Unit-V: METHODOLOGIES FOR CARRYING ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

Overview of Methodologies: The EIA process makes sure that environmental issues are raised when a project or plan is first discussed and that all concerns are addressed as a project gains momentum through to implementation. Recommendations made by the EIA may necessitate the redesign of some project components, require further studies, and suggest changes which alter the economic viability of the project or cause a delay in project implementation. To be of most benefit it is essential that an environmental assessment is carried out to determine significant impacts early in the project cycle so that recommendations can be built into the design and cost-benefit analysis without causing major delays or increased design costs. To be effective once implementation has commenced, the EIA should lead to a mechanism whereby adequate monitoring is undertaken to realize environmental management. An important output from the EIA process should be the delineation of enabling mechanisms for such effective management. The way in which an EIA is carried out is not rigid: it is a process comprising a series of steps. These steps are outlined below and the techniques more commonly used in EIA are described in some detail in the section Techniques. The main steps in the EIA process are: screening scoping prediction and mitigation management and monitoring audit Figure 1 shows a general flow diagram of the EIA process, how it fits in with parallel technical and economic studies and the role of public participation. In some cases, such as small-scale irrigation schemes, the transition from identification through to detailed design may be rapid and some steps in the EIA procedure may be omitted. Screening often results in a categorization of the project and from this a decision is made on whether or not a full EIA is to be carried out. Scoping is the process of determining which are the most critical issues to study and will involve community participation to some degree. It is at this early stage that EIA can most strongly influence the outline proposal. Detailed prediction and mitigation studies follow scoping and are carried out in parallel with feasibility studies. The main output report is called an Environmental Impact Statement, and contains a detailed plan for managing and monitoring environmental impacts both during and after implementation. Finally, an audit of the EIA process is carried out sometime after implementation. The audit serves a useful feedback and learning function.

Matrices The major use of matrices is to indicate cause and effect by listing activities along the horizontal axis and environmental parameters along the vertical axis. In this way the impacts of both individual components of projects as well as major alternatives can be compared. The simplest matrices use a single mark to show whether an impact is predicted or not. However it is easy to increase the information level by changing the size of the mark to indicate scale, or by using a variety of symbols to indicate different attributes of the impact. An example of a matrix is given as Table 2. The choice of symbols in this example enables the reader to see at a glance whether or not there was an impact and, if so, whether the impact was beneficial or detrimental, temporary or permanent. Figure 8 is another example of a matrix, in this case used to clearly indicate the importance of a range of wetland values. ICOLD has prepared a large and comprehensive matrix for use in EIAs for dams. The system of symbols for each box shows: whether the impact is beneficial or detrimental; the scale of the impact; the probability of occurrence; the time-scale of occurrence; and, whether the design has taken the impact into account, (ICOLD, 1980). This comprehensive approach, however, makes the final output rather difficult to use and a maximum of three criteria is recommended per impact to maintain clarity. Ahmad and Sammy (1985) suggest that the most important criteria are: magnitude, or degree of change; geographical extent; significance; and, special sensitivity. "Significance" could be further sub-divided to indicate why an impact is significant. For example, it may be because of irreversibility, economic vulnerability, a threat to rare species etc. "Special sensitivity" refers to locally important issues. A series of matrices at all stages of the EIA process can be a particularly effective way of presenting information. Each matrix may be used to compare options rated against a few criteria at a time. The greatest drawback of matrices are that they can only effectively illustrate primary impacts. Network diagrams, described below, are a useful and complementary form of illustration to matrices as their main purpose is to illustrate higher order impacts and to indicate how impacts are inter-related. Matrices help to choose between alternatives by consensus. One method is to make pair-wise comparisons. It provides a simple way for a group of people to compare a large number of options and reduce them to a few choices. First a matrix is drawn with all options listed both horizontally and vertically. Each option is then compared with every other one and a score of 1 assigned to the preferred option or 0.5 to both options if no preference is agreed. Network diagrams A network diagram is a technique for illustrating how impacts are related and what the consequences of impacts are. For example, it may be possible to fairly accurately predict the impact of increased diversions or higher irrigation efficiencies on the low flow regime of a river. However, there may be many and far reaching secondary or tertiary consequences of a change in low flow. These consequences can be illustrated using network diagrams. For example, reduced low flows are likely to reduce the production of fish which may or may not be of importance depending on the value (either ecological or economic) of the fish. If fish are an important component of diet or income, the reduction may lead to a local reduction in the health status, impoverishment and possibly migration. Also, reduced low flow coupled with increased pollution, perhaps as a result of increased agricultural industry, may further damage the fish population as well as reduce access to safe water. Table 4 shows an example of a network diagram for a proposed plan to increase the use of groundwater for irrigation by providing subsidies for sinking deep tube wells. This shows the primary through to quaternary impacts, as anticipated at the scoping stage. The main crop in the area is rice. Detailed prediction work following scoping would estimate the level to which the groundwater would fall and quantify the impacts which, together with economic analysis, would clarify which impacts were most important and most likely and also determine the most suitable mitigation measures.

Overlays Overlays provide a technique for illustrating the geographical extent of different environmental impacts. Each overlay is a map of a single impact. For example, saline affected areas, deforested areas, limit of a groundwater pollution plume etc can be analyzed and clearly demonstrated to non experts. The original technique used transparencies which is somewhat cumbersome. However, the development of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) can make this technique particularly suitable for comparing options, pinpointing sensitive zones and proposing different areas or methods of land management. Benefit Cost Analysis The most commonly used methods of project appraisal are cost-benefit and cost-effectiveness analysis. It has not been found easy to incorporate environmental impacts into traditional cost-benefit analysis, principally because of the difficulty in quantifying and valuing environmental effects. An EIA can provide information on the expected effects and quantify, to some extent, their importance. This information can be used by economists in the preparation of cost-benefit calculations. Cost effectiveness analysis can also be used to determine what is the most efficient, least-cost method of meeting a given environmental objective; with costs including forgone environmental benefits. However, defining the objective may not be straight forward. Choosing a Methodology EIA methods range from simple to complex, requiring different kinds of data, different data formats, and varying levels of expertise and technological sophistication for their interpretation. The analyses they produce have differing levels of precision and certainty. All of these factors should be considered when selecting a method. The EIA practitioner is faced with a vast quantity of raw and usually unorganized information that must be collected and analyzed in preparation of an EIA report. The best methods are able to: organize a large mass of heterogeneous data allow summarization of data; aggregate the data into smaller sets with least loss of information; and Display the raw data and the derived information in a direct and relevant fashion.

