUGING 19.4 MANUAL

ln this case the arc is formed betweenthe tip of the electrodeand the a to generate withthickflux coatings electrodes specialpurpose lt requires workpiece. pool must wherea stableweld strongarc forceand gas stream.UnlikeMMAwelding fromthe arc zoneto leavea away metal molten process the forces this be miintained, cleancut surface. by the large amountof gas, which is The gougingprocessis characterised the arc/gasstreamis not as because generated to ejectthe moltenmetal.However, gougeis not as smoothas jet, the of surface the gas air or a separate fowerfulas a gougeor air carbonarc gouge. an oxy-fuel
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Arc andgasiet to displace molten metal
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= Direction of gouge Profile of gouge Schematic of manual metal arc gouging
powersource an AC constant current can alsobe used. DCENis preferred, Although gougingoperations, removal of defectsfor MMA gougingis usedfor localised to switchfrom a weldingelectrode and where it is more convenient to a example, gouging rather than use specialised equipment. Compared with alternative electrode processes, of the gougedsurface gouging metalremoval ratesare low and the quality is inferior. clean gouged applied, MMA gougingcan producerelatively When correctly general without can be carried out the need to applications, welding For surfaces. a thinlayerof higher carbon However whengouging stainless steel, dressby grinding. - thisshould be removed by grinding. be produced materialwill content
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Questions Thermalcutting QU1. what is the principar rimitation of oxy/fuer gas
cutting?
QU2.
Givecommon fuer gassesnormailyused for
cutting of steer.
QU3.
state threesafety precautions that must be observedwhen air arc gouging.
Qus.
why is preheat sometimesrequired priorto oxy-gas cutting?
QU6.
What currenttype normallyused for MMA gouging?
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QU 19
Section20 Arc WeldingSafetY
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2O.O ARC WELDING SAFETY

20.1 GENERAL
Workingin a safe manner, whether in the workshop or on site,is an important in any welding operation.The responsibility consideration for safety is on the individuals, not only for their own safety,but also for other people'ssafety.The Inspector VisualA/Velding has an important functionin ensuringthat safe working legislation is in placeand safeworking practices are implemented. The lnspector may to carryout safetyaudits be required of welding priorto welding, equipment implement risk assessmenVpermit to work requirements or monitorthe safe workingoperations particular for a task,during welding. Thereare a number of documents thatthe inspector may referto for guidance. . . . o - The Health Government Legislation & Safetyat WorkAct. - COSHHRegulations, Health & SafetyExecutive Statutory instruments. - Permits Workor siteinstructions to work,riskassessment documents etc LocalAuthority Requirements.
Thereare four aspects of arc welding safetythat the VisualiWeldinglnspector needsto consider . . . . Electric Shock Heatand Light Fumes andGases Noise
20.2 ELECTRIC SHOCK

The hazardof electricshockis one of the most seriousand immediate risks facingpersonnel involved in the welding operation. Contact with metalparts,whichare "electrically hot",can causeinjuryor death because of the effectof the shockuponthe bodyor because of a fall as a resultof the reaction to electric shock, The electric shockhazardassociated with arc weldingmay be divided intotwo categories: . . voltage Primary shock - 230 or 460 volts voltage Secondary shock- 60 to 100volts
Primary voltageshock is very hazardous becauseit is much greater than the secondary voltageof the weldingequipment. (input) Electric shockfrom the primary voltage can occurby touchinga lead insidethe weldingequipment with the powerto
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on whilethe bodyor handtouches equipment the welding the welderswitched caseor (RCDs) metal.Residual CircuitDevices connected to circuitbreakers of otherearthed will helpto protect from the danger the welderand otherpersonnel capacity sufficient shock. electric of primary voltage a partof the electrode circuitshockoccurswhentouching Secondary perhapsa damagedarea on the electrodecable - and anotherpart of the body and work,or weldingearth)at the bothsidesof the weldingcircuit(electrode touches sametime. is unlikely to exceedopen circuitvoltagesof 100V. Most weldingequipment so the welding circuit shouldbe fitted shock,evenat this levelcan be serious, Electric safetydevices, to minimise the potential of secondary electric shock. withlowvoltage circuit shouldcontain threeleads: wiredwelding A correctly o r . A weldinglead, from one terminalof the powersourceto the electrodeholder torch. or welding the circuit, fromthe work to the otherterminal A weldingreturnleadto complete of the powersource. An earthlead,from the work to an earthpoint.The powersourceshouldalso be earthed.
the highest welding current required. of carrying All threeleadsshouldbe capable whetherthe capacityof any piece of currentcarrying In order to establish Welding Inspector can referto the Duty is adequate for the job, the Visual/ equipment Cycleof the equipment. welding equipment is ratedin termsof: carrying All current Duty Cycle. current is passed through carrying conductors heatup whenwelding All current a measure of the capability of the weldingequipment them.DutyCycleis essentially as: timeto totaltime,whichcan be expressed in termsof the ratioof welding Duty Cycle = WeldinqTime x 100 TotalTime
will not be heatedabove this ratiothe current carrying conductors By observing Dutycyclesare basedon a totaltimeof 10 minutes. theirratedtemperature. Example A power sourcehasa ratedoutputof 350Ampsat 60% Duty Cycle. powersourcewill deliver350 amps(its rated output)for This means that thisparticular sixminutesout of everyten minuteswithoutoverheating.
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Failureto carefully observethe Duty Cycleof a pieceof equipment can over stressthe part, and in the case of weldingequipment causeoverheating leadingto for electric instability and the potential shock.
20.3 HEATAND LIGHT 20.3.1 HEAT
electrical In arc welding, energyis converted intoheatenergyand lightenergy, bothof whichcan haveserious healthconsequences. The weldingarc createssparks,which havethe potential to causeflammable nearthe welding materials areato igniteand causefires.The weldingareashouldbe materials clear of all combustible and it is good practice for the Inspector to know wherethe nearestfire extinguishers are situatedand know the correcttype of fire extinguisher to useif a flredoesbreakout. Weldingsparks can cause serious burns, so protective clothing,such as weldinggloves,flame retardant coverallsand leathersmust be worn around any in orderto protect welding operation against heatand sparks.
20,3.2
LIGHT
is emitted by the welding arc in threeprincipal ranges: Lightradiation
20.3.2.1 ULTRAVIOLETRADTATTON(UV)
All arc processesgenerate UV. Excess exposureto UV causes skin and possibly even skin canceror permanent However inflammation, eye damage. the of the cornea and main risk amongstweldersand Inspectors is for inflammation known commonly as 'arceye'or'flash'. conjunctiva, layer Arc eye is causedby UV radiation. This damages the outmostprotective Gradually of cellsin the cornea, the damaged cellsdie andfall off the corneaexposing roughinnerpart nervesin the underlying highlysensitive corneato the comparatively pain,usually Thiscausesintense as 'sandin the eye'. The of the eyelid. described painbecomes evenmoreacuteif the eye is thenexposed to brightlight. Arc eye develops some hoursafterexposure, whichmay not even have been The 'sandin the eye' symptomand pain usually lastsfor 12 - 24 hours,but noticed.
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arc eye is almost always a can be longer in more severe cases. Fortunately, temporarycondition.In the unlikelyevent of prolongedand frequentlyrepeated permanent damagecan occur. exposures, personor of arc eye is simple:rest in a dark room. A qualified Treatment eye various soothinganaesthetic can administer hospitalCasualtyDepartments provide cure relief. Prevention is better than almost instantaneous can These drops. reducethe risk of this with side shields will considerably and wearingsafetyglasses condition. Ultravioleteffects upon the skin does not produce the browning effectof sunburn; The UV from arc processes and irritation causedby changesin the minutesurface but does resultin reddening may burnedand blisters bloodvessels.In extremecases,the skin may be severely has been may and flake off in a or so. Where there skin die day form.The reddened prolonged exposure, skincancers candevelop. or frequent intense
LIGHT 29.3.2.2 VISIBLE

approaching UV or 'blue light' wavelengths lntensevisible light particularly cases,damage passesthrough the corneaand lens and can dazzleand,in extreme of visiblelight sensitive nerveson the retina.Wavelengths the networkof optically the infraredhave slightlydifferenteffects but can produce similar approaching of exposureand to some Effectsdependon the durationand intensity symptoms. the eye and excludethe natural reflex action to close extent,upon the individual's effect. this dazzling doesnotproduce a long-term light.Normally incident
RADIATION 20.3.2.3 INFRARED

and is of longerwavelength thanthe visiblelightfrequencies, radiation Infrared (overa exposure to the eyesis that prolonged as heat.The mainhazard is perceptible the opacity of the lens.Fortunately, matterof years)causesa gradualbut irreversible within a only damage by normal welding arcs causes emitted radiation infrared in burning sensation fromthe arc.Thereis an immediate shortdistance comparatively human to arc heat.The natural the eyesshouldthey be exposed the skinsurrounding whichalso reduceseye the skin heating, is to move or coverup to prevent reaction exposure. increasing filtershadesof gradually a rangeof permanent BS EN169specifies at emittedby differentprocesses opticaldensitywhich limit exposureto radiation standard in the indicated numbers must be stressed that shade lt currents. different rangesarefor guidance only. current andthe corresponding
AND GASES 20.4 FUMES 20.4.1 FUMES

