Exam 2 Review Guide: (Bones-Tissues, Axial and Appendicular Skeleton, Joints, Muscle Tissue, Muscles, Nervous Tissue)

Note: 90 % of the exam will come from this review guide. 10% will come from the text or material covered in the lecture and not posted on the lecture slides.

Bone Tissue What type of tissue is cartilage? o Structure? o Function? What makes up cartilage? o Ground substance? o Fibers? o Cells? What are the 3 different types of cartilage? o Where do you find each type? What are the different types of growth for cartilage and which direction do they occur? o Appositional o Interstitial Is cartilage vascular? What are the 2 major divisions of the skeleton? What are the 4 major shape classifications for bone? What are some major functions of bone? What are the major bone markings and how are they described? o Tuberosity o Spine o Meatus o Crest o Process o Sinus o Trochanter o Head o Fossa o Line o Facet o Groove o Tubercle o Condyle o Fissure o Epicondyle o Ramus o Foramen What is: o Diaphysis? o Epiphyseal line? o Medullary o Epiphysis? o Periosteum? cavity? o Metaphysis? Is bone vascular? What type of tissue is bone? o Structure? o Function? What makes up bone tissue? o Ground substance? o Fibers? o Cells? What types of bones contain spongy bone? What is the function of red bone marrow? o In infants? o In adults? What is the function of yellow bone marrow? What is the functional (or basic) unit of the bone? What are Haversian systems (or osteons)? What are: o Lamella o Haversian o Volkmanns (central) canals canals

o Canaliculi o Osteogenic cells o Osteoclasts o Osteocytes o Osteoblasts What do you find in lacunae? What is endochondral ossification and where does it occur? o What are the 5 stages? What is intramembranous ossification? Example? What are the functional zones in long bone growth? o What are the 3 zones? How does growth hormone (GH) affect bone growth before puberty (and epiphyseal growth plate closure)? How does growth hormone (GH) affect bone growth after puberty (and epiphyseal growth plate closure)? What are the two hormones released at puberty? o What type of closure occurs as a result? o What type of growth does this closure end? What is the difference between bone deposition and resorption? What is calcium used for? What is the function of calcitonin? o Where does it come from? What is the function of parathyroid hormone? o Where does it come from What is Wolffs law? Fractures? o Comminuted o Spiral o Depressed o Compression o Epiphyseal o Greenstick What are the stages of bone healing? What is: o Osteomalacia o Rickets o Osteoporosis o Pagets disease

Axial skeleton What are the bones of the axial skeleton? Where are they found? What are the major markings found on each? (PICTURES) o Skull bones: o Frontal o Occipital o Ethmoid o Parietal o Sphenoid o Wormian bones o Paired Facial bones: o Maxillae o Lacrimal o Mandible o Zygomatic o Palatine o Nasal o Inferior conchae o Unpaired Facial bones: o Vomer o Other bones: o Hyoid o Sacrum o Vertebrae o Coccyx What are the sutures of the skull? What bones do they separate? o Coronal o Lambdoidal o Sagittal o Squamosal How many bones in the: o Cervical vertebrae o Lumbar vertebrae o Thoracic vertebrae o Sacral vertebrae What are the differences in shapes of the vertebrae? C1, C2, typical cervical, thoracic, lumbar What are the intervertebral discs? What are the 2 parts? What are the major parts of the vertebrae? What is missing in C1 and C2? o Body o Transverse process o Vertebral arch (pedicles, laminae) o Intervertebral foramina o Vertebral foramina o Superior and inferior articular o Spinous process processes What are the true, false and floating ribs? How many of each? What are the parts of the sternum? o Manubrium o Body o Xiphoid Appendicular skeleton What makes up the pectoral (shoulder) girdles? What are the parts of the scapula? What are the bones of the upper limbs? What are the major markings? o Humerus o Carpal bones (be o Ulna specific) o Radius o Metacarpals What is the difference between male and female pelves? What bones form the hip (pelvic girdle)? What are the major markings? o Ilium o Ischium o Pubis What bones form the bony pelvis? o Hip bones + sacrum + coccyx What are the bones of the lower limbs? What are the major markings? o Femur o Tibia

(PICTURES) o Phalanges

(PICTURES)

(PICTURES) o Fibula

o Patella What are the arches of the foot?

o Tarsal bones (be specific)

o Metatarsals o Phalanges

Joints What are the different classifications of joints? o Structural (3) o Functional (3) What are the 3 types of fibrous joints? What are the 3 types of cartilaginous joints? What is the most common type of structural joint? What do all synovial joints have in common? Be able to name the different joints. o Tables 8.2 What are the friction reducing structures? What are the different types of range of motion (ROM) terms? What are some examples of joints? (Use tables in textbook to find examples) o Nonaxial (0) o Biaxial (2) o Uniaxial (1) o Multiaxial (many) What are gliding movements? o Examples of joints? o What type of ROM? What are the different angular movements? (6) What are examples of planar joints? What are examples of hinge joints? What are examples of pivot joints? What are examples of condyloid or ellipsoid joints? What is an example of a saddle joint? What are examples of ball-and-socket joints? Know figures for joint types. What is bursitis? What is tendonitis? What is arthritis? What is osteoarthritis? What is rheumatoid arthritis? What is gouty arthritis? Muscles: Big Picture What is (a): o Prime mover/agonist o Antagonist o Synergist o First class lever o Second class lever o Third class lever o Origin/insertion Muscles and actions of muscles to know: o Frontalis o Occipitalis o Orbicularis oculi

o o o o o o o o

o o o o o o o o o o o o

Orbicularis oris Levator labii superioris Mentalis Depressor labii inferioris Depressor anguli oris Zygomaticus major/minor Platysma What are the muscles of mastication? Buccinator Internal or medial pterygoid Temporalis External or lateral pterygoid Masseter Superior, middle, inferior pharyngeal constrictor Anterior, middle, posterior scalenes External intercostals Internal intercostals Diaphragm Transversus abdominis Internal oblique Rectus abdominis External oblique What 3 tendons make up the rectus sheath (the part that wraps around the front and back of the rectus abdominis)? What are the muscles of the pelvic diaphragm (3)? What muscles make up the levator ani (2)?