Unit-III: ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT FOR TRANSPORTATION PROJECTS

Basic Concept: The roads and highway projects are lifeline of any country. They are also important for the building the nation and are mirror of countrys development. However, most of these road and highway projects on account of their location, route alignment and associated activities are invariably accompanied by significant environmental and social impacts during different phases (viz., Pre-construction, Construction and Operational phase) of the project. The nature of these impacts could be either positive or negative depending upon their potential to favourably or adversely affect the surrounding environment and also the resident community. While favourably viewing the positive impacts on the environment and community, it is also imperative to develop an appropriate and sound Environmental Management Plan (EMP) and execute it on the field/impacted area of the project to minimise and mitigate various adverse environmental and social impacts. In view of their significant environmental implications,roads and highway projects have been brought under the purview of the EIA Notification dated Sept. 14th, 2006 requiring Environmental Clearance (EC) either from Central Government (i.e., Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) (Category A Project) or at State Level from State Environmental Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA) (Category B Project) if they meet certain conditions specified under the EIA Notification. As per the requirement of EIA, the project has to follow specified procedures which amongst other requirements also include conducting Public Consultation including Public Hearing to include and incorporate views of various stakeholders into decision making process. The EIA ensures that various Acts, Rules and Regulations for preservation, conservation and management of the environment along with R & R (Resettlement & Rehabilitation) issue are appropriately taken care of in the suggested EMP. Recently, the role of EIA of Roads and Highways have become more important as Central Government is undertaking widening and upgrading of various National Highways throughout the country under the different phases of National Highway Development Programme (NHDP). The present paper briefly describes provisions and procedure for carrying out EIA for the Roads and highways along with the EMP for mitigating various negative environmental impacts during different phases of the project. Transportation Related Environmental Impacts: When considering the environmental impact of options a Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) may also be required of the transport plan, programme or strategy. Similarly, a transport project may also require an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) to be undertaken in addition to the STAG study. The level of detail at which the assessment is conducted should be appropriate for the stage and type of option. Various techniques may be employed to identify potential environmental impacts/issues:

Use of environmental objectives - early identification of environmental objectives may allow particular topics to be identified to provide a focus for consideration of impacts. Such objectives (established policy directives, using the terminology introduced in Section 3) may be found in Development Plans or strategies prepared by planning authorities or other agencies and will generally be applicable at a wide area level. An option's planning objectives may include one or more which are focussed on environmental concerns; Involvement of experts - experts on the assessment team should set out their independent view of potential impacts based on their own knowledge and experience; The use of standard checklists - standard topic lists can be defined which set out, for each topic area, a description of the potential impacts, the geographical level of importance of the impact, the magnitude of the impact and the nature of the impact (e.g. short/long term, reversible/irreversible etc); Desk studies - a rapid search of published information (such as Development Plans and agency websites) can identify areas of sensitivity and issues of environmental concern. Development Plans can also assist in identifying potential land-use change and predicting future environmental conditions;

Preliminary consultation with statutory, transport and land-use planners/practitioners and official bodies with an interest in the likely environmental effects who may have specific knowledge of the locality or experience of considering the impacts of particular types of option on their area of expertise; Comparison with the impacts of other similar options, which may be revealed through literature surveys; Network analysis involving monitoring data, mathematical models, GIS, other mapping matrices and expert judgment.

At the strategic level, a useful approach will be to draw upon the above sources to identify environmental constraints and objectives affecting the study area. This can be used to set the scope for the initial stages of assessment and to guide development of the option. As more information becomes available about the emerging transport options, the scope of the assessment may need to be revisited - the nature of the option will be a key factor governing the range of potential effects on the environment. Vehicle impacts: Automobiles and the Environment Automobiles affect the environment in many ways. Impacts begin when a vehicle is manufactured (including the production of all the parts and materials that go into the car) and end with its scrap page in a junkyard (which can recycle many parts but also involves the disposal of many wastes). Over the life of an average motor vehicle, however, much of the environmental damage occurs during driving and is greatly associated with fuel consumption. Over the dozen or so years of a vehicle's life, nearly 90 percent of lifecycle ("cradle to grave") greenhouse gas production for a typical automobile is due to fuel consumption. Environmental impacts start with mineral extraction and the production of the raw materials that go into the parts of a car. For example, iron ore gets turned into steel, which now accounts for most of the mass in vehicles. Steel can be recycled, of course. On average, today's automobiles are about 75 percent recyclable, and using recycled steel helps reduce energy use and pollution. Other metal components, such as aluminum (used in some engine parts and wheels, for example) and copper (used for wiring) are also largely recycled. The lead and acid in batteries are poisonous and dangerous. But batteries can be recycled, if they are returned to a service station, a parts store, or brought to a municipal hazardous waste facility. Plastics, which are mostly made from petroleum, are more difficult to recycle. In any case, some degree of pollution is associated with all of these components, much of it due to the energy consumption, air pollution, and releases of toxic substances that occur when automobiles are manufactured and distributed. Most of the environmental impact associated with motor vehicles occurs when they are used, due to pollution in their exhaust and pollution associated with supplying the fuel. In the United States, nearly all of today's automobiles use gasoline; a lesser number use diesel fuel. In some areas, various alternative fuels are being introduced, but these are not widely available for most drivers. When gasoline, diesel, or other fuels are burned in car engines, combustion is never perfect, and so a mix of hazardous pollutants comes out the tailpipe. If combustion were perfect and didn't create noxious by-products, the exhaust would contain only water vapor and carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide (CO2) isn't directly harmful to health, at least not in low concentrations. After all, CO2 is also what we exhale after "burning" the calories in the food we eat. However, CO2 from fossil fuels like gasoline and diesel is very harmful to the environment because it causes global warming-more on this pollutant shortly. Motor fuel is itself a product and so, like a car, environmental damage occurs throughout its lifecycle as well. For gasoline and diesel, the product lifecycle begins at the oil well and ends when the fuel is burned in the engine. Fuel cycle impacts are the forms of pollution and other environmental damage that occur between the oil well and the fuel tank. Gasoline and diesel fuel are poisonous to humans, plants, and animals and their vapors are toxic. Other energy sources have their own fuel cycles. With battery-powered electric vehicles, for example, no fuel is burned onboard the vehicle, and so nearly all of the fuel-cycle pollution and energy use occurs at electric power plants and in producing the fuels that run the power plants. Many of the

