Hunter Education Handbook

THE NEW SOUTH WALES
HUNTER EDUCATI ON
H A N D B O O K

Your Publlc Land Your Publlc Land Your Publlc Land Your Publlc Land
Runt Legal Runt Legal Runt Legal Runt Legal

1. CeL llcensed and geL permlsslon.
2. 8ead Lhe condlLlons LhaL apply Lo your permlsslon Lo
hunL on publlc land.
3. Slgn and carry your wrlLLen permlsslon wlLh you on Lhe
hunL.
4. Wear a 8laze Crange haL, shlrL, [ackeL or vesL.
S. no hunLlng ln PunLlng Lxcluslon Zones marked on your
wrlLLen permlsslon.
6. lf you hunL wlLh dogs, Lle or cage Lhem on Lhe Lray of
Lhe vehlcle whlle you are drlvlng on foresL roads.
7. Make sure your dogs have a meLal plaLe aLLached Lo
Lhe collar wlLh your name and conLacL deLalls on lL and
LhaL Lhey wear radlo-Lracklng collars lf Lhey are used
off lead.
8. know Lhe Closed and Cpen Season daLes for lallow,
Pog, 8ed and WaplLl deer.
9. uon'L LargeL shooL or slghL ln your rlfle or bow on
publlc land. lL ls lllegal.
10. Make sure you have mapplng and navlgaLlon
equlpmenL and LhaL you know how Lo use Lhem.

1. 8e courLeous Lo oLher foresL users, ldenLlfy yourself and
chaL Lo Lhem - you never know whaL lnformaLlon you
mlghL plck up.
2. 8especL oLher hunLers and Lhe anlmals belng hunLed. SeL
Lhe sLandard for humane, eLhlcal and safe hunLlng.
3. Camp ln a senslble locaLlon and follow all camplng and
flreplace advlce on your wrlLLen permlsslon and on slgn
posLs.
4. Camp away from good hunLlng areas.
S. 8ury all solld excremenL and paper.
6. Avold drlvlng around aL peak hunLlng Llmes - you mlghL
dlsLurb oLher hunLers.
7. SLop and Lalk Lo oLher hunLers and foresLry workers and
leL Lhem know roughly where you lnLend Lo hunL. 1haL
way you maxlmlse your chances of flndlng game and
hunLlng lL successfully.
8. ulspose of carcasses aL leasL 100 m from waLer bodles or
campslLes and away from Lralls, walkways and roads.
9. Leave gaLes as you found Lhem.
10. lf you flnd a Lrall camera ln Lhe foresL leave lL alone.

Your Publlc Land Your Publlc Land Your Publlc Land Your Publlc Land
Runtlng Runtlng Runtlng Runtlng Etlq Etlq Etlq Etlquette uette uette uette
THE NSW HUNTER EDUCATION HANDBOOK
First Edition
November 2005
This publication was produced by
Game Council NSW
PO Box 2506
Orange NSW 2800
Phone: (02) 6360 5100 Fax: (02) 6361 2093
Email: info@gamecouncil.nsw.gov.au
1
GAME COUNCIL OF NSW
PO BOX 2506, Orange NSW 2800
First Published November 2005
Copyright 2005 in text: Game Council NSW
Copyright 2005 in illustrations: Name of owner cited where illustration appears.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted in any form or by any means whatsoever without the prior permission of the
copyright owner.
National Library of Australia
Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
Game Council NSW
The NSW Hunter Education Handbook
Includes index.
ISBN 1 921035 00 5
Graphics and Instructional Design by
On The Stone (02 6334 3442)
This publication has been printed on recycled paper.
Disclaimer: while the information contained in this publication has been formulated with all due care Game
Council NSW accepts no responsibility for any persons acting or relying on opinion, advice or information and
disclaims all liability for error, omission, defect or misstatement or for any loss or other consequence which may
arise from any person relying on anything in this publication.
This publication may contain images of persons now deceased and any reproduction of their image is not
intended to cause harm nor disrespect towards Indigenous culture or persons.
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LIST OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
About this Handbook 4
About the Game Council NSW 5
A Message from the Chairman 6
Foreword 7
Acknowledgments 9
What is Adequate Training? 10
How to Use this Handbook 11
Preparing for the Open Book Test 12
The Responsibility of the
Licence Applicant 12
How do I Apply for a Restricted
Game Hunting Licence? 13
COMPULSORY LEARNING UNITS
For an R-Licence Open Book Test
Section 1: CASE Training Responsible
Game Hunters
Code of Practice & Law 1.1
Animal Welfare 1.2
Safe Hunting Practices 1.3
Ethics and Conservation 1.4
Section 2: R-Licence Categories
(Choose your nominated hunting method/s)
Firearms
A - Rifles 2.1.1
B - Shotguns 2.1.2
Black Powder Firearms2.2
Bows 2.3
Dogs 2.4
NON COMPULSORY LEARNING UNITS
Section 3: Game & Feral Animals
Game and Feral Species . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1
Disease Surveillance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2
Game Utilisation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3
Section 4: Further Learning
Hunting Traditions and Culture . . . . . . . 4.1
Hunting Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2
Bushcraft and Survival Skills . . . . . . . . . 4.3
ABOUT THIS HANDBOOK
The primary purpose of this handbook is to
provide hunters in NSW with an excellent source
of knowledge and information to assist them
hunt legally and responsibly. It has been
compiled by eminent experts in the field of
hunting.
The hunting fraternity generally has, and
continues to acquire, education and training to
lift the standards of hunting in NSW.
To assist in the process of continual learning,
Game Council NSW has published this Hunter
Education Handbook. The handbook is designed
to be used by:
Approved Hunting Organisations (AHOs)for
providing adequate training to their
members for a Restricted NSW Game
Hunting Licence (R-Licence);
Game Hunters who:
wish to apply for an R-Licence;
further their knowledge of other
hunting methods; and
are hunting for the first time.
Individuals, clubs and organisations as a
learning guide for the reinforcement of the
knowledge and ethical practices of hunting;
The units of study contained in this handbook
and updates are available for download from the
Game Council NSW website:
www.gamecouncil.nsw.gov.au
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ABOUT GAME COUNCIL NSW
Game Council NSW is a statutory authority
established under the Game and Feral Animal
Control Act 2002.
Objectives
The objects of the Game and Feral Animal
Control Act 2002 are:
To provide for the effective management of
introduced species of game animals; and
To promote responsible and orderly hunting
of those game animals on public and private
land and of certain feral animals on public
land.
Members
The Game Council comprises 16 Councillors
appointed by the Minister for Primary Industries.
Half of the Council members have been
appointed from a wide cross section of hunting
clubs and associations. Other agencies/fields
represented include Rural Lands Protection
Board, Australian Veterinary Association, State
Forests, NSW Aboriginal Land Council,
Department of Lands, and two wildlife
management scientists.
Game Council Functions
The Game Councils functions reflect the
objectives of the Game and Feral Animal
Control Act 2002. In meeting its obligations
under the Game Act, the Game Council will:
Liaise with other Agencies in regard to feral
and feral animal control;
Administer a system of game hunting
licences;
Represent the interests of licensed game
hunters;
Make recommendations on the gazettal of
public lands for hunting;
Provide advice to the Minister on game
management; and
Promote and fund research and conservation
projects on rural lands for the effective
management of game and feral animals.
Game Council NSW contact details:
Postal address; PO Box 2506,
Orange NSW 2800
Phone: (02) 6360 5100
Fax: (02) 6361 2093
Website: www.gamecouncil.nsw.gov.au
A MESSAGE FROM THE CHAIRMAN
Along with effective game and feral animal
management, a major objective of Game Council
NSW is to promote responsible and orderly
hunting in this State.
This Hunter Education Handbook is just one way
we intend to meet that objective; to help you
hunt safely, ethically, legally and with the
satisfaction of hunting expertly.
Game Council NSW represents an opportunity to
ensure the future of responsible hunting based
on international best-practice.
As a result, we are endeavouring to lift the
standard and ethics of hunting even higher. The
ultimate would be to introduce a more skilled,
knowledgeable and environmentally friendly
hunting fraternity to ensure a strong
international tradition and culture continues for
our future generations to enjoy.
The Game Councils Hunter Education Handbook
is the first of its type to be published as an
educational tool for all members of the NSW
hunting fraternity, however we do recommend
you complete other Game Council accredited
hunter education courses where possible to
further your knowledge and skills.
I recommend that you read the units within this
handbook carefully, working through it with
your hunting colleagues and keeping it handy as
a reference source. You may wish to read the
reference books listed with each unit of study to
gain more information and improve your
hunting success.
This handbook is one way in which you may
obtain qualification for a Restricted NSW Game
Hunting Licence (R-Licence) as a member of a
Game Council Approved Hunting Organisation
(AHO).
The much anticipated R-Licence will allow you
to assist in conservation hunting activities on
declared public land and private property in
NSW, under the provisions of the Game and
Feral Animal Control Act 2002 and the terms
and conditions set by the land managers.
Holders of the R-Licence will play a key role in
lifting standards for responsible, ethical hunting.
Safe hunting.
Robert Borsak
Chairman
Game Council NSW
November 2005
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FOREWORD
Its a rapidly changing world.
Quill and ink are largely forgotten. The horse is
now mechanised. We no longer need to shoot
with flintlock or yew. Hunters have laser beams
instead of iron sights. Laws are constantly being
updated, placing more onus on each of us to
conform to acceptable codes of behaviour.
Some hunters hope social evolution will pass
them by, while ironically loving all the
technological advances that come along to help
them pursue their interest. They fear change,
loathe regulation and for some extremists,
poaching remains a romantic ideal - the realm
of the Aussie individualist who goes his own way,
unhindered by statute or bureaucrat.
But times have changed. Poachers and their ilk
are anachronisms today. Criminals, pure and
simple. If theyre caught trespassing or illegally
shooting game, they face jail sentences. Like
every other aspect of life, the hunting scene has
moved on from a simplistic, unfettered past.
With hunting increasingly under the spotlight,
the need for each of us to lift our game, to
support safe, proficient, ethical and above all,
humane stalking has never been greater. We owe
it to our peers and the broad community to
adopt strict guidelines in our behaviour in the
field. We owe it to our quarry to shoot
accurately, responsibly and with sensitivity.
The Game Council is the latest evolutionary
change to our outdoor cultural heritage. It
brings with it a new licensing system that some
will understandably resent. But it also offers
unheralded opportunities to play a more active
role in conservation, a role that may well ensure
that hunting survives its many threats. And it will
take us into previously unimagined realms
hunting game and feral animals on hitherto
unavailable pastures, on public land as well as
private holdings.
Recently I was invited to a meeting of the Mid
North Coast Feral Deer Working Group in Port
Macquarie. I found myself amongst old friends,
including the Shooters Party MP, John Tingle,
Game Council ranger, Craig Henderson and
dedicated deer club officials, like John Mumford
of the ADA.
There were farmers and representatives from the
Rural Lands Protection Board, NSW Police,
RSPCA, Hastings Council, the wildlife rescue
group FAWNA, Department of Agriculture and the
National Parks and Wildlife Service.
An alliance I never thought possible in the past,
tasked to help find a commonsense solution to a
burgeoning coastal problem - the depredations
of perhaps thousands of wild deer, the cause of
accidents galore. Nearby the week before, a
woman was injured when a deer ran across
Ocean Drive. She swerved and crashed. Days
earlier, another stag literally jumped from an
embankment onto a car as its startled driver
negotiated the "Big doughnut" roundabout off
the highway.
For three years the deer panel had been meeting
as the damage mounted - and not only on the
roads. In just one Night, Cassegrain Winery lost
$35,000 in grapes due to ferals feasting.
Hastings Council was forced to spend $15,000
on high wire to keep deer from scoffing flowers
in the cemetery.
Landholders and management agencies are
haemorrhaging dollars trying to control ferals,
and gardeners from Forster to Coffs Harbour are
exasperated at losses to deer. A newspaper
survey found that 97 per cent of respondents
wanted the deer controlled. And shooting is the
preferred method.
After much debate, the meeting appointed a
small sub-group to put together management
plans for wild deer control in the area,
contingent on relevant legal procedures. Put
simply, an unprecedented deer cull seems likely
using experienced local hunting club members.
Without the Game Council this would not have
been possible.
It shows just one way you and I may ultimately
play a more active role in conservation and
sustainability. People like us may finally pave the
way to "end the feral peril" by extending our
hunting horizons and opportunities.
Col Allison
Author
The Australian Hunter
The Trophy Hunters
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The NSW Hunter Education Handbook was
produced by the Education Committee of Game
Council NSW. Members of the committee
included Dr Max King, Chris Lanske, John
Mumford and Roy Smith. The committee also
drew on advice from two scientific advisors, Dr
Matt Draisma and Dr Paul Hopwood.
Dr Draisma drafted material on hunting tradition
and culture, ethics and conservation, game
species, hunting with rifles and bushcraft and
survival; Dr Hopwood the material on animal
welfare, safe hunting practices, game utilisation,
hunting law and hunting equipment; Dr Max
King hunting with shotguns; Chris Lanske bow
hunting; John Mumford black powder.
Additional contributions to the NSW Hunter
Education Handbook included the information
on pig hunting with dogs by Mark Nolan; and
training hunting dogs by Steve Austin. Dr Karrie
Rose drafted the material on hunter disease
surveillance of game and feral animals.
The Handbook reflects the policy of Game
Council NSW and each section was developed by
the Education Committee and does not
necessarily reflect the view of a particular
contributor. Hunting is a subject which
generates differing views both within the wider
community and amongst hunters.
The Code of Practice for hunting contained
within the Handbook was developed by the
Education committee reformed as an Ethics
committee of Game Council NSW. Roy Smith
contributed substantially to the Code from the
SSAA Code of Practice.
Many hunters generously contributed
information and photographs for use in the
Handbook .
The Australian Bowhunters Association, the
Australian Deer Association, the Australian Deer
Research Foundation and Field and Game
Australia all generously assisted with illustrative
material.
Mellisa Offord, Marje Prior and Nikki Tremain
developed the manuscript greatly improving the
format.
My thanks go to all those involved in the
production of the NSW Hunter Education
Handbook. The task was challenging and could
not have been accomplished without the support
and encouragement of Game Council Presidents
Robert Brown and Robert Borsak and former
Game Council CEO Ross McKinney.
Associate Professor Tony English
BVSc, PhD, FACVSc, RFD
Chair
Hunter Education Committee
Game Council NSW
November 2005
WHAT IS ADEQUATE TRAINING?
Under the Game and Feral Animal Control Act
and its associated Regulation, Game Council
NSW can only grant Restricted Licences to:
applicants who have been competency
assessed by an AHO Assessor, or
have completed a Game Council NSW
accredited course or training program.
These are the options for undertaking
adequate training for an R-Licence:
Option 1: Open Book Test from the
NSW Hunter Education Handbook
This test can only be provided by an AHO
Assessor based on the compulsory units of study
in the first two sections of the handbook.
Option 2: Recognition of Prior Learning
(RPL)
The applicant must provide evidence of prior
learning to an AHO Assessor and undergo a
closed book verbal test based on the compulsory
units of study in the handbook.
Option 3: Successful completion of
Game Council Accredited Training or
Education Course
Approved Hunting Organisations can apply to
Game Council NSW for review and accreditation
of training programs and educational courses
that meet the adequate training requirements
under the Act for a Restricted Licence.
Accredited hunting courses will be listed on
Game Council NSW website.
Courses are assessed on the basis of providing
the following information as pertaining to Part 3
Licensing, Section 12 of the Game and Feral
Animal Control Act.
(a) relevant provisions of the Act, and its
associated Regulation and any Code of
Practice under Section 24 of the Act;
(b) principles for the safe use of firearms, bows
and other hunting equipment;
(c) ethics of hunting, including laws relating to
trespass;
(d) animal welfare issues relating to hunting;
and
(e) such other matters as Game Council NSW
considers appropriate.
Note: the above information is included in the
following compulsory units of study in the NSW
Hunter Education Handbook.
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HOW TO USE THIS HANDBOOK
The NSW Hunter Education Handbook is divided
into the following four sections. Only the first
two sections relate to open book test for a
Restricted Game Hunting Licence (R-Licence).
Compulsory testing for an R-Licence
Section 1: Training Responsible Game
Hunters
Contains the following study units known as
CASE which are subject to compulsory testing
for an R-Licence:
1.1 Code of Practice & Law
1.2 Animal Welfare
1.3 Safe Hunting Practices
1.4 Ethics and Conservation
Section 2: R-Licence Categories
Contains the following study units for the Game
Hunting Licence categories which are subject to
compulsory testing for an R-Licence.
Licence applicants can choose one or more of
their preferred hunting method/s:
2.1 Hunting with Firearms
A Rifles
B Shotguns
2.2 Hunting with Black Powder Firearms
2.3 Hunting with Bows
2.4 Hunting with Dogs
Non-Compulsory Units of Study
Section 3: Game & Feral Animals
Contains the following non-compulsory study
units that are strongly recommended for
understanding game and feral species:
3.1 Game and Feral Species
3.2 Disease Surveillance
3.3 Game Utilisation and Dressing
Section 4: Further Learning
Provides additional study units as part of the
continual development of Game Council NSW
Hunter Education Program:
4.1 Hunting Traditions and Culture
4.2 Hunting Equipment
4.3 Bushcraft and Survival Skills
About the Units
Each unit of study has the following structure
and sections:
Table of Contents
Glossary of Terms
Introduction
Learning Objectives
Hunting Information
Set Exercises
A List of Reference Books for Further
Reading and Learning
Self Assessment
PREPARING FOR THE OPEN BOOK TEST
The purpose of introducing licence testing is to
ensure that applicants understand their
responsibility and relevant laws relating to game
hunting practices in NSW.
Firstly, R-Licence applicants must belong to a
Game Council NSW Approved Hunting
Organisation.
Secondly, if you are new to hunting, it is highly
recommended that you attend a Game Council
NSW accredited hunting course to reach the high
standards of competency expected by the
community and hunting fraternity.
Further information about Approved Hunting
Organisations and accredited hunting courses is
available on Game Council NSWs website:
www.gamecouncil.nsw.gov.au or by telephoning
(02) 6360 5100.
THE RESPONSIBILITY OF THE LICENCE
APPLICANT
It is the licence applicants responsibility to
become a member of an Approved Hunting
Organisation (AHO) for the purpose of
undertaking the open book test.
Applicants must read the compulsory units of
study contained in this handbook and prepare
themselves for the questions they will be asked
by an AHO assessor.
As this is an open book test, applicants can refer
to the contents of this handbook at any time to
help them respond to the questions.
Applicants with special needs can request a
verbal assessment of their hunting knowledge.
The test will take approximately 15-20 minutes
to complete. Applicants must demonstrate
competence in answering the questions
accurately.
If unsuccessful, you can arrange to be re-
assessed with your Approved Hunting
Organisation (AHO).
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HOW DO I APPLY FOR A RESTRICTED
GAME HUNTING LICENCE?
These licences are only issued to members of
Approved Hunting Organisations who have
undertaken adequate training or gained
recognition of prior learning. The Licence may
be then issued by Game Council NSW.
How do I apply?
Licence application forms are only available
from Game Council Approved Hunting
Organisations (AHOs).
Where can I hunt?
This licence allows you to hunt, with permission,
on both private and declared public land in
NSW. The Restricted Licence incorporates the
G-Licence.
What can I hunt?
Note: hunting seasons apply to certain deer
species.
Game species on Private Land
Deer, peafowl, partridge, California quail,
pheasant, turkey.
Game and feral species on Declared
Public Land
Wild deer, pheasant, peafowl, turkey,
partridge, California quail, foxes, pigs, goats,
rabbits, cats, hares and wild dogs (not
dingo).
Note: This licence may also be used for
obtaining a permit to hunt wild ducks under the
National Parks and Wildlife Service Game Bird
Management Program.
The Restricted Game Hunting Licence Types
and Categories:
R-Licence Types
1. Standard
2. Hunting Guide
3. Visitor
4. Commercial
R-Licence Categories
You can apply for one or more of the following
licence categories:
Firearms: Rifles and Shotguns
Black Powder
Bows
Hunting with Dogs
V1 11.05
UNIT 1.1
CODE OF
PRACTICE
& LAW
C
V1 11.05
Game Council NSW
PO Box 2506
Orange NSW 2800
Phone: (02) 6360 5100 Fax: (02) 6361 2093
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1.1.1
V1 11.05
LIST OF CONTENTS
Glossary of Terms................................. 1.1.1
Introduction......................................... 1.1.1
Learning Objectives .............................. 1.1.1
NSW Code of Practice for Hunting........ 1.1.2
How to find Information on
Hunting Law......................................... 1.1.3
Using the Parliamentary
Counsel Website ................................... 1.1.3
Looking up Penalties............................ 1.1.5
Important Hunting Legislation.............. 1.1.6
Example Assessment Questions ............ 1.1.6
References for Further Reading............ 1.1.7
Self Assessment Checklist ..................... 1.1.8
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Web page The information located at an
Internet address that can be viewed using a
browser program on your computer, such as
Netscape or Explorer.
Parliamentary Counsel Body supervising
the electronic presentation of all NSW
legislation into a format available to the
general public.
Act Act of the NSW Parliament containing
the enforceable law of NSW.
Regulations Administrative rules and
details necessary to enforce the intent of an
Act.
INTRODUCTION
It is a condition of issue for a NSW Game
Hunting Licence that the licence holder be
aware of and obey all NSW legislation that
relates to hunting, animal welfare and the use
of firearms. This unit of study will assist you
to abide by this condition of licence.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
On completion of this unit of study you will:
Be able to be tested for a Restricted
NSW Game Hunting Licence with
your nominated hunting method/s.
Know the NSW Code of Practice for
Game Hunting.
Know how to access up to date NSW
Government Acts and Regulations online
using a computer.
Know how to obtain detailed information
from any Act or Regulation relevant to
hunting in NSW.
Understand the penalty for trespass with a
firearm in NSW.
Understand that NSW law in relation to
cruelty to animals directs that no animal
be allowed to suffer unnecessary pain.
Understand the general blanket
protections extended in NSW to native
fauna.
Understand the requirements of the
Firearms Act 1996.
Understand the requirements of the Game
and Feral Animal Control Act 2002.
UNIT 1.1
CODE OF
PRACTICE
& LAW
C
NEW SOUTH WALES CODE OF PRACTICE
FOR HUNTING
This Code of Practice is legally binding in NSW
under the provisions of the Game and Feral
Animal Control Act 2002 and Regulation 2004.
NSW licensed game hunters must obey this Code
as a condition of licence.