20.4
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Becauseof the variablesinvolvedin fume generation from arc weldingand alliedprocesses (suchas the welding process and electrode, the basemetal,coitings on the basemetaland otherpossible contaminants in the air),the dangers of weldiig fume can be consideredin a generalway. Althougnhetttn considerations var! according to the typeof fume composition and individuilreactions, the following holdi truefor mostwelding fume. The fumeplumecontains solidparticles fromthe consumabies, basemetaland basemetalcoating. Depending on the lengthof exposure to thesefumes,mostacute effectsare temporary and includesymptoms of burningeyes and skin, dizziness, nausea and fever. For example, zinc fumescan causemetalfume fever,a temporary illnessthat is similarto the flu- Chronic,long-termexposureto weldingfumes tan lead to siderosis (irondeposits in the rungs) and mayaffectpulmonary firnction. Cadmium, however, is a different story.This toxicmetalcan be foundon steel as a coating or in silver solder. Cadmiumfumes can be fatal even under brief exposure, with symptoms much like thoseof metalfumefever.Thesetwo shouldnot be confused. Twentyminutesof weldingin the presence of cadmium can be enough to causefatalities, withsymptoms appearing withinan hourand deathfivedayslaterl
20.4.2
GASES
The gases that result from an arc weldingprocessalso presenta potential hazard. Mostof the shielding gases(argon, helium and carbondioxide) are non-toxic. When released, however, these gasesdisplace oxygenin the breathing air, causing dizziness, unconsciousness anddeaththelonger the brain is denied oxygen. Some degreasing compounds such as trichlorethylene and perchlorethylene can decompose fromthe heat and ultraviolet radiation to produce toxicgases. Ozone and nitrogen oxidesare produced when UV radiation hitsthe air. Thesegasescause headaches, chestpains,irritation of the eyesanditchiness in the noseand throat. To reducethe risk of hazardous fumesand gases,keep the head out of the fume plume.As obviousas this sounds, it is a commoncause of fume and gas overexposure because the concentration of fumesand gasesis greatest in the plume. ln addition, use mechanical ventilation or localexhaust at the irc to directthe fume plumeaway from the face. lf this is not sufficient, use fixed or moveableexhaust hoodsto drawthe fumefromthe general area.Finally, it may be necessary to wearan approved respiratory deviceif sufficient ventilation cannotbe provided. As a rule of thumb,if the air is visiblyclearand the welderis comfortable, the ventilation is probably adequate. To identify hazardous substances, first readthe material safetydata sheetfor the consumable to see what fumes can be reasonably expectedfrom use of the product.
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Refer to the occupational ExposureLimit (oEL) as definedin the cosHH regulations which gives maximumconcentrations to wiricn a healthyadult can be exposed to any one substance. Second, knowthe base metaland determine if a paintor coating wouldcause toxicfumesor gases. Particular attention shouldalso be made to the dangersof asphyxiation when weldingin confined spaces.Risk assessment, permitsto work and'gas testingare someof the necessary actions required to ensurethe safetyof a1 persJnnlt.
20.5 NOTSE
Exposure to loud noise can permanently damagehearing. Noise can also causestressand increase bloodpressure. Workingin J noisyeniironment for long periods can contribute to tiredness, nervousness and irritability. lf the noiseexposure is greaterthan 85 decibels averaged over an 8-hourperiodinen nearinj protection mustbe worn,and annual hearing testsshouldbe carried out. Normalweldingoperations are not associated with noiselevel problems with two exceptions: Plasmaarc weldingand air carbonarc cutting. lf eitherof thesetwo operations is to be performed then hearing protectors must be worn. The noise -ancillary associated with weldingis usuallydue.to operations such as chipping, grinding and hamm.ering. Hearing protection mustbe wornwhencarrying out,or when working in the vicinity of, theseoperations.
20,6 SUMMARY
The bestway to managethe risksassociated with weldingis by implementing management programs.Risk management is a method thai requiresthe f:k identification of hazards,assessment of the risks and implementation of suitable controls to reduce the riskto an acceptable level. It is essential to evaluate and reviewa risk management program. Evaluation involves ensuring that controlmeasures have eliminated or reduce-d the risks,and reviewaims to checkthat the processis workingeffectively to identify hazardsand manage risks. It is quite likely that the VisualMelding Inspectorwould be involved in managing the risksassociated withwelding as partof theirduties.
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Questions
Arc weld safety

QU1
Howcanthe welder protect himselfagainstUVAfight:
QU2
Occasional accidental exposure to the eye can produce extremelypainfulconditionknown as:
QU3
To reducethe possibirity of erectricshock, a correcflywired werdingcircuit shourdcontainthree reads these readsare: a ). b). c).
QU4
Arc welding temperatures producefumes and dust particres, state the precautions a werdermust take to protectagainst fumes and dust particles:
QU5
when welding on items, which have been degreased particutar precautions,must be made,why?
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QU 20
Section21 The Weldability of Steels
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OF STEELS 21.0THEWELDABILITY
21.1 INTRODUCTION
simply means the abilityto be welded and many types of The term 'weldability' steel that are weldablehave been developedfor a wide range of applications' However,it is the ease or difficultyof making a weld with suitable properties 'good are described as having and free from defects varies and so some steels 'poor A steel is usually weldability'. whereasothersmay be said to have weldability' to avoid a said to have poor weldabilityif it is necessarytake special p_recautions n_eed.to poor may be the weldability Another reasonfor particulartype of imperfection. properties for the required parameters achieve to weld within a very narrow range of joint.
THATAFFEGTWELDABILITY 21.2 FACTORS

A number of inter-relatedfactors determine whether a steel is said to have Theseare: good or poorweldability. . o . . theactualchemicalcomPosition the weldjointconfiguration the weldingprocessto be used requiredfrom the weldment the properties
necessaryto ensure that: it is particularly For steelswith poor weldability . . o give welding conditionsthat do not cause welding procedurespecifications properties crackingbut achievethe specified with the specifiedweldingconditions welderswork strictlyin accordance regularlymonitorwelders to ensure they are workingstrictly welding inspectors the WPSs in accordance
Having a good understandingof the characteristics,causes, and ways of avoiding impirfeclions in steel weldments should enable welding inspectorst9.f99ys welding parameterswhen steels with poor weldability attentionon the most influential used. are being
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CRACKING ,' 21.3 HYDROGEN