same air pollutants that spew from vehicle tailpipes are also spewed from power plants and oil refineries (as well as the tanker trucks that deliver gasoline to your local filling station). In addition to these environmental harms, gasoline and diesel consumption bring economic and security risks. The Middle East contains the largest concentration of the world's oil. The United States maintains a global military presence partly to maintain access to foreign oil. The 1991 war with Iraq was directly related to securing our oil supply. The tragic situation in which the United States finds itself since September 11, 2001, presents many grave challenges for national defense and security. Choosing more fuel-efficient vehicles to reduce our reliance on a world oil market in which Middle Eastern countries play a dominant role is one way we, as individuals, can assist in energy-related aspects of national security. Major Pollutants Associated with Automobiles Our focus in ACEEE's Green Book is on air pollutants related to car and truck fuel consumption, because they are such a large part of a vehicle's environmental damage and because they are the main impacts that can be reduced through your choice of make and model. The adjoining figure shows the amounts of major air pollutants caused by the average new passenger car and light truck in a year. The pollution coming from vehicles can differ depending on the standards they meet (and how well their emissions controls work), how they are driven and maintained, and the quantity and quality of the fuel they burn. Many vans, pickups, sport utilities, and other light trucks meet less stringent emissions and fuel economy standards than vehicles classified as passenger cars. As a result, and as the ratings in this guide indicate, the average light truck pollutes more than the average car. Vehicles are also tested for fuel economy, as measured by miles per gallon-MPG. Fuel economy standards apply to manufacturers, rather than individual vehicles, and are set so that an automaker can sell a variety of vehicles as long as the average MPG of its sales meets the applicable standard. Manufacturers calculate the fuel economy of each model they sell using laboratory tests similar to those conducted to determine tailpipe emissions. Because these tests give fuel economy estimates higher than what most people experience in realworld driving, the MPG measurements are adjusted downward by EPA. These adjusted MPG numbers are printed on new vehicle stickers and listed here in ACEEE's Green Book. Although a wide variety of pollutants are formed in the various stages of an automobile's lifecycle, our ratings are mainly based on the serious air pollutants that are regulated to control vehicle emissions. All of these pollutants are more damaging to health when emitted from vehicle tailpipes than when a similar quantity is emitted from a power plant, since tailpipe pollution is literally "in your face," subjecting people to more direct exposures during daily activities. Particulate Matter (PM) Fine airborne particles are an established cause of lung problems, from shortness of breath to worsening of respiratory and cardiovascular disease, damage to lung tissues, and cancer. Certain people are particularly vulnerable to breathing air polluted by fine particles, among them asthmatics, individuals with the flu and with chronic heart or lung diseases, as well as children and the elderly. PM also soils and damages buildings and materials. It forms haze that obscures visibility in many regions. Soot and smoke coming from exhaust pipes are obvious sources of PM, but among the most deadly forms of airborne particulate matter are the invisible fine particles that lodge deeply in the lungs. PM has been regulated for some time, but the regulations were based on counting all particles up to 10 microns in size (PM10). However, PM10 standards fail to adequately control the most dangerous, very fine particles. The U.S. EPA has recently started to regulate fine particles up to 2.5 microns in size (PM2.5), which better focuses on the most damaging category. Properly functioning new, fuel-injected gasoline vehicles directly emit very little PM2.5. But they indirectly cause significant PM pollution as a result of their NOx, SO2, and HC emissions, not only from tailpipes but also from vehicle manufacturing and fuel refining (see below). These emissions result in "secondary" particle formation. This phenomenon refers to the way that the gaseous pollutants agglomerate ("glom up")

at microscopic scales to form fine particles that are largely invisible but cause the health problems mentioned. Transportation sources account for about 20 percent of directly emitted PM2.5. Diesel engines are the major source of direct PM emissions from motor vehicles. Although most such emissions come from heavy trucks and diesel buses, even the smaller diesel engines in some cars and light trucks emit significant amounts of fine PM. Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) NOx refers mainly to two chemicals, nitrogen oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), that are formed when nitrogen gas, which comprises 78 percent of air, reacts with oxygen during the high temperatures that occur during fuel combustion. NOx is truly a noxious pollutant in many ways. It is directly hazardous, an irritant to the lungs that can aggravate respiratory problems. It reacts with organic compounds in the air to cause ozone, which is the main reason for "smog alerts" that still happen too often in many cities and regions. NOx is a precursor of fine particles, which cause respiratory problems and lead to thousands of premature deaths each year. It is also a precursor of acid rain, which harms lakes, waterways, forests, and other ecosystems, as well as damaging buildings and crops. Airborne NOx also contributes to nitrification-essentially an overfertilization-of wetlands and bays, leading to algae blooms and fish kills. As an air pollutant, NOx is one of the most difficult to control since it is such a pervasive product of combustion. Nationwide, most NOx comes from electric power plants and industrial sources. Natural gas and oil-fired home furnaces and water heaters also produce NOx in their flue gases. Motor vehicles account for about one-third of nationwide NOx emissions. Many of these emissions come from heavy-duty diesel trucks, but cars and light trucks are also a major source. NOx has also been one of the most difficult pollutants to get out of our air. EPA air quality regulations have helped keep emissions from growing as fast as they might have, and inventories show a modest decline in NOx emissions over the past five years. Transportation-related NOx emissions continue to increase, however, preventing faster progress overall. Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) Gasoline and diesel fuels also contain varying amounts of sulfur, which burns in the engine to produce sulfur dioxide (SO2). This gaseous chemical is another source of secondary particulate formation, and is itself a lung irritant as well as a cause of acid rain. SO2 also interferes with the operation of catalytic converters. Some of the cleaner, reformulated versions of gasoline have very low sulfur levels. Most gasoline sold nationwide still has too much sulfur, but levels are being reduced under recently established EPA regulations. Cars and light trucks are not the largest source of SO2 emissions, which come mainly from power plants and industrial facilities. However, because cars and light trucks are so numerous and gasoline has a high average sulfur content, cars and light trucks cause twice as much fine PM pollution as heavy freight trucks. Making all gasoline as clean as the cleaner, low-sulfur fuels already available in California would greatly reduce this PM pollution from all cars and trucks on the road, both new and used. Hydrocarbons (HC) Hydrocarbons are a broad class of chemicals containing carbon and hydrogen. Those hydrocarbons that cause various forms of air pollution are also known as volatile organic compounds since they are forms of HC that are either gases or readily evaporate into the air. Many forms of HC are directly hazardous, contributing to what are collectively called "air toxics." These compounds can be directly irritating to the lungs and other tissues and they can also cause cancer, contribute to birth defects, and cause other illnesses. During daylight hours, and particularly during hot summer weather, HC reacts with NOx to form ozone smog (see box below). Controlling ozone is one of the major environmental challenges in the United States. Although progress has been made over the past several decades, many cities and regions still have smog alerts when ozone levels get too high.