1. AWARENESS of relevant legislation.
It is the responsibility of the holder of a NSW
Game Hunting Licence to be aware of and
comply with all relevant legislation relating to
hunting, animal welfare and the use of firearms.
2. SAFE handling of firearms.
Where firearms are used, the rules for safe
handling set out in the NSW Firearms Safety
Awareness handbook published by or under the
authority of the Commissioner of Police must be
complied with at all times.
3. PERMISSION required to enter land.
A NSW Game Hunting Licence does not
automatically authorise the holder of a licence to
hunt on any land. The holder of a game hunting
licence must not hunt on any land without the
express authority of the occupier of the land.
4. TARGET IDENTIFICATION and safety.
A game animal must not be fired at unless it can
be clearly seen and identified, and the shot taken
poses no discernible risk of injury to any person
or significant damage to any property.
5. OBLIGATION to avoid suffering.
An animal being hunted must not be inflicted
with unnecessary pain. To achieve the aim of
delivering a humane death to a hunted animal:
(a) it must be targeted so that humane
kill is likely;
(b) it must be shot within the reasonably
accepted killing range of the firearm and
ammunition or bow being used, and,
(c) the firearm, ammunition, or bow and
arrow, used must be such as can be
reasonably expected to humanely kill an
animal of the target species.
6. Lactating female with dependant young.
If a lactating female is killed, every reasonable
effort must be made to locate and kill any
dependant young.
7. Wounded animals.
If an animal is wounded, the hunter must take
all reasonable steps to locate it, so that it can be
killed quickly and humanely.
8. Use of dogs.
Dogs and other animals may be used to assist
hunters but only if:
(a) their use is not in contravention to the
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1979
and,
(b) their use is with the permission of the
occupier of the land concerned.
1.1.2 V1 11.05
1.1.3
V1 11.05
HOW TO FIND INFORMATION ON
HUNTING LAW
If you are a computer user
Enter the website address
http://www.legislation.nsw.gov.au
This will take you to the home page for the
NSW Parliamentary Counsels Office. Here you
will find all the current NSW legislation, both
Acts and Regulations. The site has advanced
searching and browsing facilities.
If you are not a computer user
Copies of legislation can be obtained from the
NSW Government Bookshop in Sydney by
phoning (02)9238 0950. The bookshop is
located in the Goodsell Building, Cnr Phillip
and Hunter Streets, Chifley Square, Sydney
NSW 2000.
Alternatively, you can obtain assistance to
access the internet. It is important to
remember that obtaining information online is
very easy once you know how. Getting started
is the difficult part. All you need to do is to
ask for help to find the Parliamentary
Counsels home page address listed above.
Why not either:
Ask a friend with a computer to help you.
Ask a member of the local hunting club to
help you.
Visit a local community technology centre
for assistance to access the NSW
government website.
Seek help at your local library. In NSW, all
local libraries have free online computer
facilities.
Pay to use an Internet Caf computer. Ask
the staff for help.
USING THE PARLIAMENTARY
COUNSEL'S WEBSITE
All NSW law, both the Acts and Regulations,
can be accessed on this website.
You do not need to know the name of the Act
or Regulations that you are looking for.
Once you have opened the front page of the
website click on <Search in Force> to open
the In Force Legislation page.
You will then be asked for some words to
start the search engine.
Make sure the Acts in Force and Regs in
Force boxes are ticked.
UNIT 1.1
CODE OF
PRACTICE
& LAW
C
In this example we have entered the words game
animal in the exact phrase section and
clicked on <Search>.
A number of regulations and acts appear that
use that phrase - including the Game and Feral
Animal Control Act 2002 that we want.
Click on its title and the next page will appear
showing you the contents of this Act.
Click on <Part 1 Preliminary 5 Game animals
for the purpose of this ACT>
The definition of what game and feral animals
can be hunted under this Act now appears.
Use the scroll bar to look at all the contents on
this page.
Click the <Back> button at any time to go back
to the previous page to look at other sections of
this Act.
1.1.4 V1 11.05
1.1.5
V1 11.05
LOOKING UP PENALTIES
Go back to the In Force Legislation page.
This time enter the words trespassing
firearm in the all of the words section. You
will find a long list of Acts that contain this
word but many of them are not relevant to
hunters. You often need to use more than one
word to get exactly the information you need.
This is called limiting your search.
In this example you will find only one Act that
contained both these words, the Crimes Act
1900.
However, this is a large Act and we need to
find where in the Act the information on
trespassing with firearms is located. To do this
Click on the <Hits list>.
A new page is displayed showing that part of
the Crimes Act we are interested in.
On this page Click on the line that contains
the phrase <Part 3B Offences relating....>.
A new page is displayed containing the exact
detailed information that we want.
Weve now found that the Penalties for
trespassing with a firearm are severe.
UNIT 1.1
CODE OF
PRACTICE
& LAW
C
UNIT 1.1
CODE OF
PRACTICE
& LAW
C
6
V
IMPORTANT HUNTING LEGISLATION
The six important Acts that all hunters need to
be aware of are:
the Crimes Act 1900 in relation to trespass
the Firearms Act 1996
the Game and Feral Animal Control Act
2002
the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974
the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act
1979
Companion Animals Act 1998
In summary, to comply with these Acts you must:
Only hunt on property that you own or have
written permission to hunt on.
Only use firearms safely, with appropriate
licences and approved storage facilities.
Only hunt prescribed game in accordance
with Game Council NSW Hunters Code of
Practice.
Only hunt native fauna with appropriate
National Parks and Wildlife Division licences
of Department of Environment and
Conservation.
Never inflict unnecessary pain and suffering
on game and feral animals.
EXAMPLE ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
Example question 1
Up to date information on all the laws and
regulations relevant to hunting in NSW is
available on the Parliamentary Counsels web
page http://www.legislation.nsw.gov.au
True or False?
List four serious breaches of NSW law in relation
to hunting.
Example question 2
It is a condition of licence for a NSW Game
Hunting Licence holder to be aware of and obey
all NSW legislation that relates to hunting, animal
welfare and the use of firearms.
True or False?
List four of the Acts of the NSW Parliament that
regulate hunting.
1.
2.
3.
4.
1.
2.
3.
4.
1.1.6 V1 11.05
1.1.7
V1 11.05
REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING
AND LEARNING
1. Commons Management Regulation 2001
2. Crimes Act 1900
3. Crown Lands Act 1989
4. Firearms Act 1996 No 46
5. Firearms (General) Regulation 1997
6. Forestry Act 1916 No 55
7. Forestry Regulation 1999
8. Game and Feral Animal Control Act 2002
No 64
9. National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974
No 80
10. National Parks and Wildlife
Regulation 2002
11. Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
Act 1979
12. Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
(General) Regulation 1996
13. Weapons Prohibition Act 1998
No 127
14. Companion Animals Act 1998
UNIT 1.1
CODE OF
PRACTICE
& LAW
C
SELF ASSESSMENT CHECKLIST
True
False
1. The NSWCode of Practice for Hunting is not legally binding.
2.
You will find all the current NSW legislation, both Acts and
Regulations, at the home page for the NSW Parliamentary
Counsel website.
3.
It is a condition of issue for the NSW Game Hunting Licence that
the Licence Holder be aware of all NSW legislation that relates to
hunting, animal welfare and the use of firearms.
4.
No animal when being hunted may be inflicted with unnecessary
pain.
5.
You do not need a Game Council NSW licence to hunt deer on
private property in NSW.
6.
The maximum penalty for discharging a firearm while trespassing
is 10 years imprisonment.
7.
You must only hunt on property which you own or for which you
have written permission to hunt on.
8.
You are only permitted to hunt prescribed game in accordance
with Game Council NSW Hunters Code of Practice.
9.
You are only permitted to hunt native fauna with appropriate
National Parks and Wildlife Service licences.
10.
Never inflict unnecessary pain and suffering on game and
feral animals.
1.1.8 V1 11.05

V1 11.05
Game Council NSW
PO Box 2506
Orange NSW 2800
Phone: (02) 6360 5100 Fax: (02) 6361 2093
V1 11.05
1.2.1
V1 11.05
LIST OF CONTENTS
Glossary of Terms .................................. 1.2.1
Introduction .......................................... 1.2.1
Learning Objectives................................ 1.2.1
Shot Placement ...................................... 1.2.2
Definition of Kill Zones .......................... 1.2.2
The Successful Shot ............................... 1.2.3
The Unsuccessful Shot ........................... 1.2.4
Mandatory Requirements ...................... 1.2.5
Blood Trails ........................................... 1.2.6
Example Assessment Questions.............. 1.2.7
References for Further Reading
and Learning.......................................... 1.2.7
Self Assessment Checklist....................... 1.2.8
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Cardinal Primary or chief or important.
Kill Zone Zone of tissue on which
projectile impact will produce a humane
death.
Longevity Length of time an animal lives.
Moribund Dying.
Mortal Death causing.
Spore Animals trail.
Traumatic External violent force.
INTRODUCTION
Humans utilise animals in a variety of ways. At
times, and with reasonable cause, we kill both
domestic and wild animals. The question with
hunting is not if we should hunt, but rather
the welfare principles we need to apply to the
way in which we hunt. This unit of study will
assist you to hunt animals without inflicting
unreasonable or unnecessary pain and
suffering on them.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Know where to shoot an animal to ensure
a humane kill.
Know when it is appropriate to aim for the
head kill zone and when it is appropriate
to use the chest kill zone.
Know how to ensure a humane kill.
Know what to do if a shot goes wrong.
Understand your obligations under the
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act
1979.
UNIT 1.2
ANIMAL
WELFARE
A
SHOT PLACEMENT
There are only two acceptable points of aim
when hunting animals with firearms: the head
kill zone and the chest kill zone. People often
reduce these zones to the brain and the chest,
but in fact, the kill zones are larger than simply
the actual physical extent of either the brain or
of the chest. The head kill zone includes the
spinal cord in the upper neck and the chest kill
zone includes the lungs and great vessels such as
the vena cava and aorta.
Single projectiles from rifles or shotguns kill by
several means. They physically damage bone and
soft tissue, they disrupt blood vessels causing
serious blood loss and they impart energy into
the animal with a tremendous concussive blow.
In both the head kill zone and the chest kill zone
projectiles produce all three of these effects.
Multiple projectiles from shotguns have both a
concussive impact and the additional advantage
of several impact sites in the killing zones on the
targeted animal. Shot size and pattern are
selected to ensure that there are a number of
fatal hits.
The concussive impact of a projectile strike to
the head kill zone normally renders the animal
instantaneously unconscious while at the same
time producing fatal bone and tissue damage
and severe bleeding. There is no pain and
suffering with this very humane death.
With a projectile strike to the chest kill zone an
animal may collapse unconscious on the spot
but is more likely to retain consciousness for a
very short period of time. Death is more
commonly due to severe blood loss than to the
concussive impact. It is not uncommon for a
chest-shot animal to run for a few seconds
before collapsing unconscious from the bleeding
from the heart or other major vessels within the
chest. Death is very quick, making this a humane
way to kill an animal.
DEFINITION OF KILL ZONES
Head kill zone
Side on. The point of aim is the base of the
ear.
` Front on. The point of aim varies with the
angle of the head. If the animal is looking
down the barrel the point of aim is just
above the centre of the nostrils. If the animal
is looking at the ground the point of aim is
the intersection of two lines drawn from
each eye to the opposite ear.
Chest kill zone
Side on. The point of aim is just behind the
shoulder at the middle of the chest. The kill
zone includes the spinal column, the lungs,
the great vessels to the heart and the heart
itself.
Front on. The point of aim is the base of the
neck between the legs.
Quartering. The point of aim is diagonal to
transect heart and shoulder. The projectile
should pass through the base of the heart to
lodge in the far shoulder.
Scenario 1
You are shooting from a vehicle in a feral
control operation by spotlight at night. You have
a heavy barrelled rifle, with a very light trigger
and a high power telescopic sight. Your vehicle
is equipped with a bench rest style rifle rest, the
animals are holding still in the spotlight at close
distances and you are shooting with the vehicle
stationary and the engine turned off. The rifle is
tuned to your hand loaded ammunition and the
1.2.2 V1 11.05
1.2.3
V1 11.05
projectiles are hitting spot-on point of aim.
Recommended kill zone: Head
Scenario 2
You are hunting on foot in the Great Dividing
Range during the day. It is hot and you are
breathing heavily under the weight of your
daypack. You have a sporting rifle with a 4X
telescopic sight, a safe trigger pressure and
factory load ammunition. You come across
animals that are 120 metres off and you cannot
stalk any closer without them taking flight. You
take the shot using an improvised bush rest.
Recommended kill zone: Chest
Question: Where would you target each of
these feral pigs?
Answer: The pig on the left would need to be
shot in the chest kill zone. The projectile should
enter low on the right rib cage, cross the chest
through both lungs and heart and lodge in the
left foreleg. The pig on the right may be shot in
either the head or chest kill zone. The shot in
the chest kill zone first needs to pass through
the right shoulder and then on into the chest.
Remember you are shooting from a position
above both pigs and that the pig on the left is
quartering away from you and the pig on the
right is quartering to you.
Photo: J Dunn
Principle:
The chest kill zone is preferred to a head
shot in most hunting situations. The humane
kill target area is much larger, more animals
are taken with this aim and the likelihood of
an animal escaping wounded is minimised.
The danger with the head kill zone is that a
small deflection in aim may result in an
animal being wounded in the face or jaw
and escape to die a slow and painful death
from starvation, thirst or infection. Head
kill zone shots must ONLY be attempted
when you are sure of the shot as in
Scenario 1. Head kill zone shots are the
preferred shot for professional shooters
such as commercial kangaroo hunters
using very specialised equipment.
THE SUCCESSFUL SHOT
The successful shot is one single shot that
drops your animal instantaneously on, or
within a few seconds of projectile impact.
Death is swift and the struggle is minimal.
You will achieve this when:
You stalk as close to the animal as
possible without disturbing it.
You use a firearm/ammunition
combination with adequate killing
power.
You use an appropriate rifle (usually
telescopic) sight.
You use a firearm shooting true to point
of aim.
You allow for the shot distance.
You take a firm, secure rest for your
shot.
U
A
W
UNIT 1.2
ANIMAL
WELFARE
A
You have mastered breathing and trigger
control.
You do not flinch on discharge of the
firearm.
You target the chest kill zone.
THE UNSUCCESSFUL SHOT
What to do
From time to time things may go wrong. A round
of ammunition may be defective or the animal
may move just on the instant of firing. You may
unintentionally pull the shot.
Scenario 1
Your animal collapsed on being shot and is
conscious.
A prompt second shot to the head kill zone is
necessary. This MUST be done immediately. This
results in minimal further stress to the animal.
(Remember that when you are close to an
animal that your projectile will strike low to the
crosswires of your telescopic rifle sight).
Scenario 2
Your animal is mortally wounded but is able to
run a short distance.
On taking the shot your sight picture was good,
you may even have seen the projectile impact
and you know that the animal is mortally
wounded. Without taking a second hasty shot,
quietly follow the animal to its point of collapse.
Animals in such a condition usually drop dead
on the run. A second shot to the head kill zone
may or may not be required when you reach the
animal.
Scenario 3
Your animal is wounded and able to run a long
distance.
Immediately follow up the initial shot with as
many more shots to the chest as are necessary to
kill the animal.
If the animal escapes out of rifle range, take the
time to mark two spots approximately 3 metres
apart and in line with where you last saw the
animal. Walk to where your animal was last seen
using these two reference points to keep you on
line.
Mark the animals last seen position (tape,
paper, broken branches or rock cairn) and then
wait for 15 minutes or longer to allow the
animal to settle. Then start tracking the animal
by following blood spots or other sign of its
passing.
Again, mark the blood trail with conspicuous
markers. The strategy is to walk up on the
animal at the place where it has gone to rest. If
you lose the trail, go back and review the flight
path the animal has taken.
Carefully check adjacent areas of possible
concealment.
Start to walk transects in the direction you think
it most likely to have travelled. For example a
wounded animal may be more likely to go
downhill than up, to go for water than away
from it, to go towards known cover than into the
open.
On welfare grounds you must suspend other
hunting until the animal is recovered or
reasonably considered irretrievable.
1.2.4 V1 11.05
1.2.5
V1 11.05
Scenario 4
A clean miss?
Are you sure? Often the sight picture is lost in
the recoil as the rifle sets back on your shoulder.
In timbered country, you should always check to
see if there are any signs of a hit. Follow the
procedure outlined in Scenario 3.
At the position where the animal was last seen,
examine the ground carefully, looking for
evidence of a projectile strike.
If there is no visible evidence of a hit, still follow
the animals escape path for 20 or 30 metres
looking for any further evidence. If nothing is
found it is safe to conclude that the shot was a
clean miss.
MANDATORY REQUIREMENTS
Contained in the Game Council NSW
Hunting Code of Practice
As a hunter, you must obey four cardinal
animal welfare principles:
No animal may be inflicted with
unnecessary pain.
All reasonable steps must be taken to
locate and quickly kill a wounded
animal.
If a female with suckling and
dependent young is taken, every
reasonable effort is required to find
and kill the young.
Dogs and other animals may only be
used to assist hunters provided that this
use is in accordance with the
1979.
UNIT 1.2
ANIMAL
WELFARE
A
BLOOD TRAILS
Above: Blood trail splashed onto stone and leaf
litter from an animal with a fatal gunshot wound
to the chest kill zone. Note that the animal was
travelling from bottom to top of the picture. This
is evident by the thin projections from the blood
droplets which always point in the direction of
travel. The red and white arrows point to some
of these blood projections with an enlargement
of a droplet in the bottom left corner of the
picture.
Below: Blood trail on grass from an animal with
a fatal gunshot wound to the chest kill zone.
Above: Bone and blood spoor at site where
animal was fatally shot to the chest kill zone.
Yellow arrow points to a blood splash, red
arrows point to fragments of bone.
Photos: M Draisma
1.2.6 V1 11.05
1.2.7
V1 11.05
Example assessment question 1
The Code of Practice incorporated in the NSW
Game and Feral Animal Control Regulation 2004
sets mandatory ethical behaviour for hunters in
NSW.
True or False?
List four requirements of the Code of Practice.
Example assessment question 2
People exploit animals in a variety of ways and
kill both domestic and wild animals. The
question with hunting is not if we should hunt
but rather the welfare principles we apply to the
way we hunt.
True or False?
List four things that you can do to minimise pain
and suffering in the animals that you hunt.
AND LEARNING
1. Harvey, N. 1995 Handbook for Hunters
and Shooters Victoria. Australian Print
Group.
2. Harrison, M, and Slee, K. 1995. The
Australian Deerhunters Handbook.
Australian Deer Research Foundation Ltd,
Croydon, Vic.pp. 25, 43-44.
3. Hopwood, P.R. 2001 Animal
DeLiberations, Adelaide: SSAA.
4. NSW FSTC Handbook. Firearms Safety
Training Council.
5. Smith, G.1992. A Guide to Hunting and
Shooting in Australia. Sporting Shooters
Association of Australia Publications, Unley,
SA. pp 101-104.
6. Webster, J. 1994 Animal Welfare: A Cool
Eye Towards Eden. Oxford:Blackwell.
1.
2.
3.
4.
1.
2.
3.
4.
UNIT 1.2
ANIMAL
WELFARE
A
True
False
1.
You dont need to know where to shoot an animal to ensure a
quick and humane kill..
2.
It is acceptable hunting practice to capture young game animals
and release them elsewhere for future hunting.
3.
The question with hunting is not if we should hunt, but rather
the welfare principles we need to apply to the way in which we
hunt.
4.
The successful shot is one single shot that drops your animal
instantaneously on, or within a few seconds of projectile impact.
5.
You are hunting on foot in the Great Dividing Range. It is hot
and you are breathing heavily under the weight of your daypack.
You have a sporting rifle with a 4X telescopic sight, a safe trigger
pressure and factory load ammunition. You come across
animals that are 120 metres off and you cannot stalk any closer
without them taking flight. You should take a head kill zone shot
using an improvised bush rest.
6.
If an animal is wounded and escapes out of rifle range run after
it as quickly as you can to try and catch it.
7.
It is easy to mistakenly think that you have missed an animal.
Always check out clean misses.
8.
Dogs and other animals may only be used to assist hunters
provided that this use is in accordance with the Prevention of
Cruelty to Animals Act 1979.
9.
Firearms and ammunition, or bows and arrows, must be used
that can be reasonably expected to kill the target species quickly
and humanely.
10.
The head kill zone includes the spinal cord in the upper neck and
the chest kill zone includes the lungs and great vessels of the heart
such as the vena cava and aorta.
1.2.8 V1 11.05

V1 11.05
Game Council NSW
PO Box 2506
Orange NSW 2800
Phone: (02) 6360 5100 Fax: (02) 6361 2093
V1 11.05
1.3.1
V1 11.05
LIST OF CONTENTS
Glossary of Terms ................................ 1.3.1
Introduction ........................................ 1.3.1
Learning Objectives ............................. 1.3.1
Hazard Analysis ................................... 1.3.2
Fence Crossing Procedures ................. 1.3.4
Routine Safe Hunting Practices............ 1.3.5
Safe Hunting Etiquette ......................... 1.3.7
Example Assessment Questions ........... 1.3.8
References for Further Reading........... 1.3.9
Self Assessment Checklist ....................1.3.10
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Etiquette A set of social rules.
Trauma Injury or damage.
Trigger lock Two-piece locking device
that clamps around the trigger making it
inaccessible.
INTRODUCTION
Safety is very much a matter of planning
ahead and thinking through the
consequences of your actions. A person who
recognises the importance of safety will ask
themself what if questions, and then take
the necessary steps to prevent trouble. This
unit of study will build on the information
you learned in the Firearms Safety Training
Council (FSTC) course you undertook to
obtain your shooters licence.
Hunting poses risk other than the risk
directly related to firearms. This unit of study
will encourage you to think through a range
of safety issues.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
On the completion of this unit of study you
will:
Have re-read the NSW FSTC handbook on
firearms safety.
Have written out a hazard analysis for the
particular hunting situations you wish to
engage in.
Have written up a safety habit protocol
for when you are hunting.
Have identified a range of hunting safety
precautions.
This unit of study assumes that you are
thoroughly familiar with the firearm safety
rules set out in the NSW FSTC Handbook
available on this website:
www.firearmtraining.com.au/html/
certificate.htm
UNIT 1.3
SAFE
HUNTING
PRACTICES
S S
HAZARD ANALYSIS
In many situations, both in industry and
commerce, HACCP (hazard analysis critical
control paths) principles are employed to
improve safety and productivity. These principles
can also be applied to make your own hunting
experience safer.
Think about your next hunting trip. Analyse the
potential hazards to yourself, to your equipment
and to the community. Write them down.
