Chapter 20: Blood Vessels and Circulation10/26/2013 3:45:00 PM

General Anatomy of the Blood Vessels Arteries- carry blood away from the heart Veins- carry blood back to the heart Capillaries- microscopic, thin-walled vessels that connect the smallest arteries to the smallest veins The Vessel Wall o 3 layers called tunics Tunica interna- lines the inside of the vessel and is exposed to the blood Simple squamous epithelium overlying a basement membrane and a sparse layer of loose connective tissue Selectively permeable barrier that secretes chemicals that stimulate dilation or constriction of the vessel and repels blood cells and platelets so that they flow freely without sticking to the vessel wall Tunica media- the middle layer and the thickest, consists of smooth muscle, collagen, and in some cases, elastic tissue Strengthens vessels and prevents blood pressure from rupturing them Vasomotion- changes in the diameter of a blood vessel Tunica externa- outermost layer that consists of loose connective tissue that often merges with that of neighboring blood vessels, nerves or other organs It anchors the vessel and provides passage for small nerves, lymphatic vessels, and smaller blood vessels that supply the tissues of the larger vessel. Vasa vasorum- small vessels that nourish at least half of the wall of a larger vessel

Arteries o Stronger than veins and retain round shape even when empty o Divided into 3 classes by size

Conducting (elastic or large) arteries- biggest arteries. They expand during ventricular systole to receive blood, and recoil during diastole. Their expansion takes pressure off the blood so that the smaller arteries downstream have less systolic stress The recoil between heartbeats prevents the blood pressure from dropping too low while the heart is relaxing and refilling Includes the aorta, common carotid and subclavian arteries, pulmonary trunk, and common iliac arteries

Distributing (muscular or medium) arteriessmaller branches that distribute blood to specific organs Up to 40 layers of smooth muscle Brachial, femoral, renal, and splenic arteries are examples Resistance (small) arteries- too variable in number

and location to be given individual names Thicker tunica media in proportion to the lumen Arterioles- smallest resistance arteries with only 1-3 layers of smooth muscle o Metarterioles- short vessels that link arterioles and capillaries o Arterial Sense Organs 3 kinds of arteries that have sensory structures Carotid sinuses Baroreceptors that respond to changes in blood pressure Rise in blood pressure stretches the thin media and stimulates the glossopharyngeal nerve fibers They transmit signals to the vasomotor and cardiac centers of the brainstem

Brainstem responds by lowering heart rate and dilating the blood vessels, thereby lowering the blood pressure Carotid bodies Oval receptors innervated by sensory fibers of the vagus and glossopharyngeal nerves Theyre chemoreceptors that monitor changes in blood composition Transmit signals to the brainstem respiratory centers which adjust breathing to stabilize the blood pH and its CO2 and O2 levels Aortic Bodies 1-3 chemoreceptors located in the aortic arch near the arteries to the head and arms. Structurally similar to the carotid bodies and they have the same functions

Capillaries o Transport nutrients, wastes, hormones, and leukocytes between the blood and the tissue fluids o Composed of only endothelium and basal lamina o Types of Capillaries 3 types Continuous capillaries- endothelial cells held together by tight junctions form a continuous tube Basal lamina- thin protein-carbohydrate layer that surrounds the endothelium and separates it from the adjacent connective tissues Pericytes- cells that lie external to the endothelium and have elongated tendrils that wrap around the capillary o They contain same contractile proteins as muscle and contribute to vessel growth and repair

Fenestrated capillaries- endothelial cells riddled with patches of filtration pores (fenestrations) They allow rapid passage of small molecules but still retain most proteins and larger particles in the bloodstream Fenestrated capillaries are important in organs that engage in rapid absorption or filtration o Kidneys, endocrine glands, small intestine, and choroid plexuses of the

brain Sinusoids (discontinuous capillaries)irregular blood-filled spaces in the liver, bone marrow, spleen, and some other organs Twisted pathways that conform to the shape of the surrounding tissue o Capillary Beds Capillary beds- networks of 10 100 capillaries supplied by a single metarteriole Veins o Relatively thin-walled and flaccid and expand easily to accommodate an increased volume of blood o Types of veins Postcapillary venules- smallest of the veins that receive blood from capillaries directly or by way of the distal ends of the thoroughfare channels Exchange fluid with the surrounding tissues Muscular venules- receive blood from the postcapillary venules Medium veins Venous sinuses- veins with especially thin walls, large lumens and no smooth muscle Uncapable of vasomotion Large veins- smooth muscle in all 3 tunics Circulatory Routes o Heart > Arteries > Capillaries > veins > heart

o Portal system- blood flows through 2 consecutive capillary networks before returning to the heart o Anastomosis- point where 2 blood vessels merge o Arteriovenous anastomosis (shunt)- blood flows from an artery directly into a vein and bypasses the capillaries Usually occur in fingers, palms, toes and ears o Venous anastomoses- one vein empties directly into another o Arterial anastomoses- 2 arteries merge provide alternative routes of blood supply to a tissue Blood Pressure, Resistance, and Flow Flow- amount of blood flowing through an organ, tissue, or blood Bessel in a given time Perfusion- flow per given volume or mass of tissue o Large organ like the femur could have a greater flow but less perfusion than a small organ such as the ovary, because the ovary receives much more blood per gram of tissue Blood Pressure o Blood pressure- the force that the blood exerts against a o o o o vessel wall Systolic pressure- peak arterial BP attained during ventricular contraction Diastolic pressure- minimum arterial BP occurring during the ventricular relaxation between heartbeats Pulse pressure- difference between systolic and diastolic pressure Mean arterial pressure (MAP)- the mean pressure you would obtain if you took measurements at several intervals

throughout the cardiac cycle MAP = DP + 1/3 (SP DP) o Syncope- fainting o Systolic and diastolic pressures are lower farther away from the heart o Arteries have a pulse, veins and capillaries are too far away for a pulse