Gasoline vapor contains a mix of hydrocarbons. Thus, HC pollution is produced whenever we fill our tanks. Some regions have special nozzles on fuel pumps to help trap such vapors. Other HC vapors are released at various stages along the way from the refinery to the filling station. Vapors seep out, even when a car is parked and turned off, due to the imperfect sealing of the fuel tank, pipes and hoses, and other components leading to the engine. HC also comes out of the tailpipe, as a result of incomplete combustion and the lessthan-perfect cleanup of exhaust gases by catalytic converters and other vehicle emissions controls. Diesel fuel is less volatile than gasoline, so evaporation is less of a problem. Nevertheless, diesel exhaust still contains many toxic hydrocarbons and other compounds. Overall, transportation is responsible for about 36 percent of man-made HC emissions in the United States. Ozone: Helpful in the Stratosphere, But Harmful in the Air We Breathe. Ozone (O3) is a highly reactive form of oxygen that occurs naturally in various parts of the atmosphere but gets artificially produced in dangerously high concentrations due to emissions from cars, trucks, and other combustion sources. Up in the stratosphere, ozone helps protect us from ultraviolet radiation. Loss of this protective ozone layer at high altitudes can lead to increased skin cancer. Such concerns have led to restrictions on ozone-depleting chemicals such as those once found in some spray cans and others that have been phased out of use in refrigerators and air conditioners (including automotive air conditioners). Down in the lower atmosphere, in the air the we breathe, ozone is a health hazard. It is the main ingredient of the smog that causes pollution alerts in many cities around the country. Ozone produced by pollution at low altitudes is of no help in restoring the protective ozone layer at high altitudes. Inhaling air polluted by ozone damages the lungs, reduces breathing ability, and makes us more susceptible to other respiratory problems. Ozone can be deadly to individuals with asthma and other lung conditions, as well as to people with heart conditions. It is also harmful to both adults and children who are otherwise healthy. The risks of shortness of breath, chest pain, lung congestion, and other symptoms caused by ozone are the reasons why public health officials warn us to stay inside and avoid strenuous exercise on severe air pollution days. Although cars and trucks do not directly emit ozone, they are a major cause of ozone smog. They add to the amount of HC in the air, and tailpipe NOx reacts with HC to form ozone. Cities without major industries and power plants still have serious smog problems, mostly caused by pollution from cars, trucks, and vans. Although many U.S. cities are seeing better air quality, we'll have to do better at cutting motor vehicle pollution to ensure progress. Toxic Chemicals Toxic releases are just thatany number of a wide range of chemicals that can cause cancer, birth defects, cardiovascular, respiratory and neurological damage, or other forms of health harm. Many smog-forming hydrocarbons are directly toxic; for example, the benzenes found in gasoline are carcinogens. Other toxics include solvents and metallic compounds such as lead and chromium. Toxics are released during many industrial activities, and car and truck manufacturing is a significant source. Workers and communities near factories and scrap page facilities are at the highest risk. When vehicles are scrapped, bio accumulative toxins such as lead, chromium, and mercury make their way into the soil, water, and air where they can last for a long time and build up in our bodies and those of other organisms. Vehicles also emit toxics in use, due to fuel evaporation while the tank is being filled or while the car sits in the sun, for example, as well as toxic emissions from the tailpipe. Diesel exhaust, in particular, has been implicated as a harmful toxic release. Toxic emissions from cars and trucks, as well as toxic releases during the production and assembly of vehicles and their components, are controlled by various regulations. Factories and other manufacturing facilities are required to report toxic emissions from each site. But controls are far from perfect, and there are many ways in which industry could do a better job of preventing toxic pollution.

Carbon Monoxide (CO) Carbon monoxide is an odorless, colorless, but potentially deadly gas that is created by the incomplete combustion of any carbon-containing fuel, including gasoline and diesel. When inhaled, CO combines with the hemoglobin in our blood, impairing the flow of oxygen to our brain and other parts of the body. We've all heard stories of people being killed by carbon monoxide poisoning, from vehicles in closed garages, during fires, or in homes when indoor CO concentrations are raised by malfunctioning stoves or furnaces. Even if it doesn't cause death, CO exposure can cause permanent damage to the nervous system. At lower concentrations, CO is still harmful, particularly for people with heart disease. In some areas, cars and trucks can create enough CO to cause health risks outdoors. Large amounts of CO are produced when a vehicle first starts up and its engine is cold. Poorly designed and malfunctioning engines and emission controls systems are also responsible for excess CO pollution. Motor vehicles are responsible for about 60 percent of CO emissions nationwide. Cars, Trucks, and Global Warming Carbon dioxide is the most important of what are known as greenhouse gases, compounds that enable the earth's atmosphere to trap heat, like a greenhouse, but on a global scale. Too much greenhouse gas in the atmosphere causes global warming, an increase in global average temperatures above what they normally would be. The risks of global warming are many. Human health is threatened by more frequent and severe heat waves and the spread of tropical diseases. Lives can be lost because of rising sea levels and more severe storms, which can also damage regional and national economies. The disruptions to climate are unpredictable but certainly risky. While some areas may see greater coastal flooding and inundating rains, other regions may experience droughts. Both agriculture and natural habitats can be harmed. Future generations will bear the brunt of these risks, but the effects of global warming have already been detected. Although we cannot attribute any given event to climate change, the increased risks have created a call for action to curtail CO2 emissions around the world. Oil is now the world's dominant fuel. There are over 600 million cars and trucks in the world. Both here and abroad, transportation accounts for most oil use. In the United States, we now have more motor vehicles than licensed drivers, and we travel over 2 trillion miles per year, burning 120 billion gallons of gasoline. Not counting the "upstream" emissions from producing the fuel, the result is over a billion tons of CO2 pollution each year. Fuel Economy and Air Pollution The amount of CO2 emitted by a vehicle is essentially proportional to the amount of fuel burned. Thus, fuelefficient vehicles are the best choice for helping to stop global warming. And gas guzzlers are global polluters. For other forms of air pollution, the relation between fuel economy and emissions is more complex. Automobile emissions are regulated to a given number of grams per mile, independently of a vehicle's fuel economy, but standards are weaker for many gas-guzzling light trucks. Moreover, several factors cause NOx, HC, CO, and PM pollution to be higher when a vehicle's fuel economy is lower. In real-world use, most vehicles' emissions are much higher than the standards levels. The reasons include the fact that automakers' and EPA's emissions tests fail to fully represent real-world driving, malfunction of emissions control systems, deterioration of components, inadequate or incorrect maintenance, and sometimes tampering. A portion of this excess pollution is proportional to a vehicle's rate of fuel consumption. Automobiles that meet a more stringent emissions standard are generally cleaner than those that meet a less stringent standard. However, among vehicles that meet the same standard, those with higher fuel economy generally produce less air pollution.