Hazards can occur in transit, in camp, and while
hunting. In transit and in your hunting camp
your firearms are more vulnerable than in the
home gun safe. They may be damaged, stolen or
be accessible to children or others.
Exercise 1: identify hazards
Take pen and paper and write a list of all the
things that you normally do to get to a hunting
area and set-up the hunting camp. Now add in
the hazards for each activity.
We know that safety manuals list all sorts of
oddball dangers. Make this exercise real. Think
about those dangers that are most likely to apply
to your particular hunting circumstances. Then
for each hazard you identify, list a sensible,
practical safety precaution. A lot can go wrong
before you even begin hunting. You are now on
the way to constructing your personal safety
hunting protocol!
Examples
Is the drive to your hunting area too far to
safely do in one day?
Driver fatigue may be a much more serious
hazard than any hunting danger.
If you travel with the family, is it possible that
your children could gain access to your
firearms while in transit?
A practical safety precaution may be to apply
a trigger lock to your firearm and pack the
bolt and ammunition separately. You may
decide to do this as a general safety
precaution. Your firearms may be more
secure if you travel with them in locked,
strong, padded gun cases.
You know the firearm safety rules but while
hunting your concentration on firearm safety will
be distracted by many things; the excitement of a
stalk, finding a snake under foot, animals
suddenly taking flight, fatigue at the end of a
tough hunting day.
To prevent accidents you need to develop a
safety routine that ensures that you are failsafe,
even when distracted.
Exercise 2: safety checks
Take pen and paper and write down the things
that may distract you when hunting. These are
the predictable and likely dangers. For each
instance think out and write down a safety habit
that will overcome the distraction.
1.3.2 V1 11.05
1.3.3
V1 11.05
Example
A deer spooked just before you fired. Your
safety habit routine prompts you to uncock
your rifle when not immediately taking a shot.
Then you race after the deer on the chance of
a parting shot. In this situation, without safe
habits, it would be easy to find yourself
running through bush with a cocked rifle.
What happens then is you slip, fall and a
firearm accident follows.
Exercise 3: good hunting habits
Take a pen and paper and write down your
intended hunting habits.
Examples
Do you intend to carry your firearm with
ammunition in the magazine, with a round
in the chamber, and cocked with the
safety catch on? If so write it down. Think
carefully on this example!
In thick scrub, will you tape the muzzle of
your rifle to prevent muck getting down
the barrel?
Will you check regularly to see if you have
left your firearm cocked?
Will you require your hunting mate to
regularly check to see if their firearm has
been left cocked?
Will you unload your firearm at obstacles
such as fences?
Will you only take the shot when you
know that the projectile is going to land in
a safe spot or have a safe background?
Do you intend to hunt in camouflage
clothing in an area where there are other
hunters?
Your full list will be much longer than these
few examples.
When crossing obstacles such as this creek
with slippery rocks underfoot, it is safe
practice to unload your gun and keep it
open.
Photo: G Harle
UNIT 1.3
SAFE
HUNTING
PRACTICES
S S
One Hunter
Two Hunters
Step 1: Both rifles are emptied of cartridges. The first
hunter goes through the fence while his mate holds both
rifles.
Step 2: The rifles are carefully handed over the fence one
at a time.
Step 3: The second hunter then climbs through the fence.
Step 1: The rifle is emptied of cartridges and placed on the
ground while the hunter climbs through the fence.
Step 2: The hunter reaches back through the fence to pick
up his rifle.
Step 3: The hunter carefully brings the rifle through to his
side of the fence.
FENCE CROSSING PROCEDURES Photos: M Draisma
1.3.4 V1 11.05
1.3.5
V1 11.05
Exercise 4: group feedback
Set up a meeting to discuss your list of
intended hunting habits with several friends.
This way you can check if what you intend to
do is really safe. You can work out if there are
even better ways of going about it.
Examples
If you wrote down that you intended to hunt
relying on your rifle safety catch to prevent an
accidental discharge your friends would not
be impressed. They would tell you that it is
too easy to mistake the on/off position of your
safety catch, or that the safety catch may fail to
operate properly if the rifle is bumped. They
would tell you that it is against the firearm
safety rules that clearly require you not to
load and cock your rifle except immediately
before you take a shot.
This exercise is important, as it will help you
and your friends develop safer hunting
practices. Most people are happy to plan a
future hunt together, to talk about what and
where but are often reluctant to talk about
each others safety habits. The emphasis
should be this is the way I do it can you
help me to do it more safely?
ROUTINE SAFE HUNTING PRACTICES
A case study
Max and Peter regularly hunt together. They
hunt in rough country on a large sheep
property where they are invited to hunt for
feral control. Base camp is set up in the
shearers quarters. Their vehicle is a 4WD and
takes them a long distance into each days
hunting area. The vehicle then acts as a base
station. It is equipped with mechanical
recovery gear, meat processing gear, 20L of
drinking water and a comprehensive First Aid
kit. On the hunt, both Max and Peter carry a
daypack each with 1L of drinking water and
snack food. One set of game dressing gear
and a basic first aid kit is shared between the
packs.
Max and Peter have hunted together for many
years and have developed a safety protocol
that puts trust in each other but not
themselves. During a hunt, each reports to the
other on the state of readiness of their
firearm. The routine goes - Max to Peter my
rifle has 3 in the magazine, the chamber is
empty and the bolt up. Peter then replies
my rifle has 3 in the magazine, the chamber
is empty and the breech is open. The routine
starts on leaving the vehicle and is repeated at
obstacles such as fences, stony creek
crossings, cliff faces and always after any
hunting action where a round may have been
chambered. The final routine, on return to
the vehicle, involves confirming with each
other that the firearm is clear of ammunition
in both chamber and magazine.
Max and Peter always discuss the hunt plan
for each paddock, stay just in sight of each
other as the paddock is hunted and stay in
communication by means of light UHF radios
(used with ear plugs for greater
effectiveness). The radios ensure that both
Max and Peter always know what the other is
doing and allow the hunt plan to be quickly
altered without risk of separation. The
camouflage clothing worn by Max and Peter
gives more productive hunts but requires
more care and frequent radio communication
for each of them to know exactly where their
buddy is. They also choose to wear blaze
orange caps to supplement this safety routine.
U
H
PR
UNIT 1.3
SAFE
HUNTING
PRACTICES
S S
Max and Peter know that once they press the
trigger a projectile cannot be called back. They
apply two basic rules.
A shot is never taken unless the animal is
identified beyond doubt.
A shot is never taken unless the projectile
will land in a safe background. That is, they
can see the general area of impact to be
clear of stock, farm equipment, hard
surfaces and other people.
Would you be tempted?
You come across a world-class trophy stag only
30 metres away. The stag is on a skyline and
unaware of your presence. I cannot miss at this
range you think. Possibly true, but you do not
know where the projectile will finish up. It may
pass through the animal and carry on to end the
life of the person innocently bushwalking on the
other side of the ridge. There are no exceptions,
world-class stag or otherwise. Back off, move
around and take the shot from a position where
you know your projectile will come to earth
safely. Better to lose the stag than risk a tragedy.
A pair of hunters setting out in open country.
They are well prepared in both their clothing
and equipment. They are wearing strong
boots and camouflage gear, complete with
hats for sun protection.
Their equipment includes CB radios, a knife
each, binoculars, ammunition pouches,
backpacks containing food and water and
game dressing equipment.
Their rifles are slung over the shoulder
pointing skywards, which is a safe method for
carrying firearms while walking.
Photo: G Harle
1.3.6 V1 11.05
1.3.7
V1 11.05
SAFE HUNTING ETIQUETTE
There is more to hunting than being safe. The
general public needs to feel safe when hunters
are about. There are a number of simple
things you need to do. For example:
You meet a party of bushwalkers in some
sort of trouble. Help them out. Tell them
you are a hunter.
You meet a party of bushwalkers who have
just left a scent trail through your best
deer-hunting patch. It is their right to be
there as much as yours. Be friendly,
courteous and helpful. Ask where they are
headed and assure them that you will not
hunt near them.
Always unload and sling your rifle during
chance meetings in the bush. Tell people
you meet that your rifle is unloaded and
make it clear that you are not actively
hunting near them. Ask them where they
are going and hunt elsewhere.
Do not display firearms around
farmhouses, or the camp.
Do not use the telescopic sight on your
rifle as binoculars to watch people or
look at farmhouses. You know that your
rifle is unloaded but the people watching
you through their binoculars dont. All
they see is a rifle being aimed at them!
ALWAYS POINT YOUR FIREARM IN A SAFE
DIRECTION LOADED OR UNLOADED.
These hunters are walking in single file on
a game trail. Safe practice dictates that
when they come upon game only the lead
hunter will take the shot.
Photo: G Harle
BUSHCRAFT AND SURVIVAL SKILLS
Go to Section 4 of this handbook to learn
more about common bush hazards and how
to avoid or survive them.
P
UNIT 1.3
SAFE
HUNTING
PRACTICES
S S
Example question 1
Safety is very much a matter of planning ahead
and thinking through the consequences of your
actions. A safe person will ask themselves what
if questions and then take the necessary steps
to prevent trouble.
True or False?
List four steps you would take to make your
hunting safer.
Example question 2
Game and feral animals must not be fired at
unless they can be clearly seen and identified
and the shot when taken poses no appreciable
risk of injury to any person or significant
damage to any property.
True or False?
List at least four things you need to do to take a
safe shot.
1.
2.
3.
4.
1.
2.
3.
4.
1.3.8 V1 11.05
1.3.9
V1 11.05
AND LEARNING
1. NSW Firearms Safety Training Council (FSTC)
Handbook.
2. Smith, G.1992. Guide to Hunting and
Association of Australia Publications, Unley S.A.
3. The Australian Deerhunters Handbook.
Harrison, M. and Slee, K. Aust. Deer Research
Foundation, Croydon Vic Second Edition 1995.
4. Firearms Safety Code. Victorian Firearms
Consultative Committee. Victoria Police Unit
UNIT 1.3
SAFE
HUNTING
PRACTICES
S S
True
False
1.
Safety is very much a matter of planning ahead and thinking
through the consequences of your actions. A safe person will ask
themselves what if questions, and then take the necessary steps
to prevent trouble.
2. Once you press the trigger a projectile cannot be called back.
3.
A trophy stag is on a skyline but so close that it is impossible to
miss. Therefore, it is safe to take the shot.
4. It is safe to fire at movement of bushes in thick scrub.
5.
You can search for your hunting mates using your rifles
telescopic sight.
6. No animal is worth the risk of carrying a loaded, cocked rifle.
7.
Safe hunting etiquette requires that you not only be safe but are
seen to be safe.
8.
Wearing bright colours, like blaze orange, when hunting deer is a
good safety practice.
9.
Hazard analysis and discussion of critical safety habits with your
hunting mates will make your hunting safer.
10. Hunting is a risk free sport.
1.3.10 V1 11.05

V1 11.05
Game Council NSW
PO Box 2506
Orange NSW 2800
Phone: (02) 6360 5100 Fax: (02) 6361 2093
V1 11.05
1.4.1
V1 11.05
LIST OF CONTENTS
Glossary of Terms ................................ 1.4.1
Learning Objectives ............................. 1.4.1
Introduction ........................................ 1.4.1
Hunting Ethics ..................................... 1.4.2
The Four Rs of Hunting in NSW......... 1.4.2
Conservation Hunting .......................... 1.4.4
The Principles of Game Management
and Sustainable Use............................. 1.4.5
Laws Protecting Aboriginal Culture
and Heritage........................................ 1.4.6
Self Learning Exercise ......................... 1.4.6
Example Assessment Questions ........... 1.4.6
References for Further Reading........... 1.4.7
Additional Reading .............................. 1.4.7
Self Assessment Checklist .................... 1.4.8
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Ethics Moral principles or code.
Predator A species that hunts and consumes
another species.
Sustainable Able to be continually renewed.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
On completion of this Unit you will:
Understand your moral and ethical
responsibilities to the animals that
you hunt.
Understand the four Rs of huntiing
in NSW.
Know the basic elements of modern
game management and the
principles of sustainable use of game
animals.
Know of several references for
further reading to broaden your
knowledge.
INTRODUCTION
Todays hunter needs to develop personal
hunting rules and ethics to maintain
community support for this recreational
and industry activity.
It means setting boundaries and
restrictions as to how hunters are
prepared to hunt within the framework of
existing laws.
Experience shows that good ethics
develop and grow from an
understanding of conservation
principles, respect and compassion for
animals that you hunt and from past
practices.
Through the NSW Game Hunting
Licensing System - which brings an
even higher level of accountability to
UNIT 1.4
ETHICS &
CONSERVATION
E
E
hunting in this state the vision of Game Council
NSW is to promote these core hunting values to
all facets of the hunting fraternity and the wider
community.
The major objective of Game Council NSW is to
provide for the effective management of
introduced animal species, while promoting
responsible, ethical and sustainable hunting.
All hunters have an obligation to do the right
thing in the way they hunt an animal, respect
landholders properties and interact with the
wider community. It is a hunters behaviour that
ultimately shapes community attitudes and
perceptions about hunting in NSW.
HUNTING ETHICS
Every hunter develops personal ethical standards
which in fact constitutes a personal code of
practice that determines how a hunter
approaches his or her hunting activities. What
standard of personal ethics or code should it be?
How do hunting situations determine how a
hunter conducts the hunt?
It is fair to say that hunting practices that are
legal in other countries may not be so in others.
Within current legal boundaries there may exist
some hunting practices that some consider to be
unethical when measured against their own
personal code of practice. This diversity of
opinions and ethics is recognised and respected.
A hunters personal hunting ethic goes well
beyond what is mandatory and extends to the
rationale for the why and how of hunting.
Many hunters are very specific in their hunting
practices engaging in only one form of hunting.
The context of a hunt will also affect how a
hunter applies their hunting ethic. For example:
Is the hunt for pest control or for meat?
Are the hunted animals abundant or sparse?
Is the hunt on private or declared public
land?
Is the hunt a commercially guided hunt or a
weekend outing with friends?
In NSW the minimum ethical standard and code
of practice of all hunters is based on a very
sound and proven value RESPECT.
If we respect a person or a policy, we hold it in
esteem. We may aspire to support it and
promote it. When it comes to the 4 Rs of
hunting in NSW, hunters are required to affirm
their commitment as part of holding a NSW
Game Hunting Licence.
THE 4 RS OF HUNTING IN NSW
1. RESPECT for the Law
Ethical Hunters:
Are role models who obey and promote
compliance to all laws including game
hunting and firearm laws.
Ensure they have permission before entering
any land.
Obey all legal requirements of the land
owner.
Obey total fire bans and ensure they adhere
to fire danger ratings.
Offer to report to the landowner/police all
unusual or suspicious behaviour or illegal
incidents.
1.4.2 V1 11.05
1.4.3
V1 11.05
2. RESPECT for the Landowner
Ethical Hunters:
Understand that when entering property
with permission, they are a guest of the
landowner and must treat the property
with respect.
Obey all reasonable requests and
directions of the landowner.
Ensure they gain a clear understanding of
property boundaries and the areas they
have been given permission to access.
Look for opportunities to assist
landowners for the hunting privileges
afforded to them.
Treat all other peoples opinions and
property with respect.
Learn about the likelihood or presence of
any traditional owners sites or place and
do not, under any circumstances, disturb
any aspect.
3. RESPECT for the Environment
Ethical Hunters:
Are guardians of the environment.
Dispose of all litter/garbage and empty
shell cases properly.
Stay on formed tracks/trails and do not
drive where their vehicle will cause
environmental damage.
Work to preserve the environment and
support the existence and sustainability of
non-game and endangered species.
Take the necessary precautions and safety
measures when lighting camp fires.
4. RESPECT for the Animals
Ethical Hunters:
Learn to shoot accurately, safely and
always with the intention of ensuring a
humane kill.
Learn everything they can about the
game they hunt, its habitat, habits and
life cycle.
Are skilled in the use of the tools that
they use for hunting.
Transport their harvest in a respectful
manner.
Learn to fully utilise the animals they
harvest.
Any hunter breaching one of the 4 Rs
disgraces themselves, places blight on their
fellow responsible hunters and most
importantly on the activity of hunting.
The spirit of the 4 Rs is written into a
formal Code of Practice contained in the
Game and Feral Animal Control
Regulation 2004. All licensed hunters in
NSW are required to obey the provisions of
the Code of Practice for Hunting (refer to
Section 1, Unit 1.1).
However, the 4 Rs require more than
legal compliance, they require you the
hunter to actively promote the
principles of responsible and ethical
hunting. As best practice this means that
you should discuss the Code with your
hunting buddies and determine how best
to implement it on any particular hunt.
As responsible, ethical hunters we should
not ever compromise the 4 Rs of
hunting.
UNIT 1.4
ETHICS &
CONSERVATION
E
UNIT 1.4
ETHICS &
CONSERVATION
E
E
CONSERVATION HUNTING
Aldo Leopold, a hunter and author of the
historically significant book on conservation, A
Sand County Almanac, is considered by many
to be the father of modern conservation theory.
Leopold advocates that: Conservation is a
state of harmony between man and the land.
The concept and practice of conservation
hunting has always been close to the hearts of
responsible hunters.
Until the establishment of the Game Council, the
state government had not taken full advantage of
the capabilities of private hunters on both public
and private land, in an organised, regulated way.
Hunting is an important and legitimate tool in
nature conservation management, particularly as
it relates to over-populations of introduced
species.
By controlling animal populations, public and
private landholders will have a greater
opportunity to conserve our delicate NSW
ecosystems with the help of structured
conservation hunting activities.
Feral animal control
Hunting is an important tool in feral animal
control. Pest animal managers have tried every
known way from trapping, poisoning, and
exclusion by fencing and shooting to eradicate
growing populations of introduced species.
Unfortunately, this has not been successful and
feral and pest animals are as numerous and as
widespread as they have ever been.
It is now widely recognised that the complete
eradication of these species is almost physically
and certainly economically impossible.
The role of the responsible hunter in
conservation therefore becomes increasingly
important. A 2004 Report for the Rural
Industries Research & Development Corporation
(RIRDC) noted that hunting relies upon
conserving wildlife habitat. Accordingly, hunters
have a long history of conserving and restoring
wildlife habitat through their efforts, their funds
and their lobbying power.
A further example from the RIRDC report
underpins the important role of responsible
hunters and is evidenced by estimations that
feral pigs cost Australias agricultural industries
$100 million a year in lost production, mostly in
NSW and Queensland. It has been estimated that
hunters kill 15-20% of the feral pig population
in accessible country.
Through Game Council NSW, an opportunity
exists for licensed hunters in NSW to
demonstrate an even greater role in conservation
by assisting in the battle against feral animals.
Conservation as opposed to preservation
The term conservation is often used
erroneously to refer to preservation.
Conservation requires the intent to use a
resource, whereas preservation refers to the
intent to save the resource from being used on
the basis that if things are left alone they will stay
as they are. Many examples around the world
show this concept is flawed.
Most people would be amazed if they were told
that the axe was a conservation tool for the
preservation of plants. By cutting away over-
abundant or invasive pest species and
encouraging the growth of other species, we can
restore the ecological balance of a forest
community, thus helping more desirable rarer
species to survive. Similarly, the firearm and bow
has such a role in wildlife conservation.
1.4.4 V1 11.05
1.4.5
V1 11.05
Many people may see them just as weapons of
destruction. Those who know better, recognise
them as effective and humane tools of wildlife
management. For example, where wild goats
aggressively compete for food with less
numerous rock wallabies, the firearm or bow
can be used as a tool to remedy this imbalance,
thereby preventing the more competitive and
versatile goats from destroying the wallabys food
supply by over browsing.
The food source often requires much longer to
recover from over grazing than the goat
population takes to recover after such a cull; so
repeated culls are often required.
While hunters choose to hunt for a variety of
reasons, over-exploitation of desirable species
(especially under commercial pressures) must
be controlled and carefully limited so that the
harvest does not exceed the capacity of the
population to replenish itself.
THE PRINCIPLES OF GAME MANAGEMENT
AND SUSTAINABLE USE
In order to manage populations of wild animals
we need to keep their living and food producing
areas healthy. This in turn will encourage
successful breeding and replacement of the
individuals harvested by hunters.
We need to know how many there are at the
beginning of each breeding season. This can be
done by direct count or by doing a sample count
and extending this miniature assessment to the
whole population.
Hidden animals can be counted by doing sign
surveys, that is counting tracks, or droppings or
by spotlight counts and by tagging a proportion
of the population.
We need to know how many animals are
expected to die from natural causes and
how many young are likely to be
produced during a certain period of
time. We can also determine with
experience and science what the
maximum, as well as the most suitable
carrying capacity of the land. Sometimes
this carrying capacity is limited by things
other than food. For example, the
availability of drinking water in the
summer.
All of this information can be combined
to calculate the number of animals that
can be harvested and yet still retain
sufficient numbers to maintain good
breeding rates for the following year.
This is how sustainable bag limits are
set.
The Kangaroo Management Program
incorporating licensed hunters, is one
example of a response to the presence of
very large numbers of these animals,
which are now utilised as a sustainable
and valuable resource.
However, in the recent past there has
been a groundswell of inquiry and
discussion on current management
practices involving populations of wild
animals, resulting in notable shifts in the
communitys attitude towards the
concept of wise use.
This presents an opportunity to the
hunting fraternity to experience
broader community acceptance by
demonstrating considerable
environmental, social and economic
benefits.
UNIT 1.4
ETHICS &
CONSERVATION
E
UNIT 1.4
ETHICS &
CONSERVATION
E
E
LAWS PROTECTING ABORIGINAL CULTURE
AND HERITAGE
Our rich Aboriginal cultural heritage is
something to be treasured and respected. As you
traverse the landscape it is likely you will come
across evidence of past occupiers.
Just as you ask your fellow Australian to respect
your hunting heritage, Aboriginal people ask that
you respect their cultural sites and heritage.
Aboriginal people still retain their rights of
traditional hunting on Crown lands and
Aboriginal heritage sites are protected by law.
The following are examples of Aboriginal
heritage that are protected are under the
Heritage Act 1977 and National Parks and
Wildlife Act 1974:
Scarred trees Where bark has been
removed for canoes, shield or carry baskets.
Rock painting Markings or etching.
Foot holes cut into trees, usually to gather
honey.
Grinding groves Holes worked on bedrock
to grind grain and other materials.
Stone arrangements, nature does not lay
stones in a straight line or circle.
Middens mounds of shells, bones or other
evidence of camp.
Hand tools Sharpe edge tools or hammers.
Usually a fine grained rock not of local
origin.
Camping areas some of which are still
used today.