o Muscles of the forearm (look for them) Flexors Extensors Abductors Adductors Pronators Supinators o Muscles in the hand Flexors Extensors Abductors Adductors Lumbricals o Muscles of the hip/buttocks Quadratus lumborum Iliopsoas Psoas major Iliacus Gluteus maximus, medius, minimius Piriformis Superior gemellus Obturator internus Inferior gemellus Obturator externus Quadratus femoris

o Muscles of the thigh (look for them) Anterior compartment: knee extensors (look for them) Medial compartment: adductors (look for them) Posterior compartment: knee flexors (look for them) o Muscles of the leg (look for them) Anterior compartment: foot/toe extensors (look for them) Lateral compartment: everters, foot flexors (look for them) Posterior compartment: foot/toe flexors (look for them) o Layers of the foot (muscles found in each layer): First Second Third Fourth Muscles to ID in possible images: o Above plus: Ischiocavernosus Bulbospongiosus Muscles to know for origin and insertion: o Genioglossus o Triceps brachii o Styloglossus o Brachialis o Hyoglossus o Brachioradialis o Stylohyoid o Thyrohyoid o Sternothyroid o Sternohyoid o Mylohyoid o Omohyoid o Sternocleidomastoid o Erector spinae muscles Iliocostalis (cervicis, thoracis, lumborum) Longissimus Spinalis (capitis, cervicis, thoracis) o Pubococcygeus o Iliococcygeus o Ischiococcygeus o Deltoid o Pectoralis major o Pectoralis minor o Coracobrachialis o Subclavius o Serratus anterior o Supraspinatus o Infraspinatus o Subscapularis o Teres major o Teres minor o Rhomboid major o Rhomboid minor o Latissimus dorsi o Biceps brachii

Muscles: Small stuff Layers of connective tissue (fascia) that wrap around the: o Muscle group o Muscle fascicle o Myofibril What makes up the connective tissue of the tendon? What layer of connective tissue is connect to the periosteum (connective tissue) of the bone? How is force transmitted from the muscle to the bone? What happens when dystrophin is dysfunctional (aka: not working properly)? What do muscles do? Where do muscles cross? What is the basic (smallest) functional unit of the muscle? What are myofibrils made up of? What are thin filaments also called? What are thick filaments also called? What is the section from Z-disc to Z-disc also called? What is connected to the Z-disc? What is connected to the M-line? What makes up the I band? What makes up the A band? What makes up the H zone? What changes in length with contraction? What stays the same? What is the structure of thick and thin filaments? What is the sarcoplasmic reticulum? What does it contain? What are T tubules? What are the ions that move across the cell membrane? What is an action potential (AP)? What causes the action potential? Excitation-contraction coupling o Know the diagram I cover with you in class!!!!! What chemical is released from the nerve that acts on the muscle? What is a motor unit? What controls muscles? What is a twitch? What are the 3 phases to a muscle twitch? What is wave summation? What is unfused (incomplete) tetanus? What is fused (complete) tetanus? What is stimulation strength? What is the relationship between stimulus intensity and muscle tension? How are muscles fibers recruited? What is size principle? What is muscle tone? What is isotonic versus isometric contractions? What is concentric versus eccentric? What is the energy source for muscle contraction? What are the 3 main ways to replenish ATP? o Short o Medium

o Long What is muscle fatigue? What is the length-tension curve/relationship? What are slow oxidative fibers? Fast glycolytic fibers? Fast oxidative/glycolytic fibers? What is smooth muscle? Cardiac muscle? Skeletal muscle? What is hyperplasia? Hypertrophy? Atrophy? What is muscular dystrophy?

Nervous Tissue What makes up the Central Nervous System (CNS)? What makes up the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)? What are the different parts of the neuron? What are the different types of supporting cells in the nervous system and what are their functions? What is the Myelin Sheath and what is its function? What makes the Myelin Shealth in the CNS; in the PNS? What is the neurilemma? What are Nodes of Ranvier? What is the difference between myelinated and unmyelinated axons? What is the difference between white matter and gray matter? What are the different terms used to describe sensory neurons? What are the different terms used to describe motor neurons? What ions do you find in higher concentration inside of the cell? What ions do you find in higher concentration outside of the cell? What are graded potentials? Where do graded potentials generally occur? What are actions potentials? What are the different phases? What ion contributes greatly to the resting membrane potential? What ion contributes to triggering an action potential? What is depolarization and what major ion is responsible? What is repolarization and what major ion is responsible? What is hyperpolarization and what major ion is responsible? What is threshold? What are absolute and relative refractory periods? Where are action potentials triggered? Where do action potentials generally occur? How do you change the strength of a stimulus (by the amplitutde of the wave? by an increase in the frequency of the potentials generated?) What are 2 ways to change the conduction velocities of axons? What is Multiple Sclerosis (MS)? What are synapses? What is an example of an electrical synapse? What is an example of a chemical synapse? What are graded potentials? o What are inhibitory potentials and what ions and direction of movement (inside or outside of the cell) are associated? o What are EPSPs? o What are IPSPs? o What is temporal summation? o What is spatial summation?

What are the different types of chemical neurotransmitters? o What is the pathway for synthesis of catecholamines? o What are the inhibitory transmitters of the CNS? o What are the 2 channels associated with GABA and what are the ions? What neurotransmitter is associated with pain signals?