A significant amount of pollution also occurs in supplying vehicles with fuel. These so-called upstream emissions occur everywhere from the oil well and refinery to the filling station and gas tank, before the fuel gets to the engine. Upstream emissions associated with a vehicle are proportional to its fuel consumption. For an average car, upstream hydrocarbon and PM10 emissions are about twice the tailpipe emissions of those pollutants. Lesser but still-significant amounts of other pollutants are also related to the amount of fuel burned. Examples include NOx from tanker trucks delivering gasoline and a whole soup of pollutants from oil refineries. Thus, higher fuel consumption implies greater pollution. Efficiency and Safety Other things being equal, a smaller, lighter vehicle is more fuel efficient and less polluting than a larger, heavier vehicle. But are smaller, lighter vehicles less safe? The answer is more complex than one might think. In a two-car collision, occupants of the heavier vehicle are typically subjected to lower crash forces. However, the heavier vehicle generally inflicts higher forces on the occupants of the lighter vehicle. Thus, while individuals may gain a measure of protection by driving heavier vehicles, they do so at others' expense. In and of itself, weight does not improve overall safety. Any type of vehicle, including a small car, can be safe when it has well-designed features that improve occupant protection (such as stable, energyabsorbing structures), and properly used occupant restraints (like seat belts, air bags, and child safety seats). Many of these safety-enhancing features are reflected in crash-test scores and the related safety ratings published by National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) and several consumer publications which we list at the end of this section. These safety ratings are particularly helpful for identifying vehicles that have superior structures, since such features are engineered into a vehicle and are not obvious based on size, shape, or body style. Better vehicle structures absorb crash energy, cushioning occupants from the severity of an impact. Welldesigned structures also act as a "safety cage" that protects occupants from being crushed or otherwise injured by intruding parts of a crashing vehicle. Seat belts protect occupants from striking the inside parts of a vehicle or being thrown out of it. Using seat belts doubles the chance of surviving a serious crash in any vehicle, and air bags further enhance that protection. Improved stability lowers the risk of rollover, a form of accident associated with high fatalities and serious injuries. All of these design features improve safety without adverse trade-offs. Large and heavy personal vehicles are a mixed bag when it comes to safety. For one thing, heavier vehicles are a greater menace to others on the road, including pedestrians, bicyclists, motorcyclists and occupants of smaller vehicles. Sport utility vehicles (SUVs) illustrate the fallacy of "larger is safer" simplistic thinking. While SUVs are heavier on average than passenger cars, they don't necessarily have lower fatality rates. Not only are SUVs more hazardous to others on the road, they threaten their own occupants with higher rollover risks. Many SUVs are less stable than passenger cars and provide poor occupant protection in rollovers. Pickup trucks have the same safety deficiencies as SUVs and many vans are only moderately better. Newer "crossover" body styles, such as all-wheel-drive wagons and sport wagons, reduce some of the safety liabilities of traditional SUVs. In general, because they are detrimental to both safety and the environment, SUVs should be avoided by consumers without an ongoing need for their larger power, capacity, or off-road ability. The best guidance is to check the safety ratings as well as the Green Scores of models that you are considering, so that you can find the safest and greenest vehicle that meets your needs. The government safety ratings measure how well a car or truck protects its occupants in various crash tests; recently added rollover ratings indicate how stable a vehicle is. The ratings do not tell the whole story about vehicle safety, since they fail to account for how harmful a vehicle is to others on the road and how well it protects its own occupants in a rollover crash. Nevertheless, crash-test scores are a good comparison of the relative safety of vehicles within a given size class. Look for the "Buying a Safer Car" feature on NHTSA's website (www.nhtsa.dot.gov). Additional advice, information on crashworthiness, and descriptions of safety features by make and model are provided by The Ultimate Car Book and Consumer Reports.

Roadway Impacts: The environmental impact of roads (both positive and negative) include the local effects of highways (public roads) such as on noise, water pollution, habitat destruction/disturbance and local air quality; and the wider effects which may include climate change from vehicle emissions. The design, construction and management of roads, parking and other related facilities as well as the design and regulation of vehicles can change the impacts to varying degrees. Air Quality Roads can have both negative and positive effects on air quality. Negative impacts: Air pollution from fossil (and some biofuel) powered vehicles can occur wherever vehicles are used and are of particular concern in congested city street conditions and other low speed circumstances. Emissions include particulate emissions from diesel engines, NOx, volatile organic compounds, Carbon monoxide and various other hazardous air pollutants including benzene. Concentrations of air pollutants and adverse respiratory health effects are greater near the road than at some distance away from the road. Road dust kicked up by vehicles may trigger allergic reactions. Carbon dioxide is non-toxic to humans but is a major greenhouse gas and motor vehicle emissions are an important contributor to the growth of CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere and therefore to global warming. Positive impacts: The construction of new roads which divert traffic from built-up areas can deliver improved air quality to the areas relieved of a significant amount of traffic. The Environmental and Social Impact Assessment Study carried out for the development of the Tirana Outer Ring Road estimated that it would result in improved air quality in Tirana city centre. Noise Motor vehicle traffic on roads will generate noise. Negative impacts: Road noise can be a nuisance if it impinges on population centers, especially for roads at higher operating speeds, near intersections and on uphill sections. Noise health effects can be expected in such locations from road systems used by large numbers of motor vehicles. Noise mitigation strategies exist to reduce sound levels at nearby sensitive receptors. The idea that road design could be influenced by acoustical engineering considerations first arose about 1973. Speed bumps, which are usually deployed in built-up areas, can increase noise pollution. Especially if large vehicles use the road and particularly at night. Positive impacts: New roads can divert traffic away from population centres thus relieving the noise pollution. A new road scheme planned in Shropshire, UK promises to reduce traffic noise in Shrewsbury town centre. Water Pollution Urban runoff from roads and other impervious surfaces is a major source of water pollution. Rainwater and snowmelt running off of roads tends to pick upgasoline, motor oil, heavy metals, trash and other pollutants. Road runoff is a major source of nickel, copper, zinc, cadmium, lead and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which are created as combustion byproducts of gasoline and other fossil fuels. De-icing chemicals and sand can run off into roadsides, contaminate groundwater and pollute surface waters. Road salts (primarily chlorides of sodium,calcium or magnesium) can be toxic to sensitive plants and animals. Sand can alter stream bed environments, causing stress for the plants and animals that live there.