The above items are not to be damaged,
removed or altered in any way.
SELF LEARNING EXERCISE
List below the four Rs of hunting in NSW.
EXAMPLE ASSESSMENT QUESTION
The balance of sustaining both native wildlife
populations and agricultural production poses
many challenges for landholders and hunters.
List one example of how hunters and farmers
can benefit from conservation hunting.
1.
1.
2.
3.
4.
1.4.6 V1 11.05
1.4.7
V1 11.05
AND LEARNING
1. Harrison, M. and Slee, K. 1995. The
Australian Deerhunters Handbook. Australian
Deer Research Foundation Ltd. Croydon, Vic.
2. Leopold. A. 1948. A Sand County Almanac.
Oxford University Press, Oxford, London, New
York.
3. Leopold. A. 1933. Game Management. The
Wisconsin University Press. Wisconsin USA.
4. Moore, G and Mayze, R. 1990. The Hog Deer.
Australian Deer Research Foundation Ltd.
Croydon. Vic.
5. Smith, G. 1992. A Guide to Hunting and
Association of Australia Publications. Unley S.A.
ADDITIONAL READING
1. King, M. 1995 Sustainable Use: a Hunters
Concept in Conservation Through Sustainable
Use of Wildlife Ed G. Grigg, P. Hale and D.
Lunney pp282-287 University of Queensland
Press.
2. King, M. 1997 Hunting, Sustainable Use and
Conservation. In Sustainable Use of Wildlife:
Utopian Dream or Unrealistic Nightmare Ed
B. Diekman pp 103-113. Nature Conservation
Council of NSW.
3. Korn, T., Fosdick, M. 1992 Shooting from
helicopters: guidelines for the use of
helicopters in NSW for the control of feral
pigs. Dubbo: NSW Agriculture.
Go to Section 4, Unit 4.1, for
further information on traditional
hunting practices, culture and
lessons from the past.
UNIT 1.4
ETHICS &
CONSERVATION
E
E
True
False
1.
It is our sense of doing the right thing that lends the greatest
satisfaction to our hunting.
2.
Sustainable hunting has been responsible for the survival of many
game species.
3.
How we, as hunters, conduct ourselves in dealing with the way we
approach or manage our hunting practices is really nobodys
business.
4.
It is fair to say that hunting practices that are legal in other
countries are legal everywhere.
5.
Ethical hunters understand that when they enter upon a property
with permission, they are a guest of the landowner.
6.
Hunters must take reasonable care to ensure that no hunted
animal suffers unnecessary pain.
7.
Hunting has always been the major factor in the massive decline
and extinction of native species.
8.
Aldo Leopold is considered by many to be the author of modern
conservation theory.
9.
It is now widely recognised that it is physically and economically
impossible to eradicate pest animal species.
10.
Understanding that there is a likelihood of encountering
traditional owners sites while hunting is an important
consideration of any planned hunt.
1.4.8 V1 11.05

V1 11.05
PART A
Game Council NSW
PO Box 2506
Orange NSW 2800
Phone: (02) 6360 5100 Fax: (02) 6361 2093
V1 11.05
2.1.1.1
V1 11.05
LIST OF CONTENTS
Glossary of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1.1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1.2
Learning Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1.2
Recommended Minimum Rifle
Calibres for Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1.3
Sights and Sighting In . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1.5
Shooting Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1.6
Shooting Positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1.7
How Projectiles Fly: Trajectories . . . . 2.1.1.8
Rifle Accuracy Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1.9
Projectiles for Hunting . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1.10
Gun Fit and Hunting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1.12
Common Firearm Malfunctions . . . . . 2.1.1.13
Learning Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1.14
Example Assessment Questions . . . . . 2.1.1.14
and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1.15
Self Assessment Checklist . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1.16
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Action Firearm part where the
ammunition is chambered and the bolt
slides into.
Bore The hole down the barrel.
Breech That part of the firearm behind
the bore.
Calibre A measure of the diameter of
the bore.
Lands Beginnings of the rifling grooves
at the breech end of the barrel.
Swaged Die stamp that grooves the
projectile to allow the core to bind to
the jacket.
.,INTRODUCTION
As a hunter, you are personally responsible to
harvest game animals quickly and humanely. To
do this, it is safer to be over gunned than under
gunned. The Tables in this unit will assist you in
selecting the right firearm.
It is in the selection of the correct firearm and
ammunition combination and the distance over
which you shoot that will ensure a satisfactory
animal welfare outcome.
The Tables given in this unit recommend
minimum calibres, cartridges and projectile
weights for each animal species. You will notice
that different authorities may give different
recommendations. This is because you can
effectively use a more or less powerful
firearm/ammunition combination under different
hunting conditions. For example, less powerful
firearm/ammunition combinations may be
effective in a pest control situation during a
drought where the animals are weak from
hunger, congregate near a water hole and are
being shot at close range.
Game Council NOW firearm/ammunition
combination recommendations are for general
hunting conditions.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
On completion of this unit you will:
NOW Game Hunting Licence to hunt
with firearms. (Rifles and Shotguns)
Know what minimum calibres and projectile
weights are generally recommended for
hunting each species.
Understand the effect of projectile
construction, weights and velocities on the
performance of the rifle.
Be able to select projectiles for different
purposes.
Know how to sight in a rifle and tune it for
accuracy.
Understand the importance of rifle fit for
quick shooting.
Have knowledge about common rifle
malfunctions and the actions required for
their correction.
Note: This unit must be completed in
conjunction with Unit 2.2 (Shotguns).
2.1.1.2 V1 11.05
INTRODUCTION
2.1.1.3
V1 11.05
RECOMMENDED MINIMUM RIFLE
CALIBRES FOR GAME
Game Council NOW recommends the following
principles in the selection of firearm
ammunition combinations:
A. The firearm/ammunition combination must
allow for accurate shot placement over the
distance at which the animal is to be shot.
B. The firearm/ammunition combination must
provide sufficient killing power to quickly
and humanely kill the animal.
Killing power is a function of the interaction
between the animal and the projectile. In
relation to the projectile, the killing power varies
with calibre, weight, construction and velocity.
In relation to the animal, the killing power of the
projectile varies with the toughness of the hide,
functional importance to life of the targeted
organ and depth of penetration required to
reach such organs.
Opinions vary on the minimum cartridges you
should use on various game animals. The table
on the next page gives you recommendations
from various reputable sources for general
hunting conditions.
It needs to be emphasised that cartridges that
are adequate for general hunting conditions may
be inadequate under special circumstances.
One should always remember that there is
no substitute for proper shot placement,
and even the heaviest calibres must hit in
the right place to kill cleanly and
humanely. Only dedicated practice will
ensure that you can do this. The range at
which the animal is to be taken is an
important variable that should be taken
into account when selecting a minimum
calibre for any particular species.
Refer to Table 1: Minimum cartridge
recommendations for game species on
the next page.
Table 1. Minimum cartridge recommendations for game species
Species *Smith *Harrison/Slee NSWGC
Hog deer .222 Rem .243 Win .243 Win
Fallow deer .222 Rem .243 Win .243 Win
Chital deer .222 Rem .270 Win .243 Win
Rusa deer .270 Win .270 Win .270 Win
Red deer .270 Win .270 Win .270 Win
Wapiti .270 Win .270 Win .270 Win
Sambar deer .270 Win .270 Win .270 Win
Feral Goat .243 Win .243 Win .243 Win
Feral Pig .243 Win Nil .243 Win
Kangaroo .222 Rem Nil .222 Rem
Wild dog .222 Rem Nil .222 Rem
Fox .22 Rf Nil .22 Rf
Feral Cat .22 Rf Nil .22 Rf
Hare .22 Rf Nil .22 Rf
Rabbit .22 Rf Nil .22 Rf
* See references for Further Reading and Learning. p.1.1.15.
2.1.1.4 V1 11.05
2.1.1.5
V1 11.05
SIGHTS AND SIGHTING IN
The proper sighting in of rifles is not a thing that
can be rushed, but requires meticulous attention
to detail. This is best done at an official rifle
range. It cannot be done well for example, over
a car bonnet and by lining up on a tin can.
Limit the number of rifles that you attempt to
sight in at a particular sitting as fatigue can
impair your results.
You will need a steady table and seat.
Unsupported shooting will tell you very little
about where your rifle is really zeroed. You will
need sand bags or an adjustable fore end rest,
ear protection and a sandbag or soft rest for the
toe of the stock. Both ends of the rifle need to be
fully supported. You must be able to set the rifle
rock steady on the point of aim. If you cant
achieve this, dont proceed further. You are
testing the accuracy of the rifle and not your
own shooting ability. Avoid moving the rifle in
any way while you slowly press the trigger to fire
the shot. You must be completely comfortable
and relaxed to sight in accurately.
Start your test at 25 metres to make sure that
you actually hit the target and then make the first
sight adjustments before moving to 50 or 100
metres. At this range, further fine sighting
adjustments can be completed. Your target must
be darkly printed so that it is clearly visible from
the range that you are shooting. Some people
prefer to use concentric ring markings, others a
cross configuration. A safe earth mound or butt
as a background to your target is mandatory.
Iron sights
Front blade and rear V
The blade (front sight) must be centred in the V
and the top of the blade must be level with the
top of the V. Do not place the blade ON the point
of aim because you will then cover it up
and not be able to see its exact centre.
Your front blade should be placed at the
central BOTTOM of your target aim point.
If you wish to shoot high or low the rear
sight should be lowered or raised. It is
important for you to remember that
adjustment of the rear sight is always in
the opposite direction to the projectile
strike. This same rule applies to sideways
adjustments. If the rifle is shooting to the
right, adjust for this by moving the rear
sight to the left.
Peep sights
Here the rear V sight is replaced by a small
round ring or aperture. Sighting is by
placing the front blade centrally in the
ring. Targeting procedures are identical as
for the blade and V sight.
Telescopic sights
Your target will be sharper and more easily
centred through a telescopic sight than
with iron sights once you focus your scope
using the screw adjustment on the lens
nearest to your eye.
Variations in rifle scope reticles
(crosswires)
are numerous with fine, medium, or
coarse graded crosswires, with or without
fixed or flip up posts. There are various
magnifications in both fixed and variable
rifle scopes. Each reticle type and rifle
scope magnification capacity has its special
purpose for different types of shooting.
Preferably, have your scope fitted by a
qualified person who will set up the coarse
alignment of the crosswires by adjusting
the scope mounts. Further adjustments are
then made via top and side mounted and capped
fine adjustment turret screws built onto the
scope tube.
They will be marked up or right and each
is accompanied by a corresponding arrow
marking. These markings indicate the direction
to move these screws to move the projectile
strike in the desired direction. Otherwise, the
sighting-in procedures are carried out as already
described above.
SHOOTING TECHNIQUE
You can do a number of simple things to
improve your shooting.
Firstly, look to support your rifle. Off hand
shooting from the shoulder is the least stable
shooting position, while shooting prone with the
rifle fully supported is the most stable. When
hunting you will need to look for a compromise
shooting position, for example, resting your rifle
against a tree, over a stump or often you may
need to just sit on the ground using your knees
for a rest. Remember that if you rest your rifle
on a hard surface it may shoot high, so make
sure you pad the fore end with your hat or
daypack. You may consider using a Harris bipod
or a pair of shooting sticks to steady your aim.
Secondly, focus on your target and on keeping
your rifle sight on the target. Try to actually see
the projectile strike. This means that you need
to ignore the rifle discharge. With hard kicking
rifles this is easier said than done. Loud rifles or
rifles fitted with muzzle breaks will have you
jumping in anticipation of the noise. The worst
thing to do is to anticipate the rifle discharging
and flinch in anticipation of the noise and set
back on your shoulder. This will cause wildly
erratic shot placement.
Finally, you need to control your breathing and
trigger release. You will notice that as you
breathe your rifle sights fall and rise. Control the
fall and rise of your sights so that you are on
target without undue muscle tension. (If you find
this difficult to do you may need to reposition
the rifle on its support). Inhale fully and then
expel breath till you are comfortable and on
target, hold your breath and gently press the
trigger. As you do this remain focussed on your
target, relaxed and ensure that the rifle sights
stay dead on.
2.1.1.6 V1 11.05
2.1.1.7
V1 11.05
SHOOTING POSITIONS
Free standing, off-hand position with no support.
This is the least stable of the shooting positions. The
sling strap steadies the rifle.
Seated with the rifle supported by bracing both
arms and knees. Where no supports are available this
position is recommended.
Prone position. The rifle is supported with the arms
and elbows. The body is angled away from the line of
the target and the legs are slightly spread.
Kneeling, using a shooting stick bipod. The
rifle is further supported by bracing the right
arm on the knee.
Kneeling with the rifle supported by a
fallen tree. The day pack is used to cushion the
rifle which must not contact the hard support.
Sitting, using a tree for support. The rifle
must not be in contact with the tree and is
cushioned with the hand.
Photos: M Draisma
HOW PROJECTILES FLY: TRAJECTORIES
Gravity acts on the projectile from the instant it
leaves the rifle barrel. This means the projectile
drops after leaving the barrel and you need to
adjust your sights for this drop. It becomes
complicated because the rate of drop increases
as the projectile slows down. You need to allow
for much more drop between 400 and 500m
than between 0 and 100m.
Lets look at a typical situation with a centrefire
rifle mounted with telescopic sights and being
used to shoot at a target 200m distant.
Lets say that your shot was good, the crosswires
of your rifle scope were dead centre on the
target and the projectile printed in the centre of
the bullseye.
Fine - but what if the target had been placed on
the end of your barrel, or at 50, 100 and 150
metres?
In each case, the crosswires would still be dead
centre on the target but where would the
projectile hit the target at the intervening
distances?
The exact answer to this question will vary of
course depending on the particular
rifle/ammunition combination you are using and
how your rifle scope is mounted.
The target at the end of your barrel would show
a projectile hole about 40mm low to the
bullseye. The reason being that most scopes are
mounted about this height above the barrel. This
is worth remembering as your rifle scope may
show you a clear field of fire when in fact your
rifle bore is pointed at a rock if you are firing
from the prone position, or by a vehicle side
mirror if firing from the back of a utility.
Where the projectile will hit the target at 50, 100
and 150 metres will vary with the ballistic
coefficient and velocity of the projectile. To be
on target at 200 metres most projectiles would
be a few millimetres high at 50 metres, 25 to
50mm high at 100 metres and curving
earthwards after 150 metres to be back on the
bullseye at 200 metres. You can work out the
trajectory of your projectile from the ballistic
tables in the back of your reloading manual.
The projectile travels below the line of sight
initially because telescopic rifle sights are usually
mounted about 40mm high of the bore. The
projectile then travels above the line of sight
because the rifle barrel is inclined slightly
upwards. The time that the projectile stays above
the line of sight is increased as the barrel is
angled upwards and is limited by gravity, which
pulls the projectile earthward. This is an
important reason why you should not shoot
centrefire rifles into tree canopies where there is
no backgrounding hill. Projectiles fired this way
can travel several thousand metres and you
cannot be sure of a safe area of impact.
Point Blank Range
This brings us to a very important hunting
concept known as point blank range. Imagine
that you fire your rifle down an unlimited length
of horizontal PVC tubing. How far your projectile
travels without touching the side of the tube is
the point blank range of your rifle. Alternatively,
it is the distance over which you can use your
firearm and still aim directly at the target!
The immediate question that springs to mind is
what is the diameter of our imaginary PVC
tube?
The answer is the size of the kill zone of the
animal that you are hunting. Thus, the point
blank range of one rifle/ammunition
combination will be different for different game
2.1.1.8 V1 11.05
2.1.1.9
V1 11.05
animals. The smaller the animal the shorter the
point blank range!
The practical application of the point blank
range concept is that you zero your rifle to shoot
high at 100m. Most hunters zero their centrefire
rifles to shoot between 25mm and 75mm high at
100m depending on the rifle/ammunition
combination used, the game to be hunted and
the distance over which shots will be taken.
Exercise 1: point blank range
Calculate the point blank range of your hunting
rifle/ammunition combination for animals with
kill zones of 50mm, 100mm and 150mm in
diameter. To do this you will need to use a
chronograph to find out the velocity of the
projectiles you are firing and then consult the
ballistic tables available in reloading manuals.
Understanding the trajectory of your projectile is
only part of the problem. Although you now
know the distance at which you can be sure that
your projectile will remain within a given
diameter target zone, you still have the problem
of accurately estimating distance to the target.
Exercise 2: estimating distances
Practice estimating distances in the bush. You
will need to work out your stride length so that
you can accurately pace out distances. This can
be done by going to a sporting field and pacing
out a known distance. In the bush, estimate the
distance to a tree or other feature and then pace
it out. Practice doing this until you are confident
that you can get within 25 metres. Many people
tend to over estimate distances less than 200m.
RIFLE ACCURACY TUNING
Assuming that your rifle barrel is in good
condition and not worn or damaged, there
are a number of ways of improving the
accuracy of your rifle.
Trigger pressure
The crispness of the trigger release and the
pressure required to release the trigger
during the shot can significantly affect shot
accuracy. Adjustment should be done by a
gunsmith after discussing your
requirements. It is dangerous to reduce
the trigger pressure too much on a hunting
rifle. A trigger pressure of 1.5 kg crisp is
recommended by many gunsmiths and
used by many hunters.
Action bedding and free floating
The breech section or action is the part of
the rifle that attaches the barrel to the
stock and if properly mounted or bedded,
will minimise barrel movement during
recoil and firing. It can also be done in
such a way that the barrel no longer
touches the rest of the fore end of the
stock, allowing it to oscillate in a free and
more regular manner with the shot recoil.
The tension exerted on the screws
fastening the action to the stock is
important. If either screw is too loosely or
too tightly applied this incorrect tension
can be detrimental to accuracy.
Properly bedding and fixing the action to
the stock is a job for a professional
gunsmith or gun stock maker.
Tuning and hand loading your own
ammunition
Rifles, like people, show individual likes and
dislikes. The type of ammunition you use in your
rifle will affect accuracy. A rifle may be very
accurate with one brand of ammunition and less
accurate with another. Certain projectile shapes,
weights, lengths and powders and ammunition
velocity differences can give improvements in
accuracy for particular rifles compared with off
the shelf mass produced ammunition.
As an extension of your hunting you may wish to
hand load your own ammunition and do some
trial accuracy tuning work on your rifle. Work in
this area has the potential to double the
accuracy of the average rifle if the other above
points have also been attended to. What holds
true for one rifle with these variations in
ammunition does not necessarily hold true for
another.
Most shooters are able to hand load
ammunition, once they are properly equipped
and this can open to you a fascinating world of
ballistics. This in turn can give you a greater
understanding of your firearms, their function
and capabilities. All powder loads, primers and
projectiles should only be used strictly according
to the manufacturers directions.
PROJECTILES FOR HUNTING
Projectile construction and weight
Most lead projectiles for high-powered centre
fire rifles are jacketed with copper to improve
ballistic performance. Others are of solid copper
or have a copper alloy construction. All are
constructed to perform in a particular manner
for a specific purpose.
For example: Military style full metal jacketed
(FMJ) projectiles have very specialised uses and
are not suitable for hunting Australian game.
These projectiles deform very little as they pass
through the animal. Without significant tissue
damage they may not deliver an instant kill. FMJ
projectiles are also prone to ricochet. Hollow
point, or soft nosed projectiles by contrast
expand on impact, maximising tissue damage
and thus ensuring a quick, humane kill.
For example: For harvesting kangaroos, a
professional shooter may be required to deliver
a brain shot at 80 metres. In order to allow for
small variations in point of impact the
professional shooter will use a soft pointed high
velocity projectile which opens up after impact
to do maximum damage and to guarantee an
instant kill every time.
Each projectile type is made to a particular
specification. Some have a large opening in the
front of the jacket, others a very narrow one.
Some have pointed or round tips made of
plastic, lead or aluminium. The front edge of the
jacket may be uniform or tapered in thickness.
The internal lead may be crimped on or swaged
on to the jacket, or partitioned off to improve
weight retention on impact; or it may be made
only of copper alloy. Projectiles may be made in
many different weights for a single calibre. All
these variations influence how far projectiles
2.1.1.10 V1 11.05
2.1.1.11
V1 11.05
penetrate, how quickly they start to expand and
open up, and how much damage they inflict in
their path through the animal.
Special non-military FMJ projectiles may be
required when hunting dangerous game where
maximum penetration and bone damage has to
occur e.g. buffalo or scrub bulls.
Exercise 3: the phone book target
This exercise is a good one to do with some
friends. You can share the costs of the
ammunition and the work in setting up the trial.
Take a long cardboard box and pack it with six
or more thick old telephone books placed side
by side. Draw a series of crosses on a sheet of
white paper and staple the paper on to the end
of the carton. Make sure that you have arranged
the telephone books so that a projectile has to
pass through all of them before it can exit from
the back of the cardboard box.
Note. At the rifle range you will need to obtain
the permission of the Range Officer to use your
cardboard box target. The Range Officer may
also wish to inspect your target.
Place the cardboard box on a rifle range mound
remembering that projectiles from some rifles
will pass through all 6 telephone books. At a
range of 25 yards fire into the separate target
crosses using differently designed projectiles.
You will discover that differently designed
projectiles are very different in the way they
penetrate the phone books.
For example, if you are using a .222Rem you
may need to buy a packet of full metal jacket
(FMJ) and a packet of soft point (SP) or hollow
point ammunition to see the effects of differently
designed projectiles.
Remove the telephone books from the
cardboard box and open them up to recover
your projectiles. You can compare the
penetration and expansion of the different
projectile types. Also, weigh the recovered
projectiles and check on the percentage of
weight loss. The original weight of each
projectile will be printed on the
ammunition packet. The percentage weight
retention will be the weight of the
recovered projectile divided by the original
weight of the projectile and multiplied by 100.
The massed layers of paper in the phone
books reasonably simulate animal tissue.
This exercise will tell you a lot about which
projectile to use on particular game animals.
Do this with every calibre rifle you own,
testing as many different projectile types as
possible. The use of different projectile
types can make your rifle incredibly versatile.
The ideal projectile delivers ALL of its
energy into the animal and comes to rest
just under the skin on the opposite side to
its entry point. This is a big ask, given the
variables we encounter in every day hunting.
What would you expect to find with your
FMJ and SP projectiles? The FMJ projectiles
should penetrate further into the phone
books and retain more weight. The SP
projectiles should pulp the paper more but
not penetrate so far and should also retain
much less of their weight. That is, the SP
projectiles should fragment more.
There is a further exercise you may wish to
try. You may wish to fire the same FMJ and
SP projectiles at higher velocity. To do this
you may choose to use, for example, a .22-
250 or a .220 Swift rather than the .222
Rem. You will notice that the FMJ
projectiles fired at higher velocity should
penetrate further into the phone books.