\-*.-crackscanoccurin sometypesof steel,due to by welding, fabrication During is 'hydrogen namefor this $pe of cracking The technical of hydrogen. the presence thatdescribe to by othernames but it is oftenreferred inducedcold cracking'(HICC) cracks, namely: of hydrogen characteristics various
. . o o cold cracking HM cracking delayedcracking cracking under-bead - cracksoccurwhen the weld has cooled down - crackstend to occur mainlyin the HAZ - cracksmay occur some time after welding up to -48h) has finished(possibly - cracksoccur in the HM beneatha weld bead
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Although most hydrogen cracks occur in the HAZ, there are circumstances when they mJy form in of HM hydrogencracksFigure 1 is a schematicshowingtypicallocations Figure 2 shows hydrogencrack in the HAZ of a filletweld.
21.3.1
TO SUSCEPTIBILITY INFLUENCING FACTORS CRACKING HYDROGEN
Hydrogencracking in the HM of a steel occurs when 4 conditionsexist at the sametime,namely: . hydrogenis present(abovea certainlevel) \{ o ) . 2 tensilestressis actingon the weld (abovea certainlevel) V is present V HM microstructure zsusceptible (nearto ambient temperature)!' the weldmentis at a low temperature
so that the influence These4 conditions(4 factors)are mutuallyinterdependent (its' 3 factorsare. the others level) on how active depends active condition of one
21.3.2
CRACKINGMECHANISM
Hydrogen(H) can enter the molten weld metal when hydrogencontaining moleculesare brokendown into H atoms in the weldingarc. Because H atoms are very small they can move about (diffuse)in solid steel and while weld metal is hot they can diffuse to the weld surfaceand escape into the atmosphere.
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if the However, at lower temperatures H cannot diffuse as quickly and usually trapped become will H weldmentcoolsdown quicklyto ambienttemperature the HAZ. hard lf the HM has a susceptiblemicrostructure indicatedby being relatively H then weldment the in stresses tensile high relatively and britfle, there are also crackingcan occur. H is The precise mechanism that causes cracks to form is complex but stresses highJocalised that so HAZ of the regions of believedto cause embrittlement cause crackingratherthan plasticstraining'
21.3.3
CRACKING HAZ HYDROGEN AVOIDING
and each need to Becausethe factorsthat cause crackingare interdependent' by ensuringthat at be at an active level at the same time, cracking can be avoided is not activeduringwelding' leastone of the 1f?,c!gt,s 4 factors are Methodsthat can be used to minimisethe influenceof each of the sub-sections' in the following considered c Hydrogen V sourceof is moisture(H2O)and.theprincipal Tne piincipalsourceof hydrogen active very a be can this and moistureis'welding flux. Some ituxe! contain cellulose sourceof hYdrogen. hydrogen welding processesthat do not require flux can be regardedas low processes. and oils and other sourcesof hydrogenare moisturepresentin rust or scale, g reases(hydrocarbons). by: is possible of Hydrogen the influence Reducing fluxes) are low in H ensuringthat fluxes (coated electrodes,flux-coredwires & SAW when weldingcommences oven or tow H electrodesmust be either baked & then storedin a hot holding supplied in vacuum-sealedpackages; SAW fiuxes ihoutd be keptin a heatedsilobeforelssue fo basic aggtomterated re, condition low moistu m aintaii tneir as-supplied, of the weld metal (someflmesif rs content check the diffusibte'iyarogen certificate) test the on specified by not allowing ensuringthat a low H conditionis maintainedthroughoutwelding fluxesto pick-upmoisturefrom the atmosphere exposure tow hydrogen electrodes must be issued in small quantities and the control this rs' facilitate ; ive u time iimited; heated'q
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flux coredwire spools that are nof seam/ess shouldbe coveredor returnedto a suitablestorageconditionwhennot in use: basicagglomerated sAW fluxes shoutd be returnedto the heatedsilowhen welding is not continuous checkthe amountof moisturepresent in the shietdinggasby checkingthedew point(must be bellow-60t)
)) ensuring that the weldzone is dry and free from rusUscale and oil/grease / o Tensile Stress V There are always tensile stressesacting on a weld because there are always residualstressesfrom weldino, The magnitude of the tensilestressesis mainlydependent on the thickness of the steel at the joint,.the heat input,the joint type, and the size and weight of the components beingwelded. Tensilestressesin highlyrestrainedjoints may be as high as the yieldstrength of the steel and this is usuallythe case in largecomponents ,iitn tnicr loints ano ii is not a factorthat can easilybe controlled. The only practicalways of reducing the influence of residual stresses may be by: r . avoidingstressconcentrations due to poor fit_up avoidingpoor weld profile(sharpweld toes)
o applya stressreliefheattreatment afterwelding . . increase the travelspeedas practicable in orderto reducethe heat input keepweld metalvolume to an as low levelas possible
These measures are particularly important when weldingsome low alloy steels that have particularly sensitivity to hydrogencracking o Susceptible HAZ Microstructure
A susceptible HM microstructure is one that containsa relativelyhigh proportion of hardbrittle phases of steel- particularly martensite.
The HAZ hardnessis a good indicatorof susceptibility and when it exceedsas certain value a particularsteel is consideredto be suscepti-ble. For C & C-Mn steels this hardness valueis - 350HVand susceptibility to H crackingincreases as hardness increases abovethis value. The maximumhardness of an HAZ is influenced bv: o the chemicalcomposition of the steel . the
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to be ableto assesshow has beendeveloped For C & C-Mnsteelsa formula HM hardening significant for the tendency will influence composition the chemical formula' Value(CEV) Equivalent theCarbon by llW)is: used(andadopted mostwidely TheCEVformula
CEV1*= %C + %Mn +
o/oCr+ %Mo + o/oY +
i
%Ni + %Cu
4 R
The CEV of a steel is calculatedby insertingthe materialtest certificatevalues into the formula.The higherthe CEV of a steel the shown for chemicalcomposition HAZ hardening and therefore the greater the to greater is its' susceptibility cracking' H to susceptibility on HAZ hardnessis Carbon.The faster the The elementwith most influence greaterthe tendencyfor hardening' run, the rate of HM coolingafter each weld Coolingrate tends to increaseas: o (lowerenergyinput) V' heat inputdecreases o (biggerheatsink) \ joint thickness increases
(for C & C-Mnsteels)requires: Avoidinga susceptibleHZmicrostructure . procuring steel with a CEV that is at the low-end of the range for the steel n ess) grade(l imited scopeof effective weldingheat inputso that the weld does not cool using moderate give HAZ hardening) quickly(and
show applying pre-heat so that the HM cools more slowly.(and doe-snot interpass a specific maintain in multi-runwelds, iitjntfi"Jni HM hardening); temPerature
For low alloy steels,with additionsof elementssuch as cr, Mo & V, the cEV to judge the susceptibility formula is not applicableand so must not be used to regardless hard relatively be to tend will always steels these of HnZ fne hardening. 'facior' that cannot be effectively controlled of heat iriput and pre-heatand so this is a steels alloy low of the some why to reduce the risk of H cracking,This is the reason steels' C-Mn & C weldable in than have greatertendencyto show-hydrogen.cracking to be controlled. whichlnableHAZ hardness
v o
Weldment at Low TemPerature Weldment temperature has a major influence on susceptibilityto cracking and mainlyby influencingthe rate at which H can move (diffuse)through the weld 21.5