Habitat fragmentation Roads can act as barriers or filters to animal movement and lead to habitat fragmentation. Many species will not cross the open space created by a road due to the threat of predation and roads also cause increased animal mortality from traffic. This barrier effect can prevent species from migrating and recolonising areas where the species has gone locally extinct as well as restricting access to seasonally available or widely scattered resources. Habitat fragmentation may also divide large continuous populations into smaller more isolated populations.[14] These smaller populations are more vulnerable to genetic drift, inbreeding depression and an increased risk of population decline and extinction. Others Bush meat Wildlife trade Illegal logging Roads that run through forests that house edible animals encourage/facilitate poaching. Especially in poor areas, the construction of roads has promoted not only poaching for personal consumption but also for sale (for consumption or as a pet) to third parties. Similarly, the construction of roads in forested areas has also promoted illegal logging as it becomes easier for illegal loggers to transport the wood. Another negative effect is the amount of space roads take up. When cutting through forests, they will have prevented the growth of many trees as trees cannot grow through paved roads. Mud roads get periodically rid of trees growing on them. As trees take up CO and as they also house animals, this increases the environmental damage inflicted. Construction Impacts: This technical report synthesizes information on techniques to reduce the impact of road construction, rehabilitation and maintenance activities on road users (driving public and construction workers) and the adjacent land use (homeowners, businesses, etc.). The study included a survey to collect agency information and to summarize and draw conclusions on the impact of road construction and maintenance activities on road users (driving public and construction workers) and the surrounding land use. Information collected as a part of the study included solutions to improve user or construction worker safety, regulations (e.g. requirements for construction work to take place during weekends or nights), environmental considerations (e.g. dust control), quality/performance (contractor incentives to complete a project earlier to reduce the impact on road users) or special treatments to ensure that local traffic is not adversely impacted by construction activities, etc. In addition to the synthesis of information, this document outlines the process of innovation and provides case studies of innovative techniques to minimize the impact of road work on the surrounding environment. There are several ways for introducing innovation in the design and construction of roads among which: regulations, procurement methods and policy of road managers. Each of them has financial implications which will be faced either by the road manager who will pay for the reduction of impacts, or by the contractor of innovation allows for higher productivity or other savings. The appendices of this report present some innovations which can be used to reduce the impact of road construction and maintenance activities on road users and adjacent land use.

Environmental Impact Statement An environmental impact statement (EIS), under United States environmental law, is a document required by the National Environmental Policy Act(NEPA) for certain actions "significantly affecting the quality of the human environment". An EIS is a tool for decision making. It describes the positive and negative environmental effects of a proposed action, and it usually also lists one or more alternative actions that may be chosen instead of the action described in the EIS. Several US state governments require that a document similar to an EIS be submitted to the state for certain actions. For example, in California, an Environmental Impact Report (EIR) must be submitted to the state for certain actions, as described in the California Environmental Quality Act (CEQA). Environmental Auditing Auditing refers to the examination and assessment of a certain type of performance. In the case of an EIA, an audit assess the actual environmental impact, the accuracy of prediction, the effectiveness of environmental impact mitigation and enhancement measures, and the functioning of monitoring mechanisms. The audit should be undertaken upon a project run in operation, for some time, and is usually performed once or twice in the entire project cycle. The following types of audit that are recommended to be implemented in different phases of the EIA process: Types of Audit Decision Point Audit examines the effectiveness of EIA as a decision-making tool

Implementation Audit

ensures that approved conditions have been met

Performance Audit

examines the responses of agencies concerned with project management

Project Impact Audit

examines environmental changes arising from project implementation

Predictive Technique Audit

examines the accuracy and utility of predictive techniques by comparing actual against predicted environmental effects

EIA Procedures Audit

critically examines the methods and approach adopted during the EIA study

Unit-I: INTRODUCTION
Environment and its interaction with human activities: Human Environmental Interactions can be defined as interactions between the human social system and (the rest of) the ecosystem. Human social systems and ecosystems are complex adaptive systems. Complex because ecosystems and human social systems have many parts and many connections between these parts. Adaptive because they have feedback structures that promote survival in a constantly changing environment. In order to analyse Human Environmental Interactions it is important to be aware of specific characteristics of the human social system. The type of society strongly influences peoples attitude towards nature, their behaviour and therefore theirimpact on ecosystems. Important characteristics of human social systems are population size, social organization, values, technology, wealth, education, knowledge and many more. Especially values and knowledge strongly influence peoples view of life and consequently define the way people act. The choice of possible actions is then limited by the available technology. People modify the environment for their purposes and obtain benefits (Ecosystem Services) from it. These Ecosystem Services are essential forhuman well-being and include for example the provision of resources like water, timber, food, energy, information, land for farming and many more. Obviously by using these resources people affect the environment in a lot of ways. Furthermore people often reorganize existing ecosystems to achieve new ones that seem to be more effective in serving their needs. Environmental Imbalances Environmental imbalances can be measured by two different types of indicators: General anthropogenic impact indicators reflecting differences in population distribution, production activity, regional economic development and commercial land exploitation; Environmental impact ratios, measuring natural resource depletion and unit emission levels. The f irst group of indicators includes population density, and proportion of the land area utilised for commercial activity. The second group of indicators includes the natural resource depletion ratio and waste production per unit of the national GDP or regional output. Time series analyses can reveal important environmental threats, identify risks to regional environmental sustainability, enable international and regional economic comparisons and help evaluate the technologies used by the economic actors. Environmental Attributes: Characteristics of a program or project (such as particulate emissions, thermal discharge, waste discharge) that determine the type and extent of its short-term and long-term impacts on its environment. Skin Irritation: Some ready-to-use cleaning products may contain chemicals that will cause redness or swelling of skin. Air Pollution Potential: Products may contain volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which may escape to the atmosphere and react to form smog. Smog and other atmospheric pollutants have been shown to cause irritation of the eyes, nose, throat, lungs, and to cause asthma attacks. Many state and local authorities have restrictions on the use of VOCs. Fragrances: This attribute does not refer to natural odors that are associated with cleaning agents (e.g., a lemon odor in a citrus-based cleaner); rather, it refers to fragrances that are added to improve odor or mask an offensive odor. Added fragrances have little cleaning value, but they provide aesthetic benefits important to many users. On the other hand, a basic principle of pollution prevention is to avoid unnecessary additives.