Conclusion: Match the projectile (weight,
hardness and velocity) to the size and toughness
of the particular animal that you hunt
remembering that you want to leave the energy
of the projectile in the animal.
Projectile velocity
The energy or knock down power of a projectile
depends on its weight or mass and its velocity.
Energy can be calculated and equals the
projectile weight multiplied by velocity and
multiplied by velocity again and then divided by
two. Velocity therefore contributes much more
to projectile energy than projectile weight.
Heavier projectiles cannot be fired as fast as
lighter ones in any one particular calibre, but do
retain their momentum better. They lose less
speed over distance and therefore lose less
energy. They would thus appear to be the best
choice were it not for the fact that they drop
more with distance than lighter projectiles of the
same calibre. That is, they are not as flat shooting.
High velocity ammunition theoretically is more
accurate as it is flatter shooting. However, it is
not this simple as most fast or hot rounds
sacrifice significant stability (and accuracy) for
this extra speed.
The compromise is to use the powder loads that
give the best velocities with accuracy.
Load the projectile that gives the accuracy,
penetration and expansion required for the
particular game to be hunted.
You can only do all this if you test different
projectiles on the rifle range by firing them into
phonebooks. The final word will be the observed
performance on the game that you actually hunt.
Examine the wound tracts and entry and exit points
and compare the visible knock down results.
GUN FIT AND HUNTING
Firearm fit is about being able to quickly
shoulder your rifle to find yourself correctly
looking along the sight plane of the firearm
ready to shoot without further adjustment of
your head or sights on the target point. This
makes for rapid target acquisition. Often we find
ourselves with only a few seconds to take the
shot before an animal takes to its heels, so it can
make the difference between success and failure
after hours of hard stalking.
People come in all shapes and sizes. Stock
makers usually cater for the average shooter, if
there is such a person. It would be rare to
purchase a firearm off the shelf and have it fit
perfectly. Customising a stock is expensive.
Better to try several makes of rifle and pick one
that suits you.
When using scoped rifles, the final adjustment
for gun fit is on scope eye relief. This is the
distance between your eye and the back lens
when you can clearly see through ALL of the
lens. Incorrect eye relief is present when you see
an image only through the central part of the
back lens and a surrounding dark ring obscures
the rest of your sight picture. The scope tube
must be moved forward or backwards until the
dark ring is eliminated. Remember that high
powered rifles require scopes built with a
natural long eye relief otherwise the recoil of the
shot will cause contact with the rim of the scope
and will result in a nasty cut eyebrow or worse.
2.1.1.12 V1 11.05
2.1.1.13
V1 11.05
COMMON FIREARM MALFUNCTIONS
Malfunctions in firearms can be life threatening.
Do not attempt to repair, adjust or alter
firearms. Call in your local gunsmith.
Hang fire
You have pulled the trigger on a live round and
heard the click of the firing pin striking the
primer but the round fails to discharge.
Action: stay still and continue to point the
firearm in a safe direction. Do nothing but wait
several minutes before ejecting the round. Some
primers smoulder before eventually flaring and
igniting the gun powder. The danger with a hang
fire is that it can explode as you eject the
cartridge. Discard faulty rounds.
Faulty safety catch
If you intend to use a safety catch then from time
to time you should test its function under
controlled conditions. This is done WITHOUT
having ammunition in the chamber.
It is safer not to rely on safety catches at all by
having the firearm loaded only immediately
before you intend to shoot and by having it
unloaded at all other times. Many safety catches
immobilise only the trigger and cannot stop the
trigger seer from slipping off the cocked firing
pin. Only safety catches that immobilise the
cocked firing pin will prevent discharge if the
firearm is dropped.
Exercise 4: the safety catch
Make a list of the firearms that you own and
determine for each firearm the exact nature of
the safety catch mechanism.
Step 1. Confirm each firearm is empty by
bore sighting the firearm from the back
end with the bolt out, and emptying and/or
removing the magazine.
Step 2. Replace the bolt, closing it on the
empty chamber and apply the safety catch.
Allow the butt to drop from 30cm onto a
hard surface and listen for the firing pin
click. Did the catch fail?
If not go to Step 3. Repeat the test three
times by cycling the bolt and applying the
safety catch each time.
Step 4. Sharply tap the back of the bolt
with a small hammer with the firing pin
cocked and safety on. Uncock and repeat
this exercise another two times listening
for the click of a falling firing pin.
Live round stuck in breech behind a
closed cocked bolt
You have attempted to eject a live round
from the breech but the bolt is stuck and
refuses to lift. Remember that the firing pin
is cocked and this is an extremely
dangerous situation. The firearm is
permanently loaded. Any attempts to lever
or tap the bolt up can result in an
uncontrolled discharge if the trigger seer
slips. Engage the safety catch immediately.
If possible, now carefully find a safe target
like an earth bank and from a safe
distance discharge the firearm into it.
Live round in breech, bolt out after
extraction fails
A live round is stuck in the chamber. This
is because the extractor disengaged from,
or failed to engage on the case extractor
rim. Remove the bolt from the rifle. Do not
repel the round with a cleaning rod as this can
cause the powder to ignite. If on a public rifle
range, seek the advice of the Range Officer on
the correct procedures for dealing with this
problem. Also, have your firearm
serviced/repaired by a qualified gunsmith.
Projectile stuck in the lands after extracting
the live case
This is a particular danger when spotlight
shooting. A round of ammunition with a loose
case neck or with the projectile seated out too
far may result in the projectile sticking in the
rifle lands (barrel). In daylight, the problem is
immediately apparent, because gunpowder
pours out of the case when it is extracted from
the chamber. When spotlighting you may not see
that you have left the projectile stuck in the
barrel because of lack of light. If you chamber
another round and try to fire it your gun has a
barrel blockage and will explode. The stuck
projectile can usually easily be pushed out with a
standard cleaning rod passed from the muzzle end.
Problems with lever and pump action rifles
The scenarios above are resolved in the same
way for pump and lever action rifles. These two
rifles however, due to their construction and
function, do present peculiar problems with
bore sighting checks. For this a dental mirror is
recommended which can be inserted into the
action from the side, as bore sighting from the
muzzle end is an unsafe practice and must not
be done. For lever and pump models with tube
magazines it should be noted that only flat nosed
projectiles should be used since the point of
each projectile is in contact with the primer of
the one in front of it. Sharp ammunition can, on
recoil, detonate the round in front of it in such
tube magazines.
LEARNING EXERCISE
Exercise
Have your firearms inspected/serviced by a
gunsmith.
Question 1
Firearm/ammunition combinations must provide
accurate shot placement and adequate killing
power over the distance at which game is to be
taken.
True or False?
List four variables that affect projectile killing
power.
Question 2
Rifles, like people show individual likes and
dislikes. The type of ammunition you use in your
rifle will affect accuracy. A rifle may be very
accurate with one brand of ammunition and lose
accuracy with another. Certain projectile shapes,
weights, lengths and powders and ammunition
velocity differences can give improvements in
accuracy for particular rifles.
True or False?
1.
2.
3.
4.
2.1.1.14 V1 11.05
2.1.1.15
V1 11.05
List four things that can be done to tune a rifle to
give its best accuracy.
AND LEARNING
1. Grant, M. and Grant, B. 1972. The sharp
shooter; how to get the best out of rifles
and ammunition. Wellington:Reed
2. FSTC Handbook for Accredited
Kangaroo Trapper.
3. Harrison, M and Slee, K. 1995.
The Australian Deerhunters Handbook.
ADRF, Croydon, Vic. pp. 43-44.
4. Harvey, N. 1995 Handbook for Hunters
and Shooters Victoria. Australian Print
Group.
5. Smith, G. 1992. A Guide to Hunting
and Shooting in Australia, Sporting
Shooters Association of Australia
Publications, Unley SA. pp. 29-50, 104.
6. Speer Reloading Manual Number 9.
1974. Lewiston, Idaho pp. 23-108.
Further reading:
Miller, M. 1978 The Collectors Illustrated
Guide to Firearms, London: Barrie &
Jenkins.
Myatt, F. 1979 The Illustrated
Encyclopaedia of 19th Century Firearms
London: Salamander.
Chase, K.W. (2003) Firearms: a global
history to 1700, Cambridge University
Press.
1.
2.
3.
4.
True
False
1.
Firearm/ammunition combinations must allow accurate shot
placement.
2.
Firearm/ammunition combination must provide sufficient
killing power to humanely kill the animal.
3. Good hunters shoot animals at long distances.
4.
Good hunters stalk as close as possible without disturbing
animals before taking a shot.
5.
You are personally responsible to kill game animals quickly
and humanely.
6. A .222 Rem rifle is adequate for hunting sambar deer.
7.
Full metal jacket projectiles penetrate further than soft point
projectiles and thus are better hunting projectiles.
8.
The killing power of a projectile varies with calibre, weight,
construction and velocity.
9.
The effective killing power of the projectile varies with the
toughness of the hide, functional importance to life of the
targeted organ and depth of penetration required to reach such
organs.
10. It is safer not to rely on safety catches at all.
2.1.1.16 V1 11.05

V1 11.05
PART B
Game Council NSW
PO Box 2506
Orange NSW 2800
Phone: (02) 6360 5100 Fax: (02) 6361 2093
V1 11.05
2.1.2.1
V1 11.05
LIST OF CONTENTS
Glossary of Terms .............................. 2.1.2.1
Introduction ...................................... 2.1.2.2
Learning Objectives ........................... 2.1.2.2
Shotguns and Cartridges .................... 2.1.2.2
Shotgun gauge ............................. 2.1.2.2
Shotgun chamber length.............. 2.1.2.2
Shotgun cartridge shot loads ....... 2.1.2.2
Shotgun cartridge shot size.......... 2.1.2.2
Shotgun cartridges with solid
slugs............................................ 2.1.2.3
Types of shotgun.......................... 2.1.2.3
Shotgun choke............................. 2.1.2.3
Recommended Shot Sizes
for Small Game and Birds.................. 2.1.2.4
Basic Shotgun Technique................... 2.1.2.4
Shotgun Safety ................................... 2.1.2.5
Example Assessment Question .......... 2.1.2.6
and Learning ..................................... 2.1.2.6
Self Assessment Checklist .................. 2.1.2.7
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Action The combined parts of the
firearm that determine how a firearm is
loaded, discharged and unloaded.
Bore The interior barrel forward of the
chamber.
Brenneke Load Single solid lead
shotgun projectile.
Cartridge A single round of
ammunition consisting of the case, primer,
propellant, powder and one or more
projectiles.
Comb The top part of the stock on the
butt or rear section.
Choke The degree to which a shotgun
barrel constricts a shotgun column thus
affecting the spread of the shot or pattern
produced.
Shot charge Usually described as the
weight of the multiple pellets in a shotgun
cartridge.
INTRODUCTION
Shotguns are designed to hit moving targets at
relatively close ranges. The art of shotgunning is
very different to rifle shooting. Shotguns fire a
pattern of projectiles where the aim is to cover
the game within the pattern. This unit of study
will provide basic information on hunting with a
shotgun.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
NOW Game Hunting Licence to hunt
with firearms. (Rifles and Shotguns)
Understand various shotgun types and
design.
Understand basic shooting techniques.
Understand how to hunt safely with a
shotgun.
Be able to select appropriate shot cartridges
for various classes of game.
Understand the importance of shotgun fit.
SHOTGUNS AND CARTRIDGES
Shotgun gauge
To cover the range of game available, shotguns
are manufactured with different bore diameters.
The term used to distinguish between each size
is the gauge. Guns may have an internal bore
diameter ranging from .410 to the larger 28
gauge, 20 gauge, 16 gauge, 12 gauge, and 10
gauge. The huge 8, 6 and 4 gauge guns are now
obsolete. The most commonly used shotgun
today is 12 gauge. The 12 gauge shotgun can be
used for game bird hunting, target shooting and
large game hunting.
Shotgun chamber length
Cartridges for shotguns come in different lengths
for different powered charges. For example, a
12 gauge gun may be chambered to accept a 2.5
inch cartridge (65mm), a 2.75 inch cartridge
(70mm) or a 3 inch magnum cartridge
(75mm). While the smaller charges may be fired
in the larger chamber lengths, the reverse is not
possible and is highly dangerous. Guns with
different chamber lengths are available in each
of the gauges, so this issue becomes quite
complex. The chamber length for a given gun is
printed on the barrel, or action flats, with the
proof marks.
Shotgun cartridge shot loads
Each of the different cartridge lengths for a given
gauge gun have different weight shot charges
available. Thus, a 12 gauge 2.5 inch (65mm)
cartridge shotgun can fire either one ounce or
one and one eighth ounce loads. A 2.75 inch
cartridge is available in loads ranging from .75
of an ounce up to one and one half ounce mini-
magnums. A 3 inch cartridge is available in
loads ranging from 1.5 to 2 ounces. A gun
should never fire a shot charge heavier than the
one it was designed for and proofed for. The
weight of the charge the gun was designed for is
found among the proof marks on the barrel
flats.
Shotgun cartridge shot size
Because shotguns are used to kill a variety of
game animals, the size of the shot must also be
different if a clean kill is to be obtained. The
shot sizes are sequentially numbered. The
smallest sized shot available is size 12, or dust
shot. As the pellet size increases the pellet size
number decreases. Also, the number of pellets
2.1.2.2 V1 11.05
2.1.2.3
V1 11.05
found in a single weight charge diminishes. The
largest size shot is called letter shot or buckshot
and ranges from BB, AAA, SSG to SG. For
example, a 12gauge 1.25 ounce SSG load
contains 16, 7mm balls. An SG load of the same
weight contains 9, 9mm balls. Synonyms are
sometimes used to name the shot size, for
example buckshot. These powerful loads are
designed for harvesting pig sized animals at
about 30 metres range. Modern shotgun shot is
made from either lead, bismuth, tin, steel, or a
combination of alloys, metals and plastic
compounds.
Shotgun cartridges with solid slugs
To improve shotgun versatility and achieve
greater penetration on larger game animals, all
of the currently manufactured gauges are
available in a single slug, or Brenneke load.
These fire a rifled, or unrifled slug that generally
weighs 1 ounce in 12 gauge. These are
commonly used on pig sized animals or deer, at
close range (to 50 metres) and can be fired
through a standard shotgun, even if the gun is
choked. Firing slugs through choked guns
generally reduces accuracy. To overcome this
problem, some shotgun manufacturers provide
special rifled barrels, or slug barrels, which may
have either open sights, or telescopic sights.
These provide good accuracy to 100 metres.
Types of shotgun
A large variety of shotguns are available to the
hunter. These may vary in action type; barrel
configuration; barrel length; stock style or
patination. The most significant of these
characteristics is action type:
Break action guns: The action is hinged and
the gun is opened to load or unload by dropping
the barrels down below the action at the hinge
point. Single shotguns can be opened by a side
lever, top lever or under lever. Double-
barrelled shotguns may have a horizontal
side-by-side barrel configuration, or an
over and under vertical form. They too,
can be opened by a top, side, or under
lever. They may have ejectors that pop out
the fired shells when the gun is opened, or
have hand extractors. They may have a
single trigger, or double triggers to fire the
gun. Multiple barrelled shotgun-rifle
combinations involving up to four barrels
of different calibre, or gauge, can be
purchased.
One piece shotguns: These shotguns rely
on the mechanism in the action to load,
fire and eject the fired round, thus
allowing the barrel and action to remain in
one piece. These are available in single
shot; double barrel; or single barrel
multiple shot configurations. The latter are
particularly popular and include a box
magazine to hold the cartridges, or an
integral tube magazine. Action types for
these include: bolt action shotguns; lever
action shotguns; pump action shotguns, or
gas operated semi-automatic shotguns.
Shotgun choke
To improve the concentration of the shot
charge at the target at a given range, the
end of the shotgun barrel is constricted to
a smaller diameter than the bore diameter
during manufacture. This is called choke.
A number of choke sizes are available to
the gun buyer and these are selected
depending on the type of game, or the
range, at which the target will be shot.
Shotguns can be very specialised. Chokes
may be completely open or cylinder bore
for very close range shooting. The next
slightly tighter choke is improved cylinder,
then in sequence, quarter, half, three quarter,
full or extra full choke for very long range
shooting. Some gun owners use special guns
with different choke combinations between the
barrels for different types of shooting. To
improve versatility for a particular gun, some
owners buy shotguns with additional sets of
differently choked barrels. Some shotguns are
available with hand adjustable chokes. Many
modern guns are available with sets of screw in
choke tubes, so that the one gun can cover all
needs.
RECOMMENDED SHOT SIZES
Authorities specify suitable shot sizes for
different sized small game.
Table 1. Taken from ICI product information:
BASIC SHOTGUN TECHNIQUE
There are three main points to understand.
1. The aim is not to shoot at a moving target
where it is, but to aim to hit it where it is
going to be when the shot arrives.
2. Shotguns are normally aimed with both eyes
open. Much the same could be said about
purchasing a shotgun. The gun must fit the
shooter. That is, when the stock is mounted
to the shoulder in a ready to fire position,
the stock should fit firmly into the shooters
cheek and the eyes should be looking
straight down the barrel rib to the fore sight,
without having to move the head to do so.
Poor gun fit will ensure that the shot goes
wide of the target.
3. When shooting at a moving target, the
shooter must swing the gun through the
target, squeezing the trigger as it is passed
and then keep swinging, thus providing an
automatic lead to the target.
To become proficient at shotgunning one needs
to practice, practice and practice. Practice on
clay targets is essential to hone your skill with a
shotgun.
Exercise 1: gun mount and fit
Sight in your shotgun for gun mount and fit.
For a target use a board holding a large sheet of
butchers paper, marked centrally with a heavy
cross or dot. Most shotguns are fitted only with a
bead front sight. The rear sight is where your
eye is placed when you hold the gun in the
mounted position on the shoulder with cheek
resting lightly and comfortably positioned on the
comb of the stock. Use a new sheet of paper for
each test shot.
SPECIES SHOT SIZE
Goat, Pig, Deer
Single rifled
slug
Fox BB
Hare No 3
Duck, rabbit, pheasant No 3 to 6
Quail No 10
2.1.2.4 V1 11.05
2.1.2.5
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Test firings will reveal how good the gun fit is
and how consistent your gun mounting is. Find
the centre of the pattern of shot pellet holes and
compare this to the point of aim. If the centre of
your shot pattern is so far away from the aim
point that you are dissatisfied with it, ask a
capable shot gunner to check how you mount
your gun. You may need to change your gun
mounting technique or to consult your gunsmith
about stock modifications.
Hint: Try not to flinch when shooting at
stationary targets and fire at least ten shots from
any barrel to give an accurate indication of
where the gun is actually shooting.
Exercise 2: killing power
Take a cardboard carton and fill it with
telephone books. At a distance of 20 metres and
using a 32gram load of Number 8 lead shot, fire
one or two cartridges into the cardboard carton.
Check the telephone books to see what depth of
penetration you achieved with the No. 8 shot.
Next, take a 28 gram solid lead slug and fire it
into the cardboard carton. Again, check the
depth of penetration.
Now imagine that the cardboard carton was a
feral pig. Would you expect the No 8 shot to do
anything more than lodge under the skin lightly
wounding the pig?
How accurate were you with the solid lead slug?
Would you expect to be accurate at say 50
metres?
Remember always use an appropriate
firearm/ammunition combination fired over an
effective distance!
SHOTGUN SAFETY
A novice shotgun shooter should attend or
join, a gun club and learn how to safely
handle and shoot a shotgun at clay targets
before attempting to hunt game.
Before setting out for a shoot, the
hunter must make sure that the
cartridges are the right gauge for the
shotgun being used; that the cartridges
are the right length for that shotguns
chamber and that the charge of shot to
be used is within the proofed load for
that shotgun.
A break-open shotgun should always
be kept in the open position and
unloaded until the hunt commences.
Similarly, a single piece shotgun should
have the action open and be unloaded.
When walking with a shotgun, the
barrels should always be pointed to the
ground, or kept pointing into the air in
a vertical position and never pointed
towards a person.
When crossing a fence, the unloaded
and broken or opened action gun
should be passed to a person on the
other side of the fence, or laid on the
ground beneath the fence and not
picked up by the hunter until he or she
is through the fence.
A family enjoying a days hunt.
Two hunters with their bag of feral pigeons.
Two hunters walking up small game.
Example question
Shotguns can be used to kill a variety of game
animals. Shot size should be selected depending
upon the particular game being hunted.
True or False?
List one species of game animal that may be
humanely taken with each of the following shot
sizes:
REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING AND
LEARNING
1. Churchill, R. 1963 pp. 215-21,7 London:
Michael Joseph.
2. Smith, G. 1992. A Guide to Hunting and
Shooting in Australia, pp. 29-50, Sporting
Shooters Association of Australia Publications,
Unley SA.
Shot Size Game Species
SG
BB
Number 4
Number10
Shotguns are
ideal for
tailng hare
on the run.
Photo:
Max King.
Photos: Feather and Fur Magazine.
2.1.2.6 V1 11.05
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True
False
1. Best shot size for a feral pig is BB
2.
Firearm/ammunition combination must provide sufficient killing
power to humanely kill the animal.
3.
Good hunters stalk as close as possible without disturbing
animals before taking a shot.
4. Shot size for a hare is no 6
5. A 12 gauge shotgun can be used for game bird hunting.
6. The aim is to shoot at the moving target.
7. The killing power of a projectile varies with the size of the shot.
8.
The effective killing power of a shot load varies with the
toughness of the hide and the species targeted.
9. It is safer not to rely on safety catches at all.
10. Tight chokes extend the killing range of the shot pattern.
V1 11.05

V1 11.05
Game Council NSW
PO Box 2506
Orange NSW 2800
Phone: (02) 6360 5100 Fax: (02) 6361 2093
2.2.0 V1 11.05
2.2.1
V1 11.05
LIST OF CONTENTS
Glossary of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.3
Learning Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.3
Historical Information . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.3
Breech Loading Firearms . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.4
Muzzle Loading Firearms . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.5
About Black Powder . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.5
Black Powder Hunting Loads . . . . . . . 2.2.6
Loading the Firearm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.6
Tuning a Black Powder Firearm . . . . . 2.2.7
Things to Remember about Black
Powder Firearms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.8
Learning Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.8
Sample Assessment Question . . . . . . . 2.2.9
References for Further
Reading and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.9
Self Assessment Checklist . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.10
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Powder flask A container of various
shapes made from static free materials
such as copper. Used to hold powder and
vary in size from approx 2oz through to
approx 12oz.
Powder flask head A brass attachment
that seals the end of the powder flask.