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HAZ. while a weld is relativelywarm (> -300'c) H will diffuse quite rapidly and ratherthan be trappedand cause embrittlement. escape into the atmosphere Reducingthe influenceof low weldmenttemperature (and the risk of trappingH in the weldment)can be effectedby: . . (typically applyinga suitablepre-heattemperature 50 to -250'C) preventingthe weld from cooling down quickly after each pass by maintaining the preheatand the specificinterpasstemperature duringwelding the pre-heattemperature (or raisingit to -250'C) when welding maintaining has finishedand holdingthe joint at this temperature for a number of hours (minimum2 hours)to facilitate the escapeof H (calledpost-heat *) * post-heatmust not be confused with PWHT at a temp. > -600'C
21.3.4
HYDROGEN CRACKING IN WELD METAL
Hydrogencrackscan form in steelweld metal under certaincircumstances. The mechanism of cracking, and identification of all the influencing factors,is less clearly understood thanfor HM cracking but it can occurwhen weldingconditions causeH to becometrappedin weld metal ratherthan in HAZ. Hydrogen cracks in weld metal remainwithin an individual weld bead and so they are usuallyquite short (few mm long).The cracks lie at 45" to the directionof principle tensilestressin the weld metaland this is usually the longitudinal axis of the weld (Figure3). 'rules' Thereare not any well-defined for avoiding weld metalhydrogen cracks apart from: . o ensurea low hydrogen weldingprocessis used apply preheatand maintaina specificinterpasstemperature
BS EN 1011-2entitled'Welding- Recommendations for weldingof metallic - Part2: Arcweldingof ferriticsteels'givesin Annex C practical materials guidelines about how to avoid H cracking. Practical controls are based principally on the application of pre-heatand controlof potentialH associated with the welding process.
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ATIONCRACKING
The technicallycorrect name for cracks that form during weld metal solidificationis solidificationcracks but other names are sometimes used when referringto this type of cracking,namely: - theyoccurat hightemperatures - whilethe weld is hot o hot cracking
o centreline cracking o cratercracking - cracks may appear down the centreline of the weld bead - small cracks in weld cratersare solidification cracks
susceptible cracking to solidification Becausea weld metal may be particularly it may be said to show hot shortnessbecause it is short of ductilitywhen hot and so tends to crack. Figure 4 shows a transversesection of a weld with a typical centrelinesolidification crack.
21.4.1
TO INFLUENCING SUSCEPTIBILITY FACTORS GRACKING SOLIDIFICATION
existat the sametime,namely: occurswhen 3 conditions cracking Solidification o chemical composition the weld metalhas a susceptible . o bead shape L used give an unfavourable the weldingconditions high levelof restraintor tensilestressespresentin the weld area r=-''
21.4.2
C R A C K IN GME C H A N ISM
of the weld pool,duringthe laststagesof weld the centreline at the fusionlinetowards there may be enough liquid present to form a weak zone in the bead solidification being centreof the bead.This liquidfilm is the resultof low meltingpointconstituents front. pushedaheadof the solidification tensile stresses start to build-updue to contractionof the During solidification, solid parts of the weld bead, and it is these stressesthat can cause the weld bead to result in a weld bead showinga centrelinecrack that is rupture.These circumstances presentas soon as the bead has been deposited. cracks tend to be surfacebreakingat some point in solidification Gentreline becausethey tend to be their lengthand can be easilyseen duringvisual inspection wide cracks. relatively
starts solidification range andsince overa temperature solidify Allweldmetals
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21.4.3
AVOIDINGSOLIDIFICATIONCRACKING
Avoiding solidificationcracking requires the influence of one of the factors to be reducedto an inactivelevel. responsible, \*=0" Weld MetalComPosition weld metals made by modern steelmakingmethods do steel Most C & C-Mn particularly sensitive to solidification that are compositions chemical not have cracking. u However,these weld metals can become sensitiveto this type of cracking if 'contaminated'with elements, or compounds, that produce relatively low they are point films in weld metal. melting Sulphur and copper are elementsthat can make steel weld metal sensitiveto high levels.Sulphur crackingif they are presentin the weld at relatively solidification of iron sulphides that remainliquidwhen the may lead to the formation contamination startedat above bead has cooled down as low as -980'C, whereas bead solidification 1400'c. by oil or grease or it could be The source of sulphur may be contamination into the weld. pickedup from the less refinedparentsteelbeingweldedby dilution harmfulbecauseit has low in weld metalcan be similarly Coppercontamination solubility in steeland can form filmsthat are stillmoltenat -1100"C. weld metal) cracking (of an otherwise non-sensitive Avoiding solidification with potentially by: harmfulmaterials of contamination requires the avoidance beforewelding cleanedimmediately weldjointsare thoroughly ensuring
and contact tips used for GMAW, suitablecondition- such as backing-bars FCAW and SAW UnfavourableWelding Gonditions V welding conditionsare those that encourageweld beads to Unfavourable 'trapped'at the centre of a solidifying solidifyso that low melting point films become weld bead and becomethe weak zones for easy crack formation. n Figure 5 shows a schematic of a weld bead that has solidified using with centreline solidification cracking. associated weldingconditions unfavourable that is quite deep and narrow- a widthto' The weld bead has a cross-section 'pushed'the lower meltingpoint -2 < the solidifying dendrites have and depth ratio liquidto the centreof the bead where it has becometrapped.Sincethe surrounding
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WORLD CENTRE FOR MATERIALS JOINING TECIII{OLOCY
materialis shrinkingas a result of cooling,this film would be subjectedto tensile stress,which leads to cracking. In contrast,Figure 6 shows a bead that has a widthto-depth ratio that is >>2. 'pushed'ahead of the solidifying This bead shape shows lower meltingpoint liquid Thus,even undertensile but it does not becometrappedat the beadcentre. dendrites "self-healing" is avoided and cracking this film is from cooling, stressesresulting SAW and spraytransfer GMAW are more likely to give weld beads with an Also, electron widthto-depth ratio than the other arc welding processes. unfavourable beam and LASER welding processesare extremelysensitiveto this kind of cracking as a resultof the deep,narrowbeadsproduced. that lead to centrelinesolidification weldingconditions Avoidingunfavourable changes may requiresignificant compositions) cracking(of weld metalswith sensitive such as:to weldingparameters, . and . the weldingspeed(to give a widerweld bead) reducing --, bead) the weldingcurrent(to give a shallower reducing
welding conditionsthat lead to crater cracking of a Avoiding unfavourable sensitiveweld metal requireschangesto the techniqueused at the end of a weld suchas: when the arc is extinguished, . 'slope-out' deviceso that the current,and weld for TIG welding,use a current pool depth gradually reduce before the arc is extinguished(gives more favourable weld bead widthto-depth ratio). lt is also a common practice to backtrack the bead slightly before breaking the arc or lengthen the arc graduallyto avoid cratercracks. 'modify' mode by feedingthe fillerwire weld pool solidification for TIG welding, is almost completeand avoidinga concave into the pool until solidification crater mode by reversingthe directionof for MMA, modify the weld pool solidification is filled crater run so that weld of the travel at the end
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i
TEARING \ z,I.s LAMELLAR