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This is why severed arteries jet blood intermittently and severed veins have slow, steady bleeding Arteriosclerosis- hardening of the arteries Atherosclerosis- the growth of lipid deposits in the arterial walls Hypertension- chronic resting blood pressure higher than 140/90 Can weaken the small arteries and cause aneurysms Hypotension- chronic low resting BP Consequence of blood loss, dehydration, anemia, or

other factors and is normal in people approaching death o Blood pressure is determined by 3 variables Cardiac output Blood volume Resistance to flow Peripheral Resistance o Peripheral resistance- opposition to flow that the blood encounters in vessels away from the heart o Resistance relies on 3 variables Blood viscosity Thickness of the blood Erythrocyte count and albumin concentration Deficiency of albumin and erythrocytes reduces viscosity and speeds up blood flow Vessel Length The farther a liquid travels, the more cumulative friction it encounters; pressure and flow therefore decline with distance Vessel Radius Vasoconstriction- narrowing of a vessel Occurs when the smooth muscle of the tunica media contracts Vasodilation- widening of a vessel Occurs with the relaxation of the smooth muscle, allowing blood pressure to expand it

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Laminar flow- flows in layers, faster near the center of a vessel and slower near the walls aorta to capillaries velocity diminishes because Blood has traveled a great distance so friction slowed it down Arterioles and capillaries have smaller radii and put up more resistance Number of vessels become greater and narrower capillaries to vena cava, velocity rises again Veins are larger than capillaries so there is less

resistance Never regains velocity it had in the large arteries o Arterioles are most significant point of control over peripheral resistance and blood flow because They are on the proximal sides of the capillary beds, so they are best positioned to regulate flow into the capillaries They greatly outnumber any other class of arteries and thus provide the most numerous control points They are more muscular in proportion to their diameters than any other class of blood vessels and are highly capable of vasomotion Regulation of Blood Pressure and Flow o 3 ways of controlling vasomotion Local Control Autoregulation- ability of tissues to regulate their own blood supply Vasoactive chemicals- substances that stimulate vasomotion Reactive hyperemia- an increase above the normal level of flow caused by a tissues blood supply being cut off for a time and then restored Angiogenesis- the growth of new blood vessels This is important in the regrowth of the uterine lining after each menstrual period, the development of a higher density of

blood capillaries in the muscles of wellconditioned athletes, and the growth of arterial bypasses around obstructions in the coronary circulation Neural Control Vasomotor center- exerts sympathetic control over blood vessels. Vasomotor center is the integrating center for 3 autonomic reflexes Baroreflex- autonomic, negative feedback response to changes in blood pressure o Important in short-term regulation of BP Chemoreflex- autonomic response to changes in blood chemistry, especially its pH and concentrations of O2 and CO2 o Primary role is to adjust respiration to changes in blood chemistry o Stimulate breathing Medullary ischemic reflex- autonomic response to reduced perfusion of the brain (monitors its own blood supply and activates corrective reflexes when it senses a state of ischemia [insufficient perfusion])

o Hormonal Control Angiotensin II Vasoconstrictor that raises blood pressure Aldosterone Promotes Na+ retention by the kidneys Water follows sodium so blood volume and pressure raises Natriuretic peptides Antagonize aldosterone Increase Na+ excretion by the kidneys which reduces blood volume and pressure Antidiuretic hormone

Promotes water retention and is a vasoconstrictor Raises blood pressure and volume Epinephrine and norepinephrine Binds to receptors on the smooth muscle of blood vessels which stimulates vasoconstriction and raises blood pressure Two Purposes of Vasomotion o Generalized raising or lowering of blood pressure throughout the body Centralized control in the medullary vasomotor center

or by hormones o Selectively modifying the perfusion of a particular organ and rerouting blood from one region of the body to another Central or local control Capillary Exchange Capillary exchange- 2 way movement of fluid Chemicals pass through the capillary wall by three routes o The endothelial cell cytoplasm o Intercellular clefts between the endothelial cells o Filtration pores (fenestrations) of the fenestrated capillaries Diffusion o Glucose and oxygen diffuse out of the blood o Carbon dioxide and other wastes diffuse into the blood Transcytosis o Transcytosis is a process in which endothelial cells pick up material on one side of the plasma membrane by pinocytosis or receptor-mediated endocytosis, transport the vesicles across the cell, and discharge the material on the other side by exocytosis o Fatty acids, albumin, and some hormones like insulin use this process Filtration and Reabsorption o Hydrostatic pressure- physical force exerted by a liquid against a surface such as a capillary wall Blood pressure

o Colloid osmotic pressure- the portion of the osmotic pressure due to protein o Oncotic pressure- difference between the COP of blood and tissue fluid o Net filtration pressureo Net reabsorption pressure- causes the capillary to reabsorb fluid at this end

10/26/2013 3:45:00 PM

10/26/2013 3:45:00 PM