These are made from brass and have a
lever for dispensing powder in controlled
amounts.
Flask filling funnel Brass funnel used
to refill powder flask.
Flask spout A brass spout which
attaches to the powder flask head and
holds a set charge of powder.
Powder horns A powder holding
container of made using a cow horn. The
amount of powder they hold varies with the
size of the Horn.
Powder horn plug Usually a brass fill
plug that screws into a bush located in the
into the wooden sealing plug of the powder
horn.
Powder horn valve and bushspout
A brass bush glued into the horn
with a push button valve that dispenses a
measured charge.
Powder horn valve and bush pouring:
A brass bush glued into the horn that
allows free pouring of powder.
Shot pouch Normally made of leather
and hold shot pellets for use in black
powder shotguns.
Shot head Attachment for the end of the shot
pouch that dispenses a measure of shot pellets.
Powder measure Made of brass and used to
measure out a set charge of powder. They can be
adjustable or fixed.
Flintlock pan primer Used to prime the
flash pan of a flintlock. Dispense several grains
of powder each use.
Ramrod Rod used to push the ball or bullet
into the barrel of the firearm.
Muzzle guide Brass attachment to
prevent damaging the muzzle and bore during
ramrod use.
Short starter Device used to start the
projectile down the barrel.
Cleaning jags Various brass attachments
used to clean the bore.
Barrel flusher Attachment which screws
onto the nipple to allow to be drawn through the
nipple and barrel for cleaning.
Nipple Attachment which hold a percussion
cap during firing.
Nipple wrench Wrench for removing the
nipple.
Nipple pick Device for cleaning the nipple
Nipple protector Device which fits over the
nipple to protect it from damage.
Flash cup A brass cup that sits under the
nipple to protect the barrel and stock from
burning.
Percussion cap Explosive cap that when
struck by the hammer ignites the powder inside
the barrel of a percussion musket.
Flint Small piece of rock attached to the
hammer of a flintlock musket. The hammer
strikes the flask pan, the flint creates a spark
igniting the powder in the flash pan which
ignites the powder in the barrel.
Flint knapper Small hammer used to keep a
sharp edge on the flint.
Vent pick Device used to clean out the vent
on a flintlock musket.
Patch Piece of material used between the
powder and the projectile.
Flash guard Metal device to prevent sparks
and burning powder spreading.
Lock Firing mechanism of the musket.
2.2.2 V1 11.05
2.2.3
V1 11.05
INTRODUCTION
Black powder is used as a propellant in two
broad categories of firearms:
Muzzle loading
Breech loading
So why hunt with muzzle loaders?
The answer is in the pleasure of taking part in a
living reconstruction of human history. The
hunter is prepared to accept fewer opportunities
to take game animals in return for the pleasure
of hunting in the tradition of early firearms.
This unit of study will assist the muzzle loading
hunter to hunt safely, and maintain high ethical
hunting standards and acceptable animal welfare
outcomes while using antique firearms
technology.
Used within their accurate range, muzzle loading
firearms are more than capable of delivering
one-shot instantaneous kills. These firearms
dispatch game effectively and humanely.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
This unit of study is designed to:
Provide a basis for the Restricted
NSW Game Hunting Licence
accreditation to hunt with black
powder firearms.
Provide basic information on hunting with
muzzle loading firearms.
Encourage people wishing to hunt in the
historical tradition of firearms to do so.
HISTORICAL INFORMATION
The world was introduced to firearms with
the advent of black powder propellant
several hundred years ago. Today it is still
used by some hunters and target shooters.
The invention of a self contained
percussion system allowed cartridges
containing the primer, powder, wad and
shot to be loaded into a firearm through
the shooters end of the gun. The older
alternative is to ram the components down
the muzzle of the gun and then prime the
gun as a second act at the shooters end.
BREECH LOADING FIREARMS
Many black powder firearms in use today are
loaded with centre-fire cartridges, which use
black powder as a propellant rather than
modern nitro based powder. Some specialists
reload the rarer pin-fire cartridges, although this
is a complicated process. Centre-fire black
powder cartridges are commonly used in
shotguns and rifles.
It should be noted that many of the older black
powder firearms are only proofed for the use of
black powder and not modern, high pressure
nitro powders.
You must at all times give priority to the
manufacturers instructions in respect of and/or
relating to the firearm being used.
It is hazardous to use the wrong powder.
Game Council NSW does not recommend the use
of nitrocellulose powders in black powder
firearms.
Breech loading, black powder, proofed shotguns
are still common at gun auctions and specialist
shops and are generally seen in eight, 10, 12,
16, and 28 gauge guns. Firearms may be
hammer guns or hammerless and may be found
in a variety of action types, many of which are
quite unusual such as Jones patent, under lever,
side by side shotguns, made by Hollis or Purdey.
Black powder shotguns may be single shot, two,
three or four barrel guns, combination guns,
pump action, lever action or bolt action. Barrels
may be steel or Damascus. Many of these old
guns are beautifully designed and hand made.
Some black powder shotguns have chokes,
but most do not because choking had not been
introduced when they were made. It should
be noted that black powder shotgun cartridges
are available in specialist shops in capital cities
and these should be used in black powder
proofed shotguns.
Breech loaded, black powder rifle cartridges
can be highly accurate and work well on game.
There is nothing quite like seeing the smoke
haze from the barrel when one is fired. Rifle
cartridges for black powder calibres are
generally a hand loading proposition.
This is because there were several hundred
different rifle calibres designed and used in
British, European and North American rifles,
many of which are subtly different in cartridge
dimensions. For example, the powerful .500
three and one quarter inch Express has a
different rim thickness to the .50/140 Sharps,
although in other respects they are similar.
Several companies specialise in manufacturing
cartridge cases for some of these obscure
calibres to facilitate hand loading.
Black powder rifles can be found in a variety of
action types including single shot, double rifles,
combination guns, lever action, pump action and
bolt action. Many modern nitro cartridges were
often based on original black powder designs.
In many of the North American rifle cartridges,
the calibre designation is followed by the charge
of black powder to be used. For example, .44/70
Maynard, .44/85 Wesson, .44/90 Sharps,
.45/100 Ballard. This terminology was used to
assist hunters living in remote areas where
factory loads were often not available.
It should be noted than many of the black
powder calibres used on big game and
dangerous game are characterised by large
bullet diameter and weight propelled at
moderate velocities (usually up to 2000 feet per
second). Consequently, large rifle calibres such
as .577 Express, and ball and shot guns which
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2.2.5
V1 11.05
were as large as four bore were used in smooth
bore, rifled or Paradox guns (partially rifled).
Muzzle energy, penetration and wound size
secured the kill. In contrast, modern nitro
powders use relatively light bullets travelling at
high velocity.
MUZZLE LOADING FIREARMS
Muzzle loaders are all loaded from the front end
of the barrel by pouring black powder down the
barrel, with a ball or bullet then being pushed
down to be seated on top of the powder charge.
There are four basic categories of muzzle
loading long arms: rifles, smooth bore ball guns,
shotguns and modern black powder rifles.
These are generally single shot guns, although
two to four barrelled guns can be found and
some rifles have revolving chambers. All of the
categories of muzzle loading firearms can be
subdivided on the basis of their ignition systems;
matchlock, wheel lock, flintlock or percussion.
The percussion systems can be further
subdivided into the old angled percussion lock
and the in line system commonly available in
modern percussion rifles and revolving muzzle
loaders. Today, amongst the muzzle loading
firearms, percussion rifles and shotguns are the
most commonly used.
Hunting with a muzzle loader requires more
skill on the part of the hunter than does the use
of a modern rifle. This is because the
technology is less advanced and a greater
number of variables need to be taken into
account.
Wind, rain, snow and heat will all have some
affect on the burning rate of the black powder.
Bullet construction is more primitive, producing
a more curved flight path to the target.
Consequently the muzzle loading hunter
must know his/her firearm and understand
its limitations and hunt within them.
ABOUT BLACK POWDER
Black powder is a mixture of sulphur,
saltpetre (potassium nitrate) and charcoal.
The modern muzzle loading hunter has
four-grain sizes to choose from: 1F, 2FF,
3FFF and 4FFFF. The coarsest is 1F or Fg,
which is the slowest burning to 4F or
FFFFg, the finest grained and fastest
burning.
Always follow the manufacturers
instructions in using slow and fast burning
powders.
Notwithstanding the guidance and
directions contained in this manual you
must at all times give priority to the
manufacturers instructions in respect of
and/or relating to the firearm being used.
Coarser powders are commonly used in
muskets, 10 gauge shotguns as well as very
large bore rifles and cannons. Medium
grain powders are used in 12 gauge
shotguns, 45 calibre and larger rifles and
single-shot pistols. Finer powders are used
in 20 gauge shot guns, pistols and rifles
under 45 calibre.
Safety Considerations
Never use 4F powder as a main charge
in any type of muzzle loader - it is for
the pan of flintlocks only.
Never smoke when using, loading or
shooting with black powder as it may
explode.
Never load directly from a powder
flask or horn into the barrel of a muzzle
loader.
Remember there may be smouldering
remnants of powder from an immediate
previous shot.
Always pour powder from a measure into the
barrel.
NEVER USE SMOKELESS NITROCELLULOSE
BASED POWDER IN A MUZZLE LOADER.
BLACK POWDER HUNTING LOADS
Always use safe loads in accordance with the
recommendations of reputable hand loading
manuals. At a rifle range, work up your loads in
safe increments until you have an accurate load
for your rifle while staying within the
recommendations for a maximum safe load.
Suggested Calibres and Projectiles
You will also need to work out the best type of
projectile for your hunting either a ball or a
conical type bullet, since the bullet type will have
an effect on the accurate range of the muzzle
loader. Once you have all the variables worked
out such as bullet type, patch thickness for
round ball and type of powder, then at a range
work up loads that are accurate for your rifle to
within 100 metres.
Calibres and projectiles
Muzzle loaders are all loaded from the front end
of the barrel by pouring black powder down the
barrel, with a ball or bullet then being pushed
down to be seated on top of the powder charge.
In the world of black powder hunting, projectile
size and mass are very critical due to the low
velocities and low ballistic coefficients of the
projectiles used.
LOADING THE FIREARM
NEVER EXCEED THE MANUFACTURERS
MAXIMUM POWDER LOAD.
NEVER USE SMOKELESS POWDER IN A
MUZZLE LOADER.
As with all firearms, before loading your
muzzle loader make sure it is unloaded.
You can do this by:
1. Lay your ramrod alongside the barrel of your
rifle and permanently mark the length
between the touchhole or percussion cap
breech plug and the end on the barrel on
the ramrod.
2. Now place the ramrod down the barrel of
the rifle if the mark is above the end of the
muzzle then you have a loaded rifle! If it is
just below the end of the barrel then the rifle
is unloaded.
GAME GUIDELINES
Small Game:
Rabbit, hare, fox,
feral cat
32 calibre with round
ball
Medium Game:
Feral dog and goat
Feral Pig
Deer
Fallow and hog deer
Sambar and wapiti
45 calibre, round ball,
130 grain round ball or
a 230 grain Minie
bullet.
50 calibre, 175 grain
round ball or a 250
grain Minie bullet.
45 calibre, 130 round
ball or a 230 Minie
bullet.
54 calibre, 300 grain
Minie bullet.
2.2.6 V1 11.05
2.2.7
V1 11.05
3. Once your have loaded your rifle and you
are sure the bullet is seated on the correct
amount of black powder with the ramrod
still sitting on the load, again place a
permanent mark on the ramrod. Now you
have a ramrod that you can use to determine
if the rifle is loaded or unloaded.
4. Clean the barrel to avoid the build up of
fouling with successive shots. Fouling will
increase muzzle pressure and this in turn
will increase muzzle velocity. This will
change your point of impact, which means
you are now hunting with an inaccurate and
possibly dangerous firearm!
Safety considerations
Never use the half cock as a safety
mechanism.
Never load a muzzle loader with powder in
the pan of a flintlock, or a cap on a nipple of
a percussion cap rifle.
Always load so that the end of the muzzle of
the rifle is pointed away from you.
Never look down the muzzle of a loaded
rifle.
Never blow down the barrel of a rifle
between shots.
Never pound down on a ramrod to seat the
bullet as it will deform it and reduce
accuracy.
TUNING A BLACK POWDER FIREARM
A good way to do this is to place wet
telephone books down range and to fire at
them at ranges up to 100 metres. Look at
the books after each shot and once you
have an accurate load that gives good
penetration and accuracy shot after shot,
then you have found the correct load for
your hunting rifle.
When things go wrong
Hang-fire
A hang-fire is a delay of ignition between
the primer and the main charge in the
barrel. If you have a discharge failure,
maintain your hold on target for as long as
possible. If it is a hang-fire, it may be only
a delay of a few seconds in the ignition of
the powder. Until the firearm is rendered
safe you MUST continue to point it in a safe
direction.
Misfire
A misfire occurs when the primer ignites
but the main powder charge fails to fire.
Again hold on target for as long as possible
as it may be a hang-fire. If after a few
minutes you dont have a discharge, then
still pointing the rifle in a safe direction
check the cap or pan. Make sure it is a
misfire, and then check with the ramrod
that the rifle is loaded correctly. If youre
sure it is a misfire, clean the vent or touch
hole with a pick, then reprime and fire.
THINGS TO REMEMBER ABOUT BLACK
POWDER FIREARMS
1. Hunters must understand that there are a
large number of variables when using a
black powder rifle that may affect accuracy,
such as weather conditions, the type and
grade of black powder, patch thickness, and
bullet type.
2. Hunters must know and understand the
muzzle loading rifle they are hunting with.
3. A muzzle loader hunter must be able to
accurately judge distance.
4. Never store black powder in the same area
as percussion caps.
5. If the rifle has double set triggers dont set
them until you are ready to fire.
6. Always seat the bullet firmly against the
powder charge.
7. Never use the half cock as a safety.
8. Always handle a muzzle loader in the same
safe manner as any other type of firearm.
9. Muzzle loading black powder rifles by their
nature are a possible fire hazard and should
only be used in low bushfire danger periods.
LEARNING EXERCISE
This exercise is designed to enable you to
understand the trajectory curve of a projectile
from your muzzle loader. It will also allow you to
set your firearm sights for the most appropriate
point blank range for the class of game you are
hunting.
Step 1. Set up targets at 25, 50, 75, 100, 150
and 200 metres. Aim at the centre of the
bullseye of each target with no allowance for
holdover. Place five shots into each target and
find the centre of each group. You can now
calculate the amount your projectile will drop at
each of these distances.
Step 2. For the distance that you will most
commonly be using your muzzle loader, adjust
the sights on your firearm so that it groups on
the bullseye at that distance.
Step 3. Repeat Step 1 with a series of targets.
From these targets you will now know the
amount of hold over or hold under needed at
each distance (with your current sight
adjustment) to ensure that your projectile lands
in the bullseye.
2.2.8 V1 11.05
2.2.9
V1 11.05
SAMPLE ASSESSMENT QUESTION
Hunting with a muzzle loader requires a lot more
skill on the part of the hunter than with the use of a
modern rifle.
True or False?
List four reasons for your answer.
AND LEARNING
Wright, G. 1996: Shooting the British
Double Rifle. Published by S.S.A.A.
Big Game Rifle Club.Victoria. Australia.
PP 1-126.
Barnes, F.C. 1993: Cartridges of the
World. 7th Edition. Published by DBI
books, U.S.A. PP 1-464.
1.
2.
3.
4.
True
False
1.
If a black powder firearm fails to discharge, you should wait
keeping the barrel pointed down range to see if it is a misfire or
hangfire.
2.
If your firearm fails to discharge immediately maintain your hold
on the target as long as possible in case it is a hang fire.
3.
If a black powder firearm misfires you should immediately
reprime.
4.
Smokeless powder is better to use in a black powder firearm as
you can see your shot placement more clearly.
5.
Never load a muzzle loader with powder in the pan of a flintlock
or a cap on a nipple of a percussion cap rifle.
6. Always seat the bullet well up from the powder charge.
7. Muzzle loaders should be loaded from a powder horn.
8.
A muzzle loader needs to be examined down the muzzle to
determine if it is loaded.
9. When loading use the half cock for safety.
10. Muzzle loaders kill game quickly and efficiently.
2.2.10 V1 11.05

V1 11.05
Game Council NSW
PO Box 2506
Orange NSW 2800
Phone: (02) 6360 5100 Fax: (02) 6361 2093
V1 11.05
2.3.1
V1 11.05
LIST OF CONTENTS
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.2
Learning objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.2
Historical Information . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.2
The Three Different Types of Bow . . . 2.3.3
Types of Arrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.4
Accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.5
Bow, arrow and broadhead
selection and tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.6
Shooting Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.9
Shooting Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.10
Preparing for the Hunt . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.11
The Hunt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.13
and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.16
Self Assessment Checklist . . . . . . . . . 2.3.17
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Archers paradox The transfer of
energy upon release from the bows limbs
to the arrow occurs through the rear of the
shaft first and to the point last. This
process causes the arrow to flex
(horizontally for finger release and
vertically for release aid). As the arrow
leaves the bow, the fletching stabilises the
flexing of the arrow rapidly to increase
accuracy. The amount of flexing can be
minimised by using properly matched
arrows to the bow and an arrow rest that
absorbs much of the flexing before the
arrow leaves the bow. This helps improve
the accuracy of the bow.
Buck fever A shaking nervousness due
to excitement.
Cables Are found on compound bows.
They are connected to the cams/wheels of
a compound.
Cable guard Is found on a compound
bow. It is a metal rod attached to the riser
of the bow and is used to hold the cables
away from the launch path of the arrow.
Cams/wheels Are the pulleys located on
the limb ends of a compound bow. The
string and cables are connected to these.
Cast The horizontal distance the arrow
can travel.
Grip The central part of the bow where
the hand connects during the draw.
Haemorrhage Bleeding.
Limbs The part of the bow above and
below the riser and grip that flexes when the
bow is drawn.
Nocking point A small metal clip located on
the string under which the arrow is clipped to
the string.
Range finder Is a small device used to
accurately measure the distance to a target.
Riser Is the non-flexing part of the bow
between the two limbs.
Spine The stiffness of an arrow shaft.
Tiller of the bow The distance between the
back of the bow and the bow string.
Window Is the cut away portion of the riser
where the arrow rest is located.
INTRODUCTION
Modern bow hunting is a fascinating and
challenging method of hunting.
It has proven to be a humane and effective
method of harvesting targeted animals when
used within the effective range of the equipment.
Even with modern technological advancements
in equipment and hunting techniques, bow
hunting is still essentially a short range hunting
proposition. The challenge for bow hunters is to
not only master the shooting of the bow and
arrow but to also develop the hunting skills
necessary to penetrate a game animals highly
evolved defence system of sight, sound and
smell. The challenge is to get as close as
possible before taking the shot. Bow hunting is
not for all hunters. It requires a great degree of
patience and perseverance to be successful.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
NSW Game Hunting Licence to hunt
with bows.
Know how to select the correct equipment
for your size, strength and shooting style.
Know the basics of how to tune your
equipment for optimum performance and
accuracy.
Know the basics of shooting a bow.
Know how to determine your effective
shooting range.
Know how to sharpen broadhead arrows.
Know basic bow hunting techniques.
Know where to aim to deliver a quick,
humane kill.
Know how to safely bow hunt.
HISTORICAL INFORMATION
No one knows when the first bow was made or
by whom or even on which continent it was
developed. What we do know is that bow hunting
has been around for up to 20,000 years. With
the advent of gunpowder and the subsequent
innovation of firearms, bow hunting as a survival
tool, died off in the western world. The rapid
spread of firearms throughout all continents by
colonising world powers was the virtual death
knell of bow hunting worldwide.
Only in isolated pockets did bow hunting survive
as a means for obtaining food, such as with the
Bushmen of Africa and people in other remote
regions.
2.3.2 V1 11.05
2.3.3
V1 11.05
Today bow hunting continues to grow with more
and more countries opening their hunting
grounds to bow hunting.
THE THREE DIFFERENT TYPES OF BOW
Bows consist of several fundamental parts. They
have a grip, riser, window, limbs, string, nocking
point and an arrow rest. Compound bows also
have wheels or cams, cables and cable guards.
In general, there are three basic types of bows.
Longbow: This bow is characterised by having
straight limbs that when strung bend back
towards the archer in a D shape. The longbow
was developed originally in England for hunting
and warfare. It is most commonly associated
with the legend of Robin Hood. Traditionally they
were made from yew timber, which was readily
available, of good flex, strong and straight of
grain. The modern longbow is similar in design
but more often made of laminated timber. The
longbow is considered a traditional bow and is
the most difficult to master.
Recurve Bow: This bow is characterised by
limbs that point forward from the shooter when
the bow is strung. The string sits in a notch
along the back of the limb and only comes away
from the limb when the bow is drawn. These
bows have a grip cut into the riser of the bow
making them much more comfortable to draw
and shoot. The curving limb design greatly
reduces the shock into the bow arm when the
arrow is released. The recurve bow was
developed in Asia most notably in Mongolia and
China for hunting and as a weapon of war. The
great Mongol hordes under Genghis Khan used
the recurve to great effect in battle. It is believed
there are two main reasons for the development
of the recurve bow. Firstly, this region lacked
timber of the quality needed to make long bows.
Recurve bows were made of several curved
pieces of timber bound together with
sinew. The curving design increased the
poundage that could be achieved from the
timber available. Secondly, the Mongols
were great horsemen and this short
recurving bow made it possible for them to
shoot from horseback, which gave them a
huge advantage in the battlefield. Today,
this bow design is made of laminated
timbers for increased strength and
reliability. It is considerably easier to shoot
than a longbow.
Compound bow: This bow
revolutionised modern bow hunting. It is
characterised by having 2 wheels or cams
located on the ends of the limbs. Utilising a
system of cables attached to the wheels or
cams the bow is drawn back to the
archers face. With longbows and recurve
bows, the further the string is drawn back
the more poundage and strength is
required to hold it back. This can make
aiming more difficult. The design of the
compound has the most draw effort
required at the beginning of the draw than
at the end and so, as the wheels or cams
roll over, the draw weight at full draw can
be reduced to less than 70% of the peak
draw weight making the bow much easier
to aim and shoot. This also allows the
bows limbs to store proportionally more
energy and this increases arrow velocity
and flattens trajectory of the arrow, which
makes it more accurate over longer
ranges.
This bow type is the easiest to master and
considered to be the most accurate.
ARROWS
Arrows consist of several parts.
Shaft: There are three main materials used to
construct arrow shafts.