\ ::: Lamellartearing is a type of cracking that occurs only in steel plate or other a weld. products underneath rolled of lamellartearingare: Characteristics . cracksonly occur in the rolledplate . o the HM form closeto, but just outside, cracksusually crackstend to lie parallelto surfaceof the plate (and the fusion boundaryof the asPect weld),havinga stePPed
can be seen in Figure 7 (a)' The abovecharacteristics
21.5.1
TO SUSCEPTIBILITY INFLUENCING FACTORS TEARING LAMELLAR
existat the sametime,namely: tearingoccurswhen 2 conditions Lamellar \rlo

a
rolledplate is used to make a weld joint a susceptible plate directionof the susceptible high stressesact in the through-thickness direction) short-transverse (knownas the
SusceptibleRolled Plate A plate that is susceptibleto lamellartearing has very low ductilityin the throughthickness direction (short-transversedirection) and is only able to accoirmodate the residual stresses from welding by tearing rather than by plastic straining. B ductility in rolled plate is caused by the presence of Low through-thickness The inclusions in the form of elongatedstringers. inclusions numerousnon-mbtallic plate. of the hot rolling during and elongated flattened but are ingot in the form Non-metallicinclusions associated with lamellar tearing are principally silicates. and manganese sulphides manganese High Through-thicknessStress end up with a tensileresidualstress WetO loints that are T, K & Y configurations direction. in the throuqh-thickness component o The magnitude of the through-thicknessstress increases as the restraint (rigidity) of the joint increases. Plate thickness and size of weld are the main T, K & Y joints that lamellar factori and it is in thick section,full penetration influencing occur. to likelY is more tearing
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woRLDcENTREFoR MATERIALSToINING
21.5.2
CRACKINGMECHANISM
that are presentas welding direction, High stressesin the through{hickness 'open-up'(de-cohese) and the thin stringers to cause the inclusion residualstresses, inclusions de-cohesed then tear and producea stepped betweenindividual ligaments crack. lamellar tear. of a typicalstep-like Figure 7 (b) is a schematic 21.5.3 AVOIDING LAMELLAR TEARING
of one, or both,of the influence can be avoidedby reducing tearing Lamellar the factors. SusceptibleRolled Plate properties perpendicular with improveddeformation EN 10164(Steelproducts gives guidance on the product conditions) Technicaldelivery to the surfaceof the plate lamellar procurement resist tearing. to of o by meansof tensiletest pieces tearingcan be evaluated to lamellar Resistance taken with their axes perpendicularto the plate surface (the through-thickness of Area (%R of as the % Reduction ductility is measured Through-thickness direction). piece (Figure 8). A) at the pointof fractureof the tensiletest The greater the measured %R of A, the greater the resistanceto lamellar even in very highly tearing.Values in excessof -35% indicatevery good resistance joints. constrained of rolled plate to lamellartearingcan be achieved the susceptibility Reducing ductility: that it has good through-thickness by ensuring . by using clean steel that has low sulphur content (< - 0.015%) and few inclusions has relatively consequently tensile by procuringsteel plate that has been subjected to through-thickness good through-thickness ductility(as EN 10164) testingto demonstrate
Welding Inspection Rev 0 Jun 06 Weldabilityof Steels Copyright @ 2006 TWI Ltd
21.11
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Through-thickness Stress the residualstress from Throughthicknessstressin T, K & Y joints is principally influence. have some service stress may welding,althoughthe additional o stresses for a particular weld Reducing the magnitude of through-thickness joint would require modification to the joint, in some way, and so may not always be However,methods that practicalbecauseof the need to satisfydesign requirements. are: couldbe considered . reducingthe size of the weld bY: . . . butt weld insteadof full-penetration using a partialpenetration pen.buttweld (Figure9) of a full,or a partial usingfilletweldsinstead
by applyinga butteringlayer of weld metal to the surfaceof a susceptibleplate so that the highestthroughthicknessstrain is locatedin the weld metal and not the susceptible Plate(Figure 10)
o changingthe joint design- such as using a forgedor extrudedintermediate piece so that the susceptibleplate does not experiencethrough-thickness 'l1) stress(Figure
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FI G U R E S :
Figure 1
Schematic showing typical locations of hydrogen induced cold cracks
Figure 2
A hydrogen induced cold crack that initiated the HAZ at the toe of a fillet weld
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(a)
transverse cracks
(b)
weldlayers with cracks lyingat 45' to X-Yaxis
Figure 3
(a)
PIan view of a plate butt weld showing subsurtace transverse cracks Longitudinal section X-Y of the above weld showing how the transverse cracks actually lie at 45" to the surtace. They tend to remain within an individual weld run and may be in weld several layers. Their appearance in this orientation has given rise to the name'chevron' cracks (arrow shaped cracks)
(b)
Welding lnspection Rev 0 Jun 06 Weldabilityof Steels Copyright@ 2006 TWI Ltd
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WORLD CENTRE FOR MATERlALS JOINING TECHNOLOCY
Figure 4
(a)
Solidification crack at the weld bean centre where columnar dendrites have trapped some lower melting point liquid The weld bead does not have an ideal shape but it has 'end'on' and solidified without the dendrites meeting resistrng point therehy liquid lower melting trapping solidification cracking .
(b)
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Figure 5
travel
Schematic of a weld bead with an unfavourable width-to-depth ratio. This is responsible for liquid metal being pushed into the centre of the bead by the advancing columnar dendrites and becoming the weak zone that is ruptures
wtD > -2
of direction travel
Figure 6 Schematic of a weld bead with a favourable width'to-depth ratio. The dendrites push the lowesf melting point metal towards the sufiace at the centre of the bead centre ??,4 so it doqs n9t tgryq a weak central 20ne
Deleted:
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woRLDcEN-fREFoR N{ATERTALSToINING
:..:: '4
a
tg
(a)
through-thickness stresses residual fromwelding
of de-cohesion stringe stringers inclusion t / ^
crack propagationby tearingof between'deligaments cohesed'inclusionstringers
inclusion stringer
(b)
Figure 7
(a) Typical lamellar tear located iust outside the visible HAZ (b) Schematic of the step-like crack that is characteristic of a Iamellar tear
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'through-thickness' tensiletest piece
PLATE SURFACE
PLATE SURFACE
Figure 8 Round tensile tesf plece taken with l-tsaxis in the short-transverse direction (through thickness of plate) to measure the % R. of A. and assess the plate's resistance to lamellar tearing
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Figure g
Reducing the effective size of a weld will reduce the through'thickness stress on the susceptible plate and may be sufficient to reduce the risk of lamellar tearing
Figure 10
Lamellar tearing can be avoided by changing the ioint design
Welding Inspection Rev 0 Jun 06 Weldabilityof Steels Copyright O 2006 TWI Ltd
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TECHNOLOGY
Questions The weldability of steels QUI Briefrydiscussthe four essentiar factors for hydrogen cracking to occur.
QU2
state four precautions to reduce the chance of hydrogen cracking.
QU3
In which type (composition) of steeris werd decay experienced and state how it can be prevented.
QU4
Describethe causesof solidificationcracking and preventions
QU5
state the causesof rameilar tearingand preventions
Weldinginspection Rev 0 Jun 06 Copyright @ 2006, TWI Ltd
QU 21
Section22 Practical VisualInspection
Welding lnspection Rev0 Jun 06 @2006,TWI Ltd Copyright
TWI WCf
woRLDcENTREFoR IvIArERloALr ToINING
VISUALINSPECTION 22.0PRACTICAL
part of the CSWIPexamination of the visualinspection consists The practical categories: following
WELDING INSPECTOR 3.0VISUAL CSWIP

Exam: plate(codeprovided) butt-welded Practical T joint(codeprovided) filletwelded Practical C SW I P 3 .1 WE L D IN G IN S PECTOR Exam: plate(codeprovided) butt-welded Practical pipe(candidates supplied code) butt-welded Practical *Practical of 2 macros(codeprovided) assessment *Macro section will be covered in another examination of theseexaminations inspection elements attempt the practical To successfully of important tools: a number will require the inspector 1) 2) 3) 4) Goodeyesight. Gauges. Specialist graduated glass, scaleetc. mirror, torch, Handtoolsi.e.Magnifying a watch. and criteria, report forms, acceptance Pencil/pen, Time allowed t hour 15 minutes. t hour45 minutes. 45 minutes. Time allowed t hour45 minutes. t hour15 minutes.
GOODEYESIGHT
Welding carry out your scope of work as a CSWIP qualified To effectively for closevision certiflcate that you have a currenteyesight it is important Inspector This must be providedbeforeyour test is also required. and a colour blindness As perthe CSWIP-Wl-6-92document. lnspection examination. CSWIPWelding mustbe testedby a qualifiedoptician. for CSWIPexaminations All candidates personnel at most TWI available by qualified tests may be conducted; Alternatively centres. examination ._-
HoldersofCSWlPWelding|nspectioncertiflcatesshou|dthusmake testedtwiceyearly. effortto havetheirvisionprofessionally NOTE!Your closevisionability to maintain this levelof eyesight, It is important maydecayovertime.
Welding Inspection Rev0 Jun 06 VisualInsPection Practical @2006,TWI Ltd Copyright
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GAUGES SPECIALIST
gaugesare available A numberof specialist to measure the variouselements that needto be measured in a welded fabrication including: a) b) c) d) for measuring Hi - Lo gauges, mismatch androotgap. profile gauges, Fillet weld for measuring filletweldface profile and sizes. Anglegauges, for measuring weldpreparation angles. Multi functional weld gauges, for measuring many different weld measurements.
Hi-Lo gauge used fo measurelinearmisalignment
Hi-Lo gauge can alsobe usedto measure the root gap
Welding Inspection Rev0 Jun 06 Practical VisualInspection Copyright @2006,TWI Ltd
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Adjustablefillet gauge filletweldsfrom 3-25 mm (1/8Measures lt uses accuracy. 1")with+ 0.8 mm (1132") an offsetarm,whichslides,at a 45" angle to make filletweld lengthmeasurements. This gauge also measuresweld throat to 1.5mm ( 1/16") . thickness
Filletweld gauge from3mm (1/8") up weldsizes Measures to 25mm('1")
weldinggauge Multipurpose in stainless gauge, fabricated This rugged steel, will measure the imPortant and of of weld preparations dimensions lt is fillet welds. butt and completed work and for generalfabrication intended rapidly measuresangle of preparation, excessweld metal,fillet weld leg length in both and throatsize,and misalignment ranges. metric andimperial weldinggauge DigitalMultipurpose This Digital gauge will measure the of weldpreparations dimensions importani butt and filletwelds.lt is and of completed work and for generalfabrication intended preparation, rapidly measuresangle of excessweld metal,fillet weld leg length and throatsize in both metricand imperial ranges.
Welding Inspection Rev 0 Jun 06 Visual lnsPection Practical Copyrighto 2006, TWI Ltd
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TWI GAMBRIDGE MULTI.PURPOSE WELDING GAUGE