Dyes: This attribute refers to dyes that have been added to a formulation to enhance or change the color of the product. While the addition of these dyes contributes little to the cleaning value of the product, it may be important for safety reasons, such as differentiating among formulations. Again, a basic principle of pollution prevention is to avoid unnecessary additives. Reduced/Recyclable Packaging: Packaging is a large component of municipal solid waste landfills. A product's packaging can account for a significant portion of the product's contribution to municipal solid waste. EPA's recommended approach to managing solid waste is, first, reduce packaging of products and, second, recycle packaging materials. Paper packaging should be consistent with applicable recovered materials recommendations set forth in the Comprehensive Procurement Guidelines. Minimizes Exposure to Concentrates: Although packaging a product in concentrated form may result in reduced packaging, it raises the potential that the end users of the product will be exposed to the concentrate, which may place the end user at greater health risk than exposure to the ready-to-use product. EIA An environmental impact assessment (EIA) is an assessment of the possible impacts that a proposed project may have on the environment, consisting of the environmental, social and economic aspects. The purpose of the assessment is to ensure that decision makers consider the environmental impacts when deciding whether or not to proceed with a project. The International Association for Impact Assessment (IAIA) defines an environmental impact assessment as "the process of identifying, predicting, evaluating and mitigating the biophysical, social, and other relevant effects of development proposals prior to major decisions being taken and commitments made." EIAs are unique in that they do not require adherence to a predetermined environmental outcome, but rather they require decision makers to account for environmental values in their decisions and to justify those decisions in light of detailed environmental studies and public comments on the potential environmental impacts. "The basic concepts behind environmental assessment are simply stated: (1) Early identification and evaluation of all potential environmental consequences of a proposed undertaking; (2) Decision making that both guarantees the adequacy of this process and reconciles, to the greatest extent possible, the proponents development desires with environmental protection and preservation."

India
The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) of India has been in a great effort in Environmental Impact Assessment in India. The main laws in action are the Water Act (1974), the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act (1972), the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act (1981) and the Environment (Protection) Act (1986). The responsible body for this is the Central Pollution Control Board. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) studies need a significant amount of primary and secondary environmental data. Primary data are those collected in the field to define the status of the environment (like air quality data, water quality data etc.). Secondary data are those collected over the years that can be used to understand the existing environmental scenario of the study area. The environmental impact assessment (EIA) studies are conducted over a short period of time and therefore the understanding of the environmental trends, based on a few months of primary data, has limitations. Ideally, the primary data must be considered along with the secondary data for complete understanding of the existing environmental status of the area. In many EIA studies, the secondary data needs could be as high as 80% of the total data requirement. EIC is the repository of one stop secondary data source for environmental impact assessment in India. The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) experience in India indicates that the lack of timely availability of reliable and authentic environmental data has been a major bottle neck in achieving the full benefits of EIA. The environment being a multi-disciplinary subject, a multitude of agencies is involved in collection of environmental data. However, no single organization in India tracks available data from these

agencies and makes it available in one place in a form required by environmental impact assessment practitioners. Further, environmental data is not available in enhanced forms that improve the quality of the EIA. This makes it harder and more time-consuming to generate environmental impact assessments and receive timely environmental clearances from regulators. With this background, the Environmental Information Centre (EIC) has been set up to serve as a professionally managed clearing house of environmental information that can be used by MoEF, project proponents, consultants, NGOs and other stakeholders involved in the process of environmental impact assessment in India. EIC caters to the need of creating and disseminating of organized environmental data for various developmental initiatives all over the country. EIC stores data in GIS format and makes it available to all environmental impact assessment studies and to EIA stakeholders in a cost effective and timely manner. Objectives of EIA ensuring environmental factors are considered in the decision-making process ensuring that possible adverse environmental impacts are identified and avoided or minimised informing the public about the proposal Other Advantages of EIA:

facilitates the design of a monitoring programme allows people to examine the underlying need for a project gives people the opportunity to identify problems helps a developer to design a more publicly acceptable project exploration of alternatives can help identify cost-saving and other beneficial changes

Advantages and Limitations of Environmental Impact Assessment Public Discussion and Participation. One major strength and outstanding feature of EIA in many countries is increased public discussion and participation. However, in practice a number of limitations occur. In some instances where public participation is required by EIA legislation, such participation could be limited in practice. For example, the law in India required that a public hearing is conducted; however, NGOs often considered the public hearing as a staged process that appeared to involve citizens when the decision had already been made. In response, the 2006 EIA notification changed the requirement from public hearing to public consultation in an attempt to force project proponents to proactively seek the views of affected communities. In other instances, where projects are only discussed openly for their potential environmental merits and shortcomings, but not for social or economic ones, public discussion could focus on allegedly environmental problems when there are underlying social or economic reasons for delaying or stopping a project. Over-reliance on EIA to Achieve Environmental Management Objectives. EIA should be used in conjunction with other policy tools and should not be over-emphasized for achieving environmental management objectives. For example, in El Salvador, the National Environment Law (1998) introduced nine instruments of environmental policy including, among others, environmental zoning, environmental evaluation, environmental information and public participation, and economic and financial incentives. However, the implementation of the environmental policy focused on the EIA, and this led to overburdening the tool. Further development of other instruments was recommended to complement a comprehensive environmental policy (World Bank 2006b). South Africa, where EIA is applied within the framework of an integrated environmental management system, the Strategic Plan for the Environment Sector has called for developing a broader toolkit of environmental impact management approaches and instruments in addition to EIA in order to address the issue of over-reliance on EIA (see Tarr 2003).