Timber: Timber arrows are made from a
variety of different timbers with Port Orford
cedar being the most popular. They come in
a variety of different lengths, thicknesses and
spines to suit most bow types. Due to the
natural variations in timber grain and
strength, it is very difficult and time
consuming to get a matched set of timber
arrows to suit your bow. This variation will
affect accuracy. Timber arrows also lack the
strength of other arrow materials and can
easily break should they hit hard objects like
rocks and trees.
Aluminium: Aluminium arrows
revolutionised arrow technology and brought
about a marked improvement in accuracy.
The introduction of aluminium tubing for
use in arrow manufacture has made it
possible to produce multiple shafts of the
same weight, spine and straightness in a
huge variety of sizes to perfectly match your
equipment. Aluminium arrows are also
lighter for the same bow poundage than
timber and this reduction in weight
increases velocity and flattens trajectory for a
consistently more accurate shot. However,
aluminium shafts can bend or break when
they hit solid objects. Aluminium shafts are
generally a little more expensive than timber.
They are the most popular shaft material
used by hunters today.
Carbon Fibre: The use of carbon fibre is
the latest development in arrow shaft design
and it has been a considerable improvement
over aluminium. It is lighter, stronger and
straighter than aluminium. These features
provide an increase in accuracy over timber
and aluminium. Carbon fibre shafts are also
much less prone to breakage when hitting a
solid object. Carbon fibre arrows are more
expensive than aluminium but the price is
decreasing as more and more archers
choose this shaft material.
The three different types of bow
An Australian made
longbow constructed
from Australian timbers.
A Recurve bow
made by PSE in the USA.
A Compound bow
made by PSE in the USA.
2.3.4 V1 11.05
2.3.5
V1 11.05
Fletching: Can be made of real feathers (goose
or turkey) or plastic. Feathers are more often
the choice for traditional archers as they provide
better arrow flight when shooting off the shelf of
the bow. However, they are not as durable as
plastic (vanes) and are badly affected during wet
weather. Vanes are perfect when using an arrow
rest, they are very resistant to wear and
impervious to weather. Their smooth surface
increases arrow speed.
Nock: This is a small, notched piece of plastic
glued onto, or inserted into, the shaft at the tail
end. The nock is clipped onto the string to give
the arrow stability during aim. Nocks are
generally made of plastic and come in a variety
of sizes and colours to suit all applications.
Points: There are two main types of arrow
points; field points used for target shooting and
broadheads for hunting.
ACCESSORIES
There are several basic accessories required to
set up your bow to shoot. Each accessory comes
in a variety of styles that all serve the same
purpose. The style of a particular accessory is a
matter of personal preference.
Arrow Rests: These provide a launch pad for
your arrow. They are designed to reduce the
archers paradox and minimise contact of the
fletching with the bow rest to give a consistent
and accurate launch path for the arrow.
Sights: Sights come in a range of designs. They
are most commonly affixed to compound bows
and sometimes to recurve bows but never to
longbows. The bow sight is usually attached to
the front of the bow window and comprises up
to five pins that sit in a vertical line above the
arrow. A peep sight is attached to the string and
when the bow is drawn, the archer can see
through the peep and can centre the end
of the pin on the desired point of impact
on the target. The pin sights are usually set
at 10 metre intervals with the top pin being
for the closest distance of 20 Metres and
then 30m, 40m and 50m.
Gloves, Tabs and Release Aids: Gloves and
tabs are used when using your fingers to
draw, hold and release the string. A release
aid is a mechanical device that is strapped
to the drawing hand. A metal latch hooks
the string and a trigger is used to release
it. Release aids remove the inconsistencies
of a finger release.
Arm Guards: These are strapped to your
bow arm to protect your forearm from the
slap of the string and to keep loose
clothing from coming into contact with the
string as this can affect accuracy.
Quivers: These are used to hold the arrows
in a safe manner. There are three main
types of quiver.
Back Quivers: These are the most
traditional type favoured by longbow
and recurve enthusiasts. It is a full-
length pouch usually made from
leather and it has a strap going over
the shoulder. Arrows tend to rattle
around in these types of quiver and
broadheads can become dull from
rubbing against each other.
Bow Quivers: These attach to the side
of the bow and can hold up to 8
arrows. broadheads are secured in the
hood on the top and a clip holds the
arrow shaft. These are very popular for
compound bows and they safely and
securely hold the arrows. They can
however upset the balance of the bow
and this can affect accuracy.
Hip Quivers: These attach to the belt of the
archer. They must be fitted with a hood
which fully encloses the broadhead to
protect the archer. The shaft is attached by a
clip to hold the arrows securely.
Camouflage
It is considered essential that bow hunters wear
camouflage clothing to assist a close stalk.
Camouflage breaks up the human outline and
the pattern and colour should be carefully
selected to match the terrain of the hunt. It is
important to recognise that camouflage clothing
may increase the risk of a hunting accident in
areas where rifle hunters are active. Safety is
improved if you wear an item of blaze orange
clothing such as a cap or vest.
BOW, ARROW AND BROADHEAD
SELECTION AND TUNING
Bow selection
Prospective bow hunters need to consider four
things when selecting an appropriate bow.
1. Whether they are right or left handed.
2. Draw Length. This is the length of pull for
the archer to draw the string back to a
comfortable anchor point on the face.
3. Draw Weight. This is the amount of pulling
pressure, measured in pounds, required to
bring the bow back to full draw.
4. The type of bow the person wishes to learn
to shoot and hunt with.
A novice bow hunter should seek the advice of
trained archery shop staff, a bow hunting club
coach or a friend who is very experienced in
bow hunting to help with the selection of a
hunting bow. A poorly fitting bow will make
accurate shooting nearly impossible.
Arrow selection
Arrow manufacturers have created charts that
need to be consulted when choosing arrows.
These charts consider draw length, draw weight,
shaft material and point weight and then give you
a range of 3-5 arrow sizes that will suit your
equipment. The use of incorrectly matched
arrows will greatly affect accuracy and can be
incredibly dangerous.
Broadhead selection
Broadheads are the arrow points used for
hunting. They are designed to fly accurately,
penetrate deeply and cut vital organs to facilitate
as rapid a blood loss as possible.
There are two basic types of broadheads.
Fixed blade design: These have two or more
blades that need to be manually sharpened by
the bow hunter.
Replaceable blade design: These have blades
that are pre-sharpened in the factory to a
shaving sharp edge and can be replaced after the
shot.
Broadheads with two blades provide the best
penetration and are suitable for hunting all
animals. As the number of blades increases,
there is a corresponding decrease in penetration
due to the drag of the extra blades, although this
can be offset with an increase in the size of the
wound channel and ability to sever tissue.
Generally, bows of lighter weight should use two
bladed broadheads and those hunters using
heavy weight bows can choose to use
broadheads with more than 2 blades.
2.3.6 V1 11.05
2.3.7
V1 11.05
Game Council Recommendations
Game Council NSW recommends the following
equipment minimums as a requirement for
humanely and effectively harvesting the animals
in each class:
Arrows
All arrows must be equipped with a
broadhead of not less than 25mm in width.
All broadheads must have a minimum of2
sharpened cutting blades.
Draw weights
All draw weights apply to peak draw weights of
Long Bows, Recurve Bows and Compound Bows.
Bow tuning
Once you have made your equipment selections
you will need to precisely tune your equipment
to its optimum performance level. This can take
some time. Broadhead tipped arrows do fly
differently to field pointed arrows because of the
different aerodynamics produced by the larger
broadhead. If the incorrect fletching size and
configuration is used, there can be a tendency
for broadheads to plane erratically because of
their large flat surface area. Generally,
broadhead tipped arrows require a minimum of
300mm (12 inches) of fletching (3 x 100mm [4
inch] feathers/ vanes) in a helical pattern. This
will force the arrow as it leaves the bow to spin,
thereby eliminating the flat broadhead surface
and the planing effect. A new bow hunter should
enlist the advice of an archery shop dealer, club
coach or experienced bow hunter to help with
the initial set up of the bow. There are also
several good books on the subject available from
archery dealers.
Basic bow set-up
The bow is set-up by adjusting the nocking
point on the bowstring to the correct
vertical height and adjusting the arrow rest
for proper centre shot. These adjustments
are slightly different for each bow type and
Game Species
Minimum draw
Weight
Feral Animals:
Rabbits
Hares
Feral cats
Foxes
Minimum draw
weight 30lb (13.5
kg)
Wild Dog
Goat
40lb (17.5 kg)
Feral Pig
Deer:
Chital, Fallow
45 lb (20.0 kg)
Deer: Rusa,
Red Sambar,
Wapiti
50lb (22.5 kg)
Game birds:
California quail
Partridge
Pheasant
Peafowl
45 lb (20 kg)
Arrow
specifications of
points 1 and 2
only.
Turkey
45 lb (20 kg)
Arrow
specifications of
points 1 and 2 only
are used as a starting point for fine tuning your
equipment for optimum performance.
Recurve and longbows (shot with a finger
release), should set the nocking point at 3/8
inch above centre and the arrow rest should be
set with the tip of the arrow just to the left of
centre (right handed bows). See diagram below.
In regards to compound bows, you will first
need to adjust the tiller of the bow so that the
bowstring is the same distance from the limbs.
This will ensure that both limbs are working in
unison and are generating equal amounts of
energy. See diagram below.
If the shooter is using a finger release then
adjust nocking point and arrow rest as above. If
using a release aid then the nocking point
should be set at 14 inch above centre and the
arrow tip should be directly in line with the
string. See the following diagrams.
Fine Tuning
This can be best done using a method called
paper tuning. Put simply, arrows are shot
through a piece of paper and into a suitable
backstop located beyond the paper. A picture
frame works well when the paper is tightly taped
to it. Start shooting 3 metres from the paper and
make adjustments according to the resultant tear
directions in the paper.
Holes with high or low tear patterns: High tears
require a slight lowering of the nocking point
(1/8 inch increments).
Do the opposite for low tears. Refer to next
diagram.
Left and right tear patterns (Right handed
Shooter): Right tears show an arrow that is too
stiff in spine for the bow weight.
2.3.8 V1 11.05
2.3.9
V1 11.05
Try the following:
1. Move arrow rest towards the bow.
2. Increase bow weight.
3. Increase arrow point weight.
4. Decrease cushion plunger tension if using
such an arrow rest.
5. Try a weaker spined arrow.
For left tear patterns do the opposite of the
above. See diagram below.
Acceptable tear patterns (See diagram) is
achieved when the point of the arrow and the
fletching go through the same hole. Slight tears
are acceptable and will not affect accuracy.
Perfect results can only be achieved with perfect
shooting form.
(Basic and Fine tuning information and
diagrams are courtesy of the Hoyt Archery
Company compound bow manual 1994)
SHOOTING TECHNIQUES
There are three main shooting techniques
that work well for bow hunting.
1. Instinctive shooting
This is perhaps the most difficult technique
to master. Characteristically, it requires
very regular practice, often daily, to reach
and maintain an acceptable level of
accuracy. It involves becoming so familiar
with the bow, arrow and trajectory of the
arrow that it becomes an extension of your
body. All the shooters concentration is
focused on the point of impact with no
reference to the bow or arrow in the
sighting sequence. The process is very
similar to throwing a ball.
2. Gap shooting
In this style the archer lines up the point of
the arrow when at full draw to a point
from below the intended point of impact
for close targets to right on the point of
impact for longer distances. The distance
below the target is known as the gap.
This gap changes with the distance from
the target. With practice, it can become a
very accurate method of shooting.
The above two styles of shooting are
known as bare bow shooting and can be
done using any type of bow.
3. Sighted shooting
This is the use of pin sights, with or
without the aid of a string affixed peep-
sight. The sights are adjusted to exact
distances for each bow. Once the estimated
or exact distance to the target is known the
bow is drawn and the correct sight pin is
placed on the desired point of impact and the
arrow is released.When adjusting the sight pins
to the bow/arrow combination start at a known
distance such as 20 metres for the first pin (top
pin) and shoot a group of 3 arrows. Adjust the
pins in the direction of the groups impact. Eg. If
the arrows all shoot high and to the left of the
target move the sight pin up and to the left. Try
another 3 shots. Keep making the adjustments
until the groups and intended point of impact
are the same. Once the first pin is set correctly,
then move back to 30 metres and follow the
same procedure for the next pin and so on.
SHOOTING BASICS
Stance
Your stance is very important in providing a
stable shooting platform for your body. Your
position needs to be comfortable and stable.
Generally, this is achieved when you stand side
on to the target with your bow arm closest to the
target. Your feet should be shoulder width apart
with your rear foot approximately 12 foot length
forward. This creates an open stance that is
stable and provides a good level of clearance for
the bowstrings travel path.
Draw
The bow string should be drawn back to your
chosen anchor point in one fluid motion without
the need to raise the bow above your head or
contorting your body to reach full draw. If you
need to do this then the bows draw weight is too
high for your physical strength. With a compound
bow, simply decrease the draw weight. With a long
bow or recurve you may need to consider
changing to a lighter draw weight bow. Release aid
shooters must never draw back the string with the
finger on the trigger. The finger should only be
placed on the trigger at the moment of release.
Anchor Point
This is the point where you draw your string
back to. For finger shooters it is usually the
corner of your mouth and for release aid
shooters is under your chin. Regardless of
where you choose to anchor, it needs to be
comfortable, easily found and you need to do it
the same at all times. For sighted shooters the
installation of a peep sight in the string makes
exact anchoring shot after shot relatively simple.
Aim
Once the bow string has been anchored
correctly then the archer needs to aim using
whatever technique they prefer. However, be
careful not to stay at full draw aiming for too
long as muscle fatigue will soon have your bow
arm shaking off target. If you cannot align your
sighting before you begin to shake then let down
the string without releasing the arrow and try
again. If this occurs consistently then reduce the
draw weight of the bow.
Release
For finger shooters, when the bow is properly
sighted relax the fingers on your drawing hand
and the pressure on the string will pull it free of
your fingers and release the arrow. For release-
aid shooters, simply depress the trigger as you
would a rifle trigger.
Follow through
This is vital for accurate shooting. It requires the
archer to hold the bow arm in the same position
as just prior to the shot until the arrow reaches
its target. It takes the arrow a split second from
release to clearing the arrow rest. Any movement
of the bow arm or body during this time will
greatly affect the impact point of the arrow.
2.3.10 V1 11.05
2.3.11
V1 11.05
Common shooting mistakes
An occasional arrow hitting high or low is
usually the result of moving the bow arm up or
down a fraction after the release. Arrows that hit
low usually result from the archer dropping the
bow arm to see where the arrow went. An arrow
occasionally impacting right or left of target is
usually the result of finger shooter pulling their
release hand away from their anchor point at the
moment of release. Other causes of erratic
arrow impacts can be misjudging the distance to
the target, muscle fatigue, poorly tuned
equipment and incorrectly matched equipment
or a slightly bent arrow/incorrectly aligned
point.
PREPARING FOR THE HUNT
Broadhead sharpening
For a broadhead to be effective, it must be
shaving sharp! Many bow hunters choose to use
broadheads that can be resharpened. These
broadheads come with a basic ground edge but
it is by no means sharp enough to hunt with. A
more expensive option is the pre-sharpened
broadheads manufactured in the USA. When
purchasing your broadheads, be sure to read the
packaging well to ensure you have the exact type
that you are after.
To sharpen broadheads by hand you will require
a file (flat second cut or mill bastard), a stone
(medium Grade) or diamond hone. It will take a
lot of practice and a little patience until the
technique is mastered. The best results will be
achieved by using tools of full size and good quality.
To hand grind to a shaving sharp edge you need
to sharpen both sides of the blade evenly and
maintain the same angle of grind. Start with the
coarser file and finish with the stone.
In practice you need to grip the shaft of the
arrow in your left hand close to the back
of the broadhead. Place your index and
middle fingers under the back part of the
broadhead blade and grip down on the
shaft with your thumb to ensure you are
holding the broadhead safely and securely.
First, lay the file at the back of the
broadhead perpendicular to the blade and
at an angle that touches mainly with the
blade but also lightly on the ferrule of the
broadhead. This gives the correct and
easily repeatable sharpening angle. Next,
using firm pressure and with the file
perpendicular to the blade edge and the
angle of contact the same, push the file off
the end of the broadhead. Repeat this
process until a uniform cut is achieved and
the edge has a slight burr along its
complete length.
Turn over the broadhead and sharpen the other
side of the same edge until uniform and sharp
edge is achieved. The last few strokes on each
edge should be done progressively lighter. Once
both sides and both blades have a fine burr on
them use the same technique with the stone or
diamond stone. Use gentle pressure getting
lighter with each stroke until the burr is
removed and a shaving sharp edge is achieved.
Test the edge periodically on your arm hair for
sharpness. Once a shaving edge has been
achieved, place the arrow into your choice of
quiver with the broadhead completely covered
by the hood of the quiver.
Equipment limitations
Bow hunting by its very nature is a short range
hunting experience. While a modern hunting
bow may be able to cast a hunting arrow several
hundred metres, in real terms its ACCURATE
range and ability to kill humanely is very much
shorter. Over a short distance of 20 and up to 30
metres for a compound bow, the arrows
trajectory is relatively flat. This is the optimum
distance for taking the shot. Beyond this distance
the arrows speed drops and the arc of trajectory
falls considerably making range estimation
critical in achieving accurate shooting. Range
finders can be used to positively determine the
distance to a target and increase accuracy.
It must also be remembered that a fast hunting
bow can cast a hunting arrow in excess of 80
metres per second. Over a longer shot distance
this allows for some flight time for the arrow in
which an animal can move, resulting in a less
desirable hit. In real terms, a modern hunting
bow and arrow combination is quite capable of
humanely killing targeted animals at longer
ranges. However, this does not take into account
the ability of the hunter to shoot accurately over
this distance, nor the variables of wind, terrain
and animal movement.
Effective shooting range
Bow hunters need to be able to determine their
own Effective Shooting Range (ESR) prior to
hunting and they must develop the discipline to
stick within their own boundaries of ability.
Bow hunting is a discipline that requires
considerable practice before becoming
proficient enough to hunt. Generally speaking,
the kill area of deer, feral goats and feral pigs is
20 cm in diameter. Naturally this size changes,
depending on the age and species of the animal
being hunted. A bow hunter must be able to
consistently hit a target of this size at a
predetermined distance, say 20 metres, before
being confident of shooting at game at this
distance. As the hunters ability to shoot
accurately over longer distances develops so too
does their ESR.
It is a good idea to practice shooting at a field
range that has animal shaped targets set out at
various distances in varied terrain to simulate
actual hunting conditions. Shots can made be up
hill or down, across gullies or waterholes. This
variation helps a bow hunter to judge distances
and trajectories. Many clubs use 3 dimensional
targets that are of the correct size for the
animals and this allows for practice that is even
more realistic. The targets have kills zones
marked on them to help hunters learn where to
target the animals for a humane kill. Most of
these clubs also hold regular competition shoots
and these are invaluable in helping the
bow hunter learn to cope with the pressure of
competitive shooting and the buck fever of
hunting.
In a hunting situation the bow hunters ESR will
be determined by considering their own ability
and other variables such as wind, terrain and the
likelihood of an animal moving once the arrow
2.3.12 V1 11.05
2.3.13
V1 11.05
is released. This means that the ESR will be
different in different situations, and with different
bow hunters.
THE HUNT
Safety
Bows and arrows can be dangerous when used
incorrectly. As long as basic safety measures are
adhered to, bow hunting is a safe and enjoyable
activity.
The razor sharp broadhead is the most
potentially dangerous piece of bow hunting
equipment. It is designed to cut through skin
and vital organs causing fatal haemorrhage.
Therefore, broadhead arrows should always be
carried in a quiver that completely covers the
broadhead. The arrow should only be removed
from the quiver just prior to the shot being
taken. Never carry an arrow in your hand for
long periods or in steep country. It is quite
possible that a trip or fall could result in the
hunter falling on the arrow. This could prove
fatal.
When preparing for a shot ALWAYS POSITIVELY
IDENTIFY YOUR TARGET.
This includes the animal you are aiming at, the
area immediately in front of the target and to the
sides and behind. You must be absolutely certain
that your shot will not hit an unintended animal
or person. While arrows dont travel as far as
projectiles do, they still have the ability to travel
over 100 metres or ricochet off hard objects
such as the ground, trees and rocks and this can
cause the arrow to change directions quite
abruptly.
Avoid shooting at animals that are on the skyline
or on the crest of a hill. You cannot see what
may lie beyond the ridgeline and could be hit by
the arrow. Arrows can completely pass
through an animal and travel a
considerable distance beyond their target.
At the completion of a days hunt, be sure
to place your bow and arrows back into a
case. Stepping on or knocking over your
bow can damage the bow. Stepping on the
arrows will often break or bend them.
Check your bows string/cables periodically
for fraying and wax it or replace it if
necessary.
Animal welfare
Modern bow hunting has been proven to
be a humane method of harvesting game
animals. *Studies in the USA and South
Africa have found that an arrow will kill
just as efficiently when targeted through
the chest as a projectile. The average time
for death was within a few seconds of each
other for rifle and bow.
(*Natal Parks Board: Evaluation of hunting bow
as a form of recreational hunting in Natal 1985)
How broad heads kill
Broad heads kill by causing massive
haemorrhage. Animals targeted at the chest
(heart/lung area) will die quickly and
humanely. This area of the animals body
provides the largest target area of vital
organs and so provides the greatest
opportunity to achieve a humane kill.
When a shaving sharp broad head hits an
animal through the chest it causes a
massive amount of blood loss. This blood
loss rapidly decreases the animals blood
pressure rendering the animal
unconscious. Further blood loss kills the
animal.
2.3.14 V1 11.05
Shot placement
Under no circumstances are bow hunters to
target the head/ brain. Large bones can impede
and deflect the penetration of the arrow and may
prevent the arrow from reaching a vital area.
Therefore, all bow hunters should avoid shots
that will connect with the shoulder blade, leg,
hip and skull bones. Bow hunters should learn
and commit to memory the location in the chest
of the vital organs of the species they wish to
hunt and importantly their location when the
animal is standing at various angles from the
bow hunter.
Hunting techniques
There are several different hunting techniques
utilised by hunters to get close enough for a
shot. The difficulty with bow hunting is the need
to be close to your quarry before taking a shot.
An animals response to danger at close ranges
is more heightened than at the longer ranges
from which most rifle hunting is done.
An animals senses of sight, sound and smell can
be used to the advantage of the bow hunter. By
stalking into or across the wind the bow hunter
will avoid being detected by the animals sense of
smell. Quiet movement can be achieved by using
clothing that makes little or no sound when
brushed against itself or foliage. Good soft-soled
boots will absorb a lot of the sound from
walking, noise is further reduced by walking
slowly and carefully placing your feet. An
animals sight is geared towards spotting danger
through movement. Even with good quality
camouflage clothing it is the movement which
will alert an animal to danger. There are two
ways to get close to an animal. One is to move
towards the animal and the other is to let the
animal come to you.