Angle of Preparation Thisscalereads00to 600in 50steps. The angle is read against the chamfered edgeof the plate,or pipe.
LinearMisalignment The gaugemay be used to measure misalignment of members by placing the edge of the gauge on the lower member and rotating the segment until the pointedfinger contactsthe higher member.
ExcessWeld Metal/Root penetration The scale is used to measureexcess weld metal heightor root penetration bead heightof singlesidedbuttwelds, by placing the edge of the gaugeon plate the and rotating the segment until the pointed fingercontacts the excess weld metalor root bead at its highest point.
Pitting/mechanical damageetc The gaugemay be used to measure defects by placingthe edge of the gauge on the plate and rotatingthe segment until the pointed finger contacts the lowest depth. The readingis taken on the scaleto the left of.the zero mark in mm or inches.
WeldingInspection Rev0 Jun 06 Practical Visuallnspection Copyright @2006,TWI Ltd
22.4
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FilletWeld Actual Throat Thickness The small sliding pointerreads up to the 20mmor % inch.When measuring weld that the fillet throatit is supposed 'nominal' design throat has a 'effective' design thickness,as an throat thicknesscannot be measured in thismanner.
FilletWeld Leg Length The gaugemaYbe usedto measure filletweld leg lengthsof up to 25mm, as shownon left.
by measuringthe Leg Length' and Excessweld metal can be easily calculated measuredThroat it by 0.7 This value is then subtiacted from the multiplying Thickness= ExcessWeld Metal' of 8 mm andThroatThickness of 1Omm Leg Length Fora measured Example: 10x0.7=f...(Throatthicknesss)-7=lmmofExcessWe|dMeta|.
InsPection Welding Rev0 Jun 06 VisualInsPection Practical @2006,TWI Ltd Copyright
22.5
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woRLDCENTREFoR
Vnnt VIJIJT
MATERIALSToINING TEcHNoLoGY
FORTRAINING PURPOSES ONLY

PLATE & FILLET ACCEPTANCE STANDARD TWI 1
KEY: 1-=l-e,!qtf i D=Deplhgr Heiqht of defect.w=width of defect (Applicable to inclusionsonlv)

N o Defect Name 1 Cracks 2 Porosity, Gaspores gas Elongated (wormholes) Cavities Pipes 3 Overlap 4 Lackof sidewall fusion 5 Lackof rootfusion 6 Lackof penetration 7 Inclusions (slag / silica etc) Undercut Remarks Max Dimension of any areaor individual (as applicabte) Maximum Allowed Not Permitted 1mm
Accumulative totalfor both 20mmin weldfacelength defects shallnotexceed 20mm Accumulative totalfor both 20mmin weldRoot defects shallnot exceed 20mm length Accumulative totalshallnot exceed1Smm total"L" in weld length(root& face independent) lndividual maximum L<12m m . <3mm W 10%tup to a maximum D 1mm Maximum D 1m m Notpermitted
I
o
Rootconcavitv 1 0 Underfil l/incom pletely filledgrooveilack of fiil 1 1 Linear misalignment 12 13 14

15
16
Maximum D <1Omm t 1.0mm >1Omm t 1,5mm Arc strikes/Strav arc permitted Not Mechanical damaqe Dependant on depthandblend Seekadvice Angular Misaliqnment Accept Excess weldmetal" Smooth transition is 2mm D maximum required/All runsshallblend smoothly. No lackof interun fusion penetration* Excess 1.5mm D m aximum
" when linearmisalignment present is the following shallbe applied.
Welding Inspection Rev0 Jun06 Practical VisualInspection Copyright O 2006,TWI Ltd
22.6
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II4rI y-?t-o-.:yryIo:
"lowest Excessweld metal plate"' across froma directlinefromthe to be measured height Maximum weldment Excess Penetration fromlowestplate heightto be measured lrllaximum
InsPection Welding Rev0 Jun 06 VisuallnsPection Practical O 2006,TWI Ltd Copyright
22.7
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Inspection Welding Rev 0 Jun 06 InsPection Visual Practical @2006,TWI Ltd Copyright
FROM
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Page3 of 3
for PIPE/PLATE SHEET REPORT INSPECTION SENTENCE FULLNAME S.DENT PRINT OO1 SPECIMEN UMBER
FACEIMPERFECTIONS
Types lmperfection lmperfections Reported Maximum Value or TotalLength 1 Codeor Specification Reference Maximum Code Allowedby Code Section or 2 TableNo Sentence Acceptor Reject 4
Weld Metal(Height) 4mm Excess blend Poor/uneven Toe blend/ inter-run

filling lncomplete
2mm Smooth
None
SlagInclusions Undercut SurfacePorosity Cracks Lackof fusion Arc strikes damage Mechanical Misalignment
40mm 8 mm
1 . S m md e e p
1Sm m 10%tMax1mm I
15 15 10 7
None N o ne 87mm 3 Grindingmark 2 mm
20mm None SeekAdvice 1.5mm
13 11
Reject Reject Reject Accept Reject Accept Accept Reject Reject? Refer ? Reject
ROOT IMPERFECTIONS Misalignment 2 mm (Height) Penetration 4mm Lackof Root Penetration Lackof RootFusion RootConcavity RootUndercut Cracks Porosity Burnthrough
50mm 20mm 1 0 m mL 2mm

None
1.5mm 1.5mm 20mm 20mm 10%tM ax1m m
11 16
6
5
I
Reject Reject Reject Reject

Reject
None <1mm Gluster None
Max 1mm A
N/A
2 NA
Accept Accept Accept Accept
TWI Thisp+e/plate* has beenexamined to the requirements of [code/specification]

,i
accordingly. and is aceapfed/rejected*
whicheveris p] applicablel [.Delete

Date.00/00i0000.
sisnatrre. 5-jD{ruf
Comments:.
Welding lnspection Rev0 Jun 06 Practica I Visuallnspection Copyright @2006,TWI Ltd
22.10
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Section23 Application & Controlof Preheat
WeldingInspection Rev0 Jun 06 Copyright O 2006,TWI Ltd
TWI
woRLDcENTREFoR
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OF PREHEAT AND CONTROL APPLICATION 23.0

23.1 GENERAL
priorto welding, and is preheatis the application of heatto a joint immediately can methods other although system, by eitheia gas torchor induction applied usually be used. and it is donefor a numberof reasons, steels whenwelding The use of preheat place. main the of One in the first is oftenspecified why preheat helpsto understand fromthe weld. hydrogen is usedis to assistin removing why preheat reasons by preheattemperatures and pipe work are calculated for steel structures the of thickness the (Ceq%) of the material, ine carbonequivalent takinginto account process' welding (kJ/mm) of the input heat or energy arc and the mateiial suchas BS EN 1011-Recommendations maybe madeto standards Reference on selectionof preheattemperature for guidance for weldingof metaliicmaterials input,and the and arc energy/heat thickness rangesbaied on Ceq%values,material required' hydrogen lowestlevelof diffusible to find the preheattemperature wouldnormally Inspector The VisualANelding WPS' fromthe relevant application be usedfor a particular but for a preheat temperatures, higher will require materials thicker In general, remain to likely are input, preheattemperatures given Cedy" and arc energy/heat 20mm. up to approximately iimilarfor wallthickness
23.2 DEFINITIONS
PreheattemPerature beforeany of the work piecein the weld zone immediately . is the temperature (including tackwelding!) operation welding as a range' but can alsobe specified minimum, as a o expressed l1ory1ally lnterpasstemPerature in a multirun and betweenpasses welding of the weldduring . is the temperature of the next prior application the to parent immediately metal weld and adjacent run but shouldnot drop belowthe minimum as a maximum, o lorrlally expressed preheat temPerature temPerature maintenance Preheat if in the weld zone which shall be maintained temperature . minimum the is is interruPted welding duringinterruption r sh?llbe monitored
InsPection Welding Rev 0 Jun 06 Preheat and Controlof Application @2006,TWI Ltd Copyright
23.1
TWI
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wflt Hm;f**
OF PREHEAT 23.3 APPLICATION
. .
Lessenergyrequired stresses due Possible to non-uniform
a a
Moreenergyrequired - no Uniform heating additional stresses
oven Gasielectric
Welding Inspection Rev0 Jun06 Preheat Application and Controlof Copyright @2006,TWI Ltd
wct
WORLD CENTRE FOR MATERTALS JOINING TECHNOLOGY
Gas/Electric Ovens Generally used for PWHT but can be used for large sections of material to give a preheat. controlled and uniform ResistiveHeatingElements A method of heating usingelectric current flowing through resistance coils. High Frequency HeatingElements A process in whichthe heating effectis produced electrostatically, providing uniform heatingthrough a mass of material.Heat is generatedby the agitationof the molecules in the material whensubjected to a highfrequency field. FlameAppliedPre Heat. Probably the most commonmethodof applying preheat which can be appliedby eithertorchesor burners. Oxygenis an essential part of the preheating flame,as it supportscombustion, but the fuel gases can be, acetylene, propaneind methane (natural gas). With flameappliedpreheating sufficient time must be allowed for the temperature to equalise throughout the thickness of the components to be welded. Otherwise onlythe surface temperature will be measured. The time lapsewill vary depending on tne specification requirements. 2 3 . 4 CON T R OL OF P R E HEAT AND INTERPASS TEMPERATURE W h e n? lmmediately passage before of the arc
Welding Inspection Rev 0 Jun 06 Application and Controlof Preheat CopyrightO 2006, TWI Ltd
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Where? Workpiecethickness (t)
t<50mm
a a
A = 4 x t b u tma x.5 0 mm the temperature shallbe measured on the surface of the work piecefacing the welder
a a
A = min.75 mm wherepracticable, the temperature shallbe measured on the face opposite to that beingheated allow2 minper every25 mm of parentmetalthickness for temperature equalisation
Interpass temperature shallbe measured on the weldmetalor the immediately parentmetal adjacent
Welding Inspection Rev0 Jun 06 Application and Control of Preheat Copyright o 2006,TWI Ltd
23.4
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woRLDCENTREFoR
wflt
MArER]ALrrorNrNc
why? preheat advantages: hasthe following Applying . . c . lt slows down the cooling rate of the weld and HAZ; reducingthe risk of hardened microstructuresforming; allowing absorbed hydrogen more for cracking. the potential out,thusreducing of diffusing opportunity of the weldpreparation. fromthe region moisture Removes welding. during fusion characteristics overall lmproves between lowering stresses and contraction; more uniformexpansion Ensures weldand oarentmaterial
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Inspection Welding Rev0 Jun 06 of Preheat and Control Application O 2006,TWI Ltd Copyright
23.5
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23.5 TEMPERATURE INDICATING/MEASURING EQUIPMENT 23.5.1