Time-Intensive Process. An effective screening system is important to ensure that the EIA does not become a prerequisite for too many activities, thus limiting the responsible authoritys ability to adequately assess important projects and weakening the legitimacy of EIA. For example, in Colombia the lack of a screening procedure resulted in an EIA being required for any project, regardless of the intensity and magnitude of its potential impacts, location, the sensitivity of the surrounding area, or public opinion regarding the project. The need for vast numbers of EIAs coupled with an absence of baseline environmental data resulted in mass production of EIAs of poor quality and little value. Lack of screening has led to a situation where the EIA regulations become a hurdle to projects and add little value to the environmental planning and management processes for which they were intended (World Bank 2007a). Similarly, in El Salvador, broad screening procedures have led to a situation where 300400 EIAs were prepared annually. The number was beyond the capacity of the responsible reviewing authority (MARN), and resulted in a backlog of 2,500 EIAs, and led EIA to becoming a bottleneck to development (World Bank 2006b). Potential for Rent Seeking. Where the EIA is linked to the licensing process, it may become a tool for rent seeking and could be a source of illegal influence on the responsible authorities. For example, in Bangladesh, the Environment Conservation Act (1995) required environmental clearance for development projects, but it also reserved the right to the government to waive the clearance requirement. This provided the incentive for project proponents to exert influence to avoid this requirement. Because public consultation and public participation were limited, these two forces for were precluded from countering the illegal influence, and they were blocked from providing an incentive for the effective identification and mitigation of potential environmental impacts. Impact of cars on the environment Our cars have an impact on the environment in terms of air quality, greenhouse gases, ozone depletion, water quality, use of natural resources and noise. Read the topics below and arm yourself with powerful information to help you improve the relationship between your car and the environment.

noise use of resources water quality ozone depletion greenhouse gases air quality

Noise Vehicles affect the environment by creating noise:

In urban environments, road traffic is the most important single source of community noise. Noise can cause or bring about disturbance to work, relaxation and sleep; mental stress; and in severe cases physical problems such as chronic exhaustion, high blood pressure and heart disease. Noise from motor vehicles increases with the size and speed of the vehicle. Vehicle and tyre design and vehicle maintenance also affect noise levels.

Use of resources The manufacture, operation and maintenance of vehicles impacts the environment by using non-renewable resources such as:

Metals Petroleum (for plastics and fuel) Other fossil fuels (e.g. coal for production of electricity).

This affects the environment as follows:

Resources are finite, so we should use them wisely Producing these resources can cause damage, e.g. damage caused by the mining of resources Disposing of products at the end of their life can cause damage

Recycling of used car parts and materials is important as it reduces the one-way flow of resources (mining use - disposal). It also reduces the volume of material going to landfill, which is wasteful of valuable space and which can cause soil and water pollution over time. Water quality Vehicles affect water quality because oil and particles get washed into creeks and rivers. In urban environments, run-off from roads goes into stormwater drains. These feed into creeks and rivers, which eventually meet the sea. what are the pollutants?

Oil is a particularly harmful water pollutant. Even a small amount of oil can severely contaminate waterways. Oil can be toxic to aquatic life and smother plants and animals. Particles from the wear of tyres, brakes and other components get washed into the stormwater and pollute waterways. When it rains, air pollution from cars mixes with rainwater and falls to the ground, adding to water pollution. Detergents also contaminate waterways.

How can you reduce the impact of your vehicle on water quality?

To avoid leaks and reduce wear, keep the vehicle well maintained and drive smoothly Dispose of used oil properly. For details on your closest oil collection facility, contact your local council or visit www.ea.gov.au/oilrecycling When you wash your car, try to do so on a grassed area or somewhere that the detergents won't be washed into the gutter. Only use enough detergent as is necessary and tip the remaining washing water into the sewer, not down the gutter.

Ozone depletion Australian legislation bans the manufacture and importation of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), an ozone depleting substance that was once widely used in car air-conditioners. Their replacement gases, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and hydrocarbons (HCs) do not damage the ozone layer. They do, however, have a greenhouse effect. To avoid leaks of air-conditioning gases, keep units maintained and follow instructions in the owner's manual. Ozone in the upper atmosphere protects life on earth by absorbing ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the Sun. UV radiation is linked to skin cancer, genetic damage and immune system suppression as well as reduced productivity in agricultural crops. Greenhouse gases Cars produce greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming and climate change. The main greenhouse gas is carbon dioxide. Others include nitrous oxide and methane. Greenhouse gases occur naturally in the atmosphere, trapping some of the heat radiated from the Earth's surface. Increases in the amount of these gases, mainly through the burning of carbon-based fuels such as coal and oil, are increasing the average temperature of the Earth, affecting local climates including temperature and rainfall. In Victoria, passenger vehicles contribute about 10% of total greenhouse gas emissions (Victorian Greenhouse Gas Inventory, 1999). Reducing fuel consumption will reduce these emissions.

For every litre of petrol used, 2.3 kg of carbon dioxide (the main greenhouse gas) is emitted into the atmosphere. The average passenger vehicle emits about four tonnes of carbon dioxide each year. Read our 10 tips for reducing fuel costs for tips on reducing your fuel consumption and greenhouse emissions.

1 litre petrol = 2.3 kilograms of carbon dioxide 1 litre LPG = 1.5 kilograms of carbon dioxide 1 litre diesel = 2.7 kilograms of carbon dioxide Another way of helping to reduce the greenhouse impact of your driving is to join Greenfleet. For a fee, they will plant enough trees to absorb the annual greenhouse emissions from the average car. For more information or to join, visit the Greenfleet website . The gases used in car air conditioning systems, although small in volume, make a comparatively large greenhouse impact. It is therefore important to avoid leaks of these gases. To reduce leakage of these gases, follow the manufacture's instructions as to air conditioner use. Generally they suggest using your air conditioner for a short period on a regular basis to prevent the seals from developing leaks. air quality Even with increasing numbers of cars travelling longer distances, air pollution has been decreasing over time. This is due to a tightening of regulations affecting industry and vehicle emission standards. Emissions from motor vehicles are decreasing as newer cars with better emission controls replace older cars. Although a smoky exhaust indicates a polluting car, the reverse is not true. Many pollutants are not visible. Your car could be a big polluter and you would not see a thing. So it is important to keep your vehicle properly maintained. Air pollution has negative health effects, especially for vulnerable people, including those with allergic and respiratory conditions, such as asthma, hay fever and sinusitis, and respiratory and lung conditions commonly associated with the elderly. Research suggests that certain air pollutants (e.g. benzene) are carcinogenic. Air pollution is not uniform across a city, but varies with concentrations of industry, traffic conditions, land form and weather patterns. Emissions from vehicles include carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen, hydrocarbons, and particles. Passenger vehicles contribute 47% of carbon monoxide emissions, 40% of nitrogen oxides, 27% of hydrocarbons and 4% of particles (1998 inventory of Melbourne's air pollution by EPA Victoria). Evaporated fuel is also a pollutant. About a third of vehicle hydrocarbon emissions are from evaporation, which occurs when driving, during refuelling, and even when stationary. Evaporation is increased by poorly sealed fuel tanks (including poorly fitting fuel caps or caps with worn seals), spillage, and overfilling of the fuel tank.