r o .
TEMPERATURESENSITIVEMATERIALS
ffi?deout of a special wax that meltsat a specific temperature (TempilstikrM) or irreversible changeits colour (ThermochromerM) chap, easyto use doesn't measure the actual temperature
Examplesof temperatureindicatingcrayons andpasfe,
23.5.2
CONTACT THERMOMETER
a a a
can use either a bimetallic strip or a thermistor (i,e. a temperature-sensitive resistor whoseresistance variesinversely withtemperature) givesthe actual accurate, temperature needcalibration usedfor moderate temperatures (up to 350"C)
Examplesof a contact thermometer
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23.5.3
THERMOCOUPLE
a a a a
based on measuring the thermoelectric potentialdifference betweena hot junction (placed on the weld)and a coldjunction junction) (reference measures overa widerangeof temperatures givesthe actual accurate, temperature can be usedalsofor continuous monitoring needcalibration
Examplesof thermocouples
23.5.4
OPTICAL OR ELECTRICAL DEVIGES FORCONTACTLESS MEASUREMENT
a a a a a
pyrometers can be infrared or optical measure the radiant energyemitted by the hot body method meanit can be usedfor remote contactless measurements verycomplex andexpensive equipment normally usedfor measuring hightemperatures
Example of contactless fernperature measuring equipment
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23.6 SUMMARY
The VisualMeldingInspector shouldreferto the WPS for both preheatand interpass temperature requirements. lf in any doubt as to where the temperature measurements are to be taken,the SeniorWeldingInspector or WeldingEngineer should be consulted forguidance. Bothpreheat and interpass temperatures are applied to slow downthe cooling rate duringwelding, avoiding the formation of brittlemicrostructures (i.e. Martensitej and thuspreventing coldcracking. Preheat temperatures can be calculated usingdifferent methodsas described in various (e.9. standards BS EN 1011-2, AWSD1.1, etc)and arevalidated during the qualification procedure of the welding According to BS EN ISO 15614and ASME lX both preheatand interpass temperatures are considered to be essential variables, henceany changeoutside the rangeof qualification requires a new procedure qualiflcation.
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Section24 Galibration of WeldingEquipment
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24.4CALIBRATION OF WELDING EQUIPMENT

24.1 INTRODUCTION
- is a BS 7570 - Code of practicefor validation of arc weldingequipment gives guidance: standard that . ' to manufacturers aboutthe accuracy required from outputmetersfittedto welding equipment to showwelding current, voltage etc to end userswho needto ensure thathe outputmeters provide accurate readings
The Standard refers to two grades of equipment- Standard Grade and Precision Grade. Standard Gradeequipment is suitable for manual and semi-automatic welding processes. PrecisionGrade equipmentis intendedfor mechanised or automaticwelding because of there is usuallya need for greaterprecision for all weldingvariables as wellas the prospect of equipment it being usedfor higher'duty cycle' welding.
24.2 TERMINOLOGY
BS 7570defines the termsit uses- suchas: Galibration operations for the purpose of determining the magnitude of errors of a measuring instrument ... ...etc Validation operations for the purpose of demonstrating thatan itemof welding equipment, or a welding system, conforms to the operating specification for thatequipment or system Accuracy closeness quantity of an observed to the defined, or true,value
Thus,when considering welding equipment, thosethat have outputmetersfor parameters (current, welding voltage, travelspeedetc.)can be calibrated by checking the meter readingwith a more accuratemeasuringdevice - and adjustingthe readings appropriately. that does not have outputmeters(somepowersourcesfor MMA, Equipment MIG/MAG) cannotbe 'calibrated' but they can be validated, that is to make checksto properly. seethatthe controls are functioning
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24.3 CALIBRATION FREQUENCY

BS 7570recommends re-calibration/validation: ' r at yearlyintervals (following an initialconsistency testat 3 monthintervals) for Standard Gradeequipment at 6 monthly intervals for precision Gradeequipment
However, the Standard alsorecommends that re-calibration/validation may be necessary at morefrequenfly. Factors that needto be considered are:_ . . ' theequipmentmanufacturer'srecommendations the user'srequirements if the equipment has beenrepaired re-calibration shouldalwaysbe carried out thereis reason to believe the performance of the equipment hasdeteriorated
24.4 INSTRUMENTS FORCALIBRATION

lnstruments usedfor calibration should: ' ' ' - usingstandards be calibrated by a recognised calibrator thatare traceable to a national standard be at leasttwice,and preferably five times,moreaccurate thanthe accuracy required for the Gradeof equipment for Precision Gradeequipment it will be necessary to use instruments with muchgreater precision for checking outputmeters
24.5 CALIBRATION METHODS

The Standard givesdetails aboutthe characteristics of powersource types, how manyreadings should be takenfor eachparameter andguidance on precautions that may be necessary.
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parameters, For the mainwelding recommendations fromthe Standard are as follows: . Current are givenaboutthe instrumentation requirements and how to measure Details pulsedcurrent givenspecified, but thereare requirements or recommendations current measurements made,aboutwherein the circuit should be made. is that current The implication can be measured at any position in the circuitbe the same. thevalueshould . Voltage The standardemphasises that for processes where voltageis pre-set(on constantvoltage the power sources)the connectionpoints used for the incorporated into the powersourcemay differfrom the arc voltage, voltmeter parameter. whichis the important To obtainan accurate measure of arc voltage, the voltmeter shouldpositioned to the arc. as nearas practical This is illustrated by the figurein the end of thissection, whichshowsthe power points1 &7. meterconnected voltage across source because therewill be somevoltage However, dropsin sections 1 - 2,3 - 4 & 6 - 7 due to connection pointsintroducing into the circuit, the voltage extraresistance on the powersourcewilltendto give a higherreading meterreading thanthe true arc voltage. Evenif the powersourcevoltmeter is connected acrosspoints3 & 7 (whichit wouldnot take account voltage dropsin of any significant may be) the meterreading - section 6 -7. cable the return of any voltage The magnitude dropsin the weldingcircuitwill dependon cable cablelength and temperature of the cableand the Standard emphasises the diameter, following: . to measurethe true arc voltagebetweenpoints4 - 5 but for it is desirable it is not practical someweldingprocesses to measurearc voltageso closeto the arc closeto the arc by for MMA,it is possible to take a voltagereadingrelatively as closeas oneterminal of thevoltmeter the cablesheath connecting through (or to earth) 2m fromthe arc and connect the otherterminal to the workpiece pointshave to be 3 - 5 but a the nearestpractical for MIG/MAG connection froman air-cooled may have change torchto a water-cooled torchor vice-versa a significant affecton the measured voltage
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voltage dropsbetween points5 - 6 will be insignificant if thereis a good connection of the returncableat point6.
givesguidance The Standard aboutminimising anydropin linevoltage by ensuring that: ' ' the currentreturncable is as shortas practical and is 'heavy', low resistance, cable the current-return connector is suitably'rated'and is firmly attachedand doesnotoverheat due to highresistance
The standardgives data for line voltagedrops (DC voltage)accordingto current, cablecrosssection and cablelength (forbothcopper & aluminium cables). Wire FeedSpeed For constantvoltage (self-adjusting arc) processessuch as MIG/MAGthe standard recognises that calibration of the wire feederis generally not needed because it is linkedto current. lf calibration is required,it is recommended that the time be measured (in seconds) for -1m of wire to be delivered (usinga stopwatch or an electronic timer). The lengthof wire shouldthen be measured (witha steelrule)to an accuracy of 1mmand the feed speedcalculated. TravelSpeed Welding manipulators, suchas rotators and robotic manipulators, as well as the more conventional linear travel carriages,influenceheat input and other properties of a weld and shouldbe checked at intervals. Mostof the standard devices can be checked usinga stopwatch and measuring rule, but more sophisticated equipment, such as a tacho-generator, may be appropriate.
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nVI MArERroALsrorNrNG v.e::.::rr:el
An exampleof a welding circuit (for MIG/MAG)
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Section25 Macro/ MicroExamination
welding Inspection
Rgv 0 Jun 06
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17/-7/--7- MATLRIALsJoTNTNG
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/ MICRO EXAMINATION 25.0MACRO

25.'' MACROEXAMINATION
is etchedand evaluated in which a specimen is the procedure Macroetching for evaluating usedtechnique lt is a frequently at lowmagnifications. macrostructurally Thereare as well as welds. blooms, and forgings products as billets, bars, such steel graded photographs series of for ratinga steel specimenby a severalprocedures to carbonand low alloy conditions and is applicable of certain the incidence showing may be useddepending uponthe type etchingreagents A numberof different steels. reagents etching becauseof react differently to be made. Steels to of examination heat treatment and method of manufacturing, in chemicalcomposition, variations manyothervariables. are also performedon a polishedand etched crossMacro-Examinations a numberof featurescan be Duringthe examination, sectionof a weldedmaterial. qualifications for weld procedure important weld run sequence, including determined with for compliance will be assessed on the sample tests.As well as this,any defects penetration, porosity, fusion lack of sidewall weld lack of Slag, specifications. relevant lt is in such examinations. and poor weld profileare amongthe featuresobserved normal to look for such defects either by standardvisual examinationor at the sectionto providea of up to 5X. lt is also routineto photograph magnifications photomacrograph. known as a permanent Thisis record.
25.2 MICROEXAMINATION
The in a resinmold. either cutto sizeor mounted on samples Thisis performed paste, and usually diamond normally one-micron to a finefinish, are polished samples on a metallurgical chemicalsolutionprior to examination etchedin an appropriate the most is performed for a numberof purposes, Micro-examination microscope. to lt is common also of the material. obviousof which is to assessthe structure grain excessive such as thirdphaseprecipitates, anomalies for metallurgical examine or grain size determinations growth,etc. Many routine testssuch as phasecounting with micro-examinations. in conjunction are performed can take manyforms.In its mostsimpleform, weld evaluations Metallographic or defectssuch as porosity for large-scale examined a weld depositcan be visually can take the form of phase On a microscale,the examination lackof fusiondefects. or third from weld cap to weld root or a checkfor non-metallic assessments balance patterns growth used to determine is also phaseprecipitates. Examination of weld columnar central an extensive For example, test results. for poormechanical reasons givingpoorCharpy results. grainpattern can causea planeof weakness
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Training& Certification
CSWP 3.1ACCEPTANCE LEVELS

MACRO ONLY
u
DEFECTNAME Cracks
REMARKS
2
J
Porosity / gas pores / worm holes Solid inclusionsotherthan copper
Maximum dimension in any area or individual (as applicable)
MAXIMTIM ALLOWANCE Not permitted lmm

lmm Not permitted Not permitted
Any inclusionexcept copper

Side wall / interun / root
4 5 6 8 9 l0
il
inclusions Copper Lack of root fusion

Lack of root penetration Overlap
Not permitted
Smooth transition Not permitted 0.5mm depth Not permitted
Undercut
Underfill/incompletefi lled groove Linear misalignment
0.1t (upto a maximum of 3mm

Not permitted
Arc strikes
Mechanical damage Parent material: Laps/laminations Angular misalignment Excessweld metal + Acceptance dependanton application of test
t2
l3
Not permitted
Dependson application Accept 1mm * 0.1 of weld width (maximum 3mm) lmm * 0.3 of bead width (maximum 3mm)
t4
l5
required/all runs shall Smoothtransition blendsmoothly
t6
* penetration Excess
* Wh"tr linear misalignment is presentthe following shall be applied. Excessiveweld metal: "lowest plate", acrossweldment. Maximum height to be measuredfrom a direct line from Excessivepenetration: "lowest" plate. Maximum height to be measuredfrom
WIS S-ARPP Issue2 Date: l/10/01

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TWI Ltd, Trainingand Examination Services

INSPECTORS OF WELDING DUTIES TYPICAL ANDDEFINITIONS TERMS

SYMBOLS WELDING PROCESSES TO WELDING INTRO MMAWELDING TIGWELDING WELDING MIG/MAG

19.0 20.0 22.O 23.0 24.O 25.0 26.0

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WORLD CENTRE FOR MATERIALS ]OINING TECHNOLOGY

Section01 TypicalDutiesof WeldingInspectors

InsPection Welding Rev0 Jun06 O 2006,TWI Ltd Copyright

woRLDcENTREFoR MATERTALSJOTNING rEct{NolocY

AND TYPICAL DUTIES OF 1.0 VISUAL INSPECTION INSPECTORS WELDING

(to BS EN FORVISUALINSPECTION 1.2 BASICREQUIREMENTS

WORLD CENTRE FOR MATERIALS JOINING TECHNOLOGY

A summary of eachof thesetopicsis givenin the following sub-sections.

1.3 WELDING INSPECTION PERSONNEL

FORVISUALINSPECTION 1.4 CONDITIONS

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INSPECTION 1.5 AIDSTO VISUAL

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and TypicalDutiesof VisualInspection Inspectors Welding @2006,TWI Ltd Copyright

Duties Before Welding Check Material

WpS,s Equipment Welding i Weld Preparations I Weldereualifications

, (if required) i Preheat DutiesDurinqWeldinq Check Welding Site/field

Process V Welding V' ^/ preheat(if required) Temp lnl"r-pass

-' are in accordance as withwPS & beingcontrolled Procedure

/Grinding Gouging cleaning Inter-run Welder

standard \" method& to goodworkmanship is by an approved standard is to goodworkmanship a"r

for the WPS beingused !J is on the approvalregister/qualified

Duties After Weldinq

Drawings NDT Repairs

Test tt Pressure/Load (if required)

i as & collated arecompleted allreports/records RecordsV-ensure Documentation required

WORLD CENTREFOR MATERIALS JOINING TECHNOLOGY

i+l +L; ';-1:

REGORDS 1.8 EXAMINATION

FoR woRLD cENTRE

Questions Responsibilities and duties of a welding inspector

List 4 areasthat would generallybe coveredby a non-destructive (NDE)inspectionstandardfor welds? examination

List desirablecharacteristics that all welding inspectors should possess?

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Section02 Terms& Definitions

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FoR woRLD cENTRE MATEPJALSJOINING

2.A TERMSAND DEFINITIONS

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WORLD CENTRE FOR MATERIALS JOINING TECHNOLOGY

OF WELDS 2.1 TYPES 2.1.1 OF VIEW POINT FROMCONFIGURATION

Butt weld In a buttioint

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POINT OF VIEW FROMTHE PENETRATION

(SEEBS EN ISO15607) o 2.2 TYPES OF JOINTS

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WELD OF THEGOMPLETED 2.3 FEATURES

T\III Wini VlJlJ'

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Parent metal Parent

Parent metal Excess weldmetal

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