To be consistently successful at bow hunting It is
imperative that you spot the animal before the
animal spots you. An un-alarmed animal is much
easier to approach than one that has caught a
glimpse of movement or a shape and thinks that
all is not right. The critical part of any stalk with
a bow is the moment that you draw your bow to
take the shot. This requires a considerable
amount of movement and at such close range
the action must be timed perfectly so as not to
spook your target.
Stalking: This requires that the wind direction
is right, that you can move silently and time your
movements to when the animal is not likely to
see you. Stalking is often done in conjunction
with spotting animals from a vantage point with
binoculars or moving through habitat likely to
contain game.
Stand Hunting: This is a technique whereby
the animal comes to you. The hunter will need a
good degree of knowledge about their quarrys
habits, such as bedding and feeding areas and
the travel routes they use. The bow hunter must
be positioned in an area where they believe the
animals will come to. This is usually a
feeding/watering area or a known travel route. A
ground blind can be constructed down wind
from the attracting source to provide cover for
the hunter.
A hunter may also wish to use a tree stand. This
involves placing a tree stand in a good location
overlooking a food source, water source or
travel route. A tree stand helps to get the hunters
scent above the animals and the hunter is also
above the animals line of vision. One of the
draw backs of tree stands is that should an
animal come by that is out of range it is often
not possible to move closer for a shot. There are
also very big safety concerns when using tree
stands. The hunter should make sure that the
stand can carry their weight, is securely fastened
2.3.15
V1 11.05
to the tree and has a safety strap attaching the
hunter to the tree to prevent a fall. A fall from
even a small height can have disastrous results
for the hunter, especially if they are in the
process of taking a shot and an arrow is out of
the quiver. Good commercially manufactured
tree stands are available from some archery
dealers in Australia or via mail order from the
USA.
The shot
Once the bow hunter is in range of the
targeted animal it is time to prepare for the
shot. At this point it is common for the bow
hunter to be struck by buck fever. This is
caused by nervousness at being in such close
proximity to an animal and as a result, the
body will react by releasing a surge of
adrenalin. This causes shaking and rapid
breathing, making an accurate shot very
difficult. It is best to wait out attacks of buck
fever by breathing deeply and evenly.
Now the most critical part of any bow hunt is
at hand. Drawing the bow requires a certain
amount of movement at a very close proximity
to a wild animal. To successfully draw the
bow without alarming and/or spooking the
game the bow hunter should wait until the
animals vision is obscured by a tree/rock or
bush or the animals head is turned away.
Timing the draw is critical to a successful
shot. Animals alerted by the movement can
flee before the draw is completed or become
very alert and charged with adrenalin. This
alertness can result in even a fatally wounded
animal covering a longer distance before
dying than a relaxed animal hit in the same
place. Remember that the arrows flight path
to the animals vital organs must be
completely unobstructed.
Even a small branch or leaves can deflect an
arrow resulting in a miss or worse a poorly
placed hit.
Tracking
After the shot, it is vitally important that you
not move. The bow shoots an arrow silently,
often the animal has no idea where the shot
came from, and there is no loud noise to
trigger an adrenalin rush in the animal. Un-
alert animals will often jump forward a few
paces on contact with the arrow and may just
slowly walk to a nearby spot to die. In thick
cover you may need to track the animal.
Tracking techniques
Using paper or tape, mark the position of
the animal when the shot was fired and
also your location when you fired.
Note the reaction of the animal when hit
with the arrow and its direction of flight.
Look for signs of blood, hair and the
arrow itself on the ground.
Periodically mark the location of blood
with the paper or tape to provide a line of
travel of the animal in case the blood trail
is lost. Cast ahead on the line of travel
looking for more blood. If no more blood
is found go back to the last blood spot
and make widening concentric circles
until more blood or a sign is located. Shot
animals often make sharp direction
changes.
If a good blood trail suddenly ends, look
carefully in any cover in the vicinity.
In steep or hilly country animals generally
head down hill when shot.
Tracking should always be done slowly
and carefully. It is important to spend as
much time looking forward as looking on
the ground.
LEARNING EXERCISE
1. Describe where you would shoot your arrow
to hit the vital organs of a pig, goat or deer.
2. Name the vital organs you would hope to hit.
AND LEARNING
1. Australian Bowhunters Association.
International Bowhunting Record Book 2002
Australian Bowhunters Association, QLD
2. Asbell, F. Instinctive Shooting II
3. Bear, F. Fred Bears Field Notes. 1976
Doubleday and Company, Inc. New York.
4. Helgeland, G. Complete Guide To
Bowhunting. 1975 Prentice-Hall, Inc. New
Jersey.
5. Kroeber, T. Ishi in two Worlds 1964
University of California Press. California.
6. Mckinney, W. C. Archery. 1975
W C Brown Company Publishers. Iowa.
7. Safari Club International. World Bowhunting
Record Book, Edition II 2000 Safari Club
International. Arizona.
8. Schulz, John. Hit em Like Howard Hill. 1979
John Schulz. Wyoming.
Videos
1. Cash, Graham. Shikari Twelve Point
Productions
2. Smith, Brad. Edge of the Divide, Hooked on
Bow hunting, Hogs Of Oz, Two Blade
Productions
3. Vercoe, Brett. The Wild Life, Boaring Vols I II
III, Huge Hogs Vols I II, Vercoe Video
Productions
Magazines
1. Archery Action with Outdoor Connections.
Australian Bow Hunters Association Australia
2. Bow hunter Magazine. USA
3. Petersens Bow Hunting. USA
4. Traditional Bow hunter. USA
Bowhunting Organisation
Australian Bowhunters Association (ABA)
National Office:
The Executive Director
PO box 442
Aspley QLD 4034
PH (07) 3359 2221
Fax (07) 33590176
Email archactn@eis.net.au
Game Council NSW recommends the ABAs
Bowhunter Proficiency Course to all
bowhunters as a pre-requisite to the R-Licence.
1.
2.
2.3.16 V1 11.05
2.3.17
V1 11.05
True
False
1.
Large bones can impede and deflect the penetration of the arrow
and may prevent the arrow from reaching a vital area. Therefore,
bow hunters should avoid shots that will strike the skull bones,
shoulder blade, hip and leg bones. Under no circumstances are
bow hunters to target the brain.
2.
A broadhead tipped arrow needs to be shaving sharp to
humanely kill the targeted animal.
3.
A successful bow hunter has a high degree of patience and
perseverance. Bow hunters must learn not only to master the art
of shooting a bow but also the art of stalking prey animals to
within close range.
4.
Although bow hunting is a close range hunting style, the bow
hunter must still always positively identify their target and what
lies beyond it.
5.
A bow hunters Effective Shooting Range is determined by their
choice of equipment, their ability to use it and the specific shot
situation.
6.
After the shot has been taken, the bow hunter should
immediately chase after the targeted animal to verify if the arrow
hit the animal.
7.
It is not necessary to fine-tune your equipment to achieve optimal
performance and accuracy.
8.
An arrow striking an animal anywhere in the body is sufficient to
achieve a quick, humane kill.
9.
When bow hunting from a tree stand the bow hunter should
always wear a safety belt, as a fall from even a low height can
cause serious injury or death.
10
When blood trailing an animal it is acceptable to give up
searching when the blood trail stops.
V1 11.05

V1 11.05
Game Council NSW
PO Box 2506
Orange NSW 2800
Phone: (02) 6360 5100 Fax: (02) 6361 2093
V1 11.05
2.4.1
V1 11.05
LIST OF CONTENTS
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.2
Identifying Suitable Breeds . . . . . . . . . 2.4.2
Basic Training Methods . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.3
Care and Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.4
Ethical Behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.5
Hunting Feral Pigs with Dogs . . . . . . . 2.4.6
Identifying suitable dog breeds . . . 2.4.6
Special equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.6
Legal requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.8
Welfare of the dogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.8
Muzzles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.8
Collars and chest plates . . . . . . . . 2.4.9
Hunting after dark . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.9
Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.9
Injuries: preventing and treatment 2.4.9
Welfare of the Pigs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.10
Using a firearm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.11
Using hold and stick . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.11
Slaughter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.11
Sample Assessment Question . . . . . . . 2.4.12
and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.12
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Bailed up the pig remains stationary
facing the dog.
Blind a hide made from branches or
other material in which the hunter sits.
Carrion the meat of dead animals.
Lug where a dog holds a pig by an ear.
Sticking stabbing a pig in the heart with
a specially designed knife.
1080 sodium monofluoroacetate a
deadly poison for dogs that is used in baits
to kill pigs and other pest animals.
POCTAA Prevention of Cruelty to
Animals Act 1979.
INTRODUCTION
Hunting with dogs is an ancient practice that
continues today. Dogs may be used to scent and
trail, flush, retrieve and bail up game. When dogs
are taken into the Australian bush there are
animal welfare matters to consider.
These may be as diverse as car motion sickness,
heat stress, tick paralysis, grass seed abscess,
and stake or fight wounds. Where dogs are used
to hunt large or dangerous game such as pigs,
there are additional welfare issues.
This unit of study will assist hunters who hunt
with dogs, and particularly those hunters who
hunt pigs with dogs, to comply with the
requirements of the Game and Feral Animal
Control Act 2002 and its associated Regulation
of 2004 as well as the NSW Prevention of
Cruelty to Animals Act 1979 (POCTAA).
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
On completion of this unit and in conjunction
with other units in the Game Councils Hunter
Education Course, you will know how to:
NSW Game Hunting Licence to hunt
with dogs.
Select an appropriate breed of hunting dog.
Care for and transport hunting dogs.
Understand the theory behind several
methods of hunting with dogs.
Understand the basic training techniques for
hunting dogs.
Humanely dispatch game.
Conduct a hunt safely.
Select and maintain appropriate hunting
equipment.
IDENTIFYING SUITABLE BREEDS
Dog breeds vary in behavioural characteristics
and within a breed individual dogs vary in
temperament and ability. It is important to choose
a dog that has those characteristics and abilities
necessary for your particular hunting interests.
Having selected the breed of dog most
appropriate to your purpose, ask reputable
breeders about the particular abilities and
characteristics of their family strain of dogs.
Small breeds
Small breeds, such as spaniels and terriers, flush
or drive out game for the gun. They work close
to the hunter, about 15 metres either side and
15 metres in front. They work in a window
wiper and investigative pattern, finding game
and making it fly, run or go to ground. When
game is flushed and a shot is taken, the dog
must remain perfectly still. If the shot is
successful, the dog should run out and quickly
locate and return the game to the hunter in a
condition that is fit for the table.
Game taken using these breeds may commonly
include rabbit, hare, California quail, pheasant,
partridge, peafowl and turkey. They may also be
used to flush animals such as feral cats and
foxes.
Medium to large sized breeds
Retrievers can range from medium to large in
size and are used more for their retrieving ability
than for their direct involvement in the hunt.
They are capable of retrieves over long
distances. All game retrieved must be fit for the
table. These dogs are mostly used for waterfowl
hunting. The dog sits at wait with the hunter and
remains perfectly still. If the shot is successful
the bird is then retrieved by the dog and
returned to hand.
2.4.2 V1 11.05
2.4.3
V1 11.05
Dogs such as pointers and setters should hunt in
a window wiper or quartering motion up to
100 metres or at a distance the handler is still
able to control, depending on the terrain and the
experience of the dog. They perform better when
directed into the breeze. When they locate game
they will come on point which means they
point their nose in the direction of where the
game is hiding.
They should remain on point until the hunter
commands the dog to flush the game out
from the cover. If the shot is successful, a well
trained dog will either retrieve to hand or point
to the game.
All purpose gundogs include breeds such as
German Short Haired Pointers, Brittany Spaniel
and the Weimaraners which point, retrieve on
land or water and track large game.
Scent trailing hounds may be used both on leash
and free ranging. Difficulties may be
encountered both in recalling free ranging
hounds and in obtaining permission to use
packs of hounds. A single animal on a leash has
become a popular method of hunting with
hounds.
Pig dogs
Pig dogs are discussed in more detail later in
this unit.
BASIC TRAINING METHODS
The reward
Dogs learn by reward and repetition. If the
reward is held in high esteem by the dog,
the more likely is it that the behaviour will
be repeated. The more the behaviour is
repeated the more conditioned the dog will
become to the task.
The principle behind all training is positive
reinforcement. A reward is given for each
correct response, and this should
comprise 95% of all your training.
Rewards can be praise, a pat, a throw of a
retrieve, or food.
Dogs, like people, have individual
preferences. You will need to assess the
preferences of your dog to determine the
most effective reward to be given. What
does your dog particularly like, dislike or
will work the hardest for?
Undesirable behaviour
The key to suppressing undesirable
behaviour is to ignore it. It is essential
your dog does not receive any positive
reinforcement for the behaviour.
Corrections are only given to a dog when it
completely understands the command, but
does not obey. Correction must be given at
the exact time the dog makes the mistake,
and should have no lasting physical effect
on the dog.
Clear instructions
Finally, you must be careful to give your dog
clear instructions. Your body language and voice
must send precise and clear signals to your dog.
For example, it will help your dog to understand
what is required for both heel and stay if
you always step off with the left foot with a
heel command and with the right foot for a
stay command.
Begin the training program with simple
tasks such as sit, come, and stay.
Gradually familiarise your dog with firearms and
game animals.
Once your dog can complete simple commands
you then need to proof your dog to obey these
commands in the presence of distractions which
will arise during hunting.
Be patient and work at a pace that suits your
dog. Remember to have realistic expectation
while your dog is learning.
Learning Exercise:
Training your dog getting started
Obtain at least three books on how to train your
dog. Then, take your hunting dog along to a
professional dog trainer in the type of hunting
you intend to do.
You may be advised to attend with your dog
for a few initial formal training sessions. A small
outlay in training fees at this stage will pay off in
the long term.
CARE AND TRANSPORT
If their boisterous body language is anything to
go by, dogs seem to enjoy a hunting outing.
However, it does expose them to various risks
which require a higher level of veterinary
attention than for most pet dogs.
A copy of your dogs medical history card,
obtained from your local vet, should be taken on
each hunting trip to facilitate local emergency
veterinary treatment if required.
The following guide will ensure your dog travels
safely:
The best form of security for your dog is a
well-constructed crate, one in which your
dog can comfortably stand and turn around
in. At no time should your dog be allowed
to ride unrestrained in your car or on the
tray of a utility.
Think of the crate as a safety belt that is tight
and comfortable. Where dog crates are
located on a vehicle tray, the dog should be
protected from rain, wind, sun and exhaust
fumes.
Metal vehicle trays may heat up in direct
Photo: Game Council of NSW
2.4.4 V1 11.05
2.4.5
V1 11.05
sunlight and your dog must be protected
from direct contact. Alternatively your dog
may be secured by a harness or leash to a
seat in your car.
On long road trips you will need to Stop,
Revive & Survive every two hours. Exercise
your dog and provide it with water at each of
these breaks.
Plan to avoid known dangers. In the field,
your dog may be in unfamiliar country and
prone to stake injury or wire fence cuts. In
certain seasons there are increased risks
from ectoparasites, grass seeds and extremes
of heat and cold.
Know where your dog is, what it is doing and
keep it under control. Only obedient hunting
dogs should be taken into the field. Dogs
that are known to chase domestic stock or
protected wildlife or other non-target
animals must be retired from hunting and
should not be used to breed hunting dogs.
ETHICAL BEHAVIOUR
There are a number of simple rules to follow to
ensure ethical behaviour while hunting with dogs:
When you obtain permission to hunt, make
sure the land manager also allows you to
hunt with a dog.
Keep your dog under control at all times.
Keep your dog within the boundaries of the
property you have permission to hunt on.
Attend to the comfort of your dog in harsh
weather.
Ensure your dog avoids confrontations with
other dogs.
Do not allow your dog to disturb domestic
stock or protected fauna.
Do not overwork the dog. Be alert
for signs of foot soreness, exhaustion
and dehydration.
Do not take your dog hunting until
adequately trained. This means that in
addition to learning to obey simple
commands, your dog will be field
proofed not to chase domestic stock
or protected wildlife. Then you can
start serious hunting.
Learning Exercise: testing for
dehydration
This exercise is a simple way of checking
for dehydration in your dog while in the
field on a hunt. Where possible always
allow your dog free access to water.
Gently pat your dog, moving your hand
over the back just in front of the hips.
Using your thumb and forefinger, gently
squeeze on the skin until you raise a fold
of the skin as high as is comfortable for
the dog. Release the skin fold and watch
the skin return to its normal position over
the back muscles.
Do this several times until you are
confident that you know how the skin
springs back into position in a normal dog.
If your dog were to become dehydrated
you would find that the skin fold stays
raised for several seconds.
HUNTING FERAL PIGS WITH DOGS
Introduction
There are several reasons for hunting pigs with
dogs. Dogs, with their keen sense of smell and
good eyesight, make it easier to find pigs. Once
the pigs have been found it is more difficult for
them to escape in thick bush as the dogs are
readily able to track them until the pigs bail
up. The hunter can then get close enough to
dispatch them.
Hunting pigs with dogs is a physically dangerous
activity with a high level of risk to the hunter. It
requires athletic stamina and good reflex
coordination in the hunter and is best left to
specialist commercial operators. However those
persons wishing to take up hunting pigs with
dogs should do so under the instruction and
supervision of an experienced hunter.
The importance of good training for your dogs
cannot be over emphasised. Strict adherence to
animal welfare guidelines is mandatory and
failure to comply with Prevention of Cruelty to
Animals Act 1979 (POCTAA) provisions against
inflicting unnecessary pain is a criminal offence.
Identifying suitable dog breeds
The dog you select should be able to integrate
well with your family and other people.
A friendly demeanour and a slightly submissive
attitude will be a much better platform on which
to train a successful pig hunting dog.
Irish staghounds, wolfhounds, labradors,
boxers, mastiffs and greyhounds are all good
breeds for this purpose. They integrate well with
people and are easily trained.
Avoid breeds that have been developed for
fighting. Aggressive dogs are harder to train and
will pose greater risk of a mauling attack on a
pig, or even people.
Special equipment
Protective clothing
With your personal equipment, focus on
protective clothing. If you are attempting to
catch live pigs in scrub you will need to wear
long sleeved shirts and long pants to avoid
scratches.
Water
Australian survival standards state that the
minimum water requirement is two litres per
person, per day. This figure is for a person who
is stranded and awaiting rescue, not someone
covering long distances on foot while chasing
pigs. A more realistic figure would be at least six
litres.
Firearms
With your firearm you should focus on calibre
and sights. Amongst rifles, a 30 calibre is a good
all round choice. In thick scrubby country a low
power (2x) telescopic sight, red dot electronic
Photo: Game Council NSW
2.4.6 V1 11.05
2.4.7
V1 11.05
sights or iron sights are preferable, while in
open country a higher magnification telescopic
sight is more useful.
Less powerful firearms are recommended for
bailed up pigs shot in the brain from close
distance. They avoid muzzle blast and
uncontrolled bullet penetration, both of which
may be hazardous to both dogs and hunters.
If you are hunting with a shotgun, there are
certain factors that must be taken into account.
Shotgun ammunition comes in varying load sizes
and calibres. An acceptable cartridge would be
one with a solid shot, which can be either a
single ball of lead, a rifled slug or a sabot slug in
12 gauge calibre, or else shot loads such as the
popular SG (00 buckshot) with nine balls.
Knives
A special knife is needed for hunting. When a pig
wallows in mud, the mud and plant fibres get
trapped in the pigs tough, bristly hair. The mud
dries to form a tough fibrous mat over the pig,
which adds to its ability to protect itself. As well
as this mat of mud, pigs have a very thick, tough
skin.
Adult boars develop a heavy shield of
connective tissue under the skin of the neck,
shoulders and chest. This protects the
underlying tissues. This shield is up to several
centimetres thick and will obviously require a
high quality stainless steel or titanium knife if it
is to be penetrated.
As a guide, your knife needs to:
be between 12-15cm long and only
about 2.5cm (or less) wide, double
edged and 5-10mm thick; and
have a non-slip handle and a good hilt
to stop the users hand from slipping
down onto the blade. This is a
likely scenario and accounts for a
number of injuries to pig hunters.
There are various reasons for the knife
dimensions that are recommended above.
A smaller point will penetrate more deeply,
avoiding surface laceration and resulting in
a quicker and more humane kill.
Also, the blade will be able to fit between
the ribs of the animal, rather than have to
cut through them, which will enable you to
get to vital organs more quickly and thus
induce haemorrhage faster. This will result
in a more humane kill.
Different knives will need to be used for
carcass dressing. Boning knives with a
single sharp edge are used for procedures
requiring a delicate touch. Cleavers are
needed for rougher and tougher cuts
through small bones and sinew.
When these are combined with a bone saw
and small axe, you are well prepared to
dress a pig carcass.
Legal requirements
Game and Feral Animal Control Act
2002
Section 8 Schedule 2 of the Game and Feral
Animal Control Regulation 2004 states that
dogs may only be used to assist hunters if such
use is in compliance with the Prevention of
Cruelty to Animals Act 1979 (POCTAA) and
provided that the hunter has the permission of
the land manager to hunt with dogs.
Section 12 Schedule 1 of the Game and Feral
Animal Control Regulation 2004 states that a
person must not use a dog for hunting pigs on
public land except for locating, holding or
bailing the pigs.
This Section regulates the number of dogs
(maximum three for a single hunter and five for
a group of hunters) that may be used; requires
that each dog carry a collar with a metal tag or
label with the owners name, address and
telephone number; reminds hunters of the
statutory need to have dogs microchipped; and
places the responsibility on the hunter to ensure
that their dogs are not left abandoned in the
bush or allowed to chase any other animals
while on the hunt.
1979
POCTAA (1979) Section 18 prohibits any person
causing two animals to fight and Section 21
prohibits any person from allowing a dog to
chase, catch or confine another animal. The Act
then goes on to exempt pig dogging under
Section 24 (b) which allows dogs to be used to
hunt, capture, and shoot pigs.
Hunters need to understand that Section 24(b)
of POCTAA (1979) requires that no unnecessary
pain, which includes suffering and distress, is to
be inflicted on hunted animals. It is a criminal
offence to hunt pigs with dogs in a way that
results in unnecessary pain or suffering for
either the pigs or the dogs.
An offence would be committed, for example, if
an excessive number of dogs are used, or dogs
are set upon a pig that is already in a situation
where it can be readily killed.
WELFARE OF THE DOGS
Pig dogs need to be trained to locate pigs in
dense bush and then to bail up or hold the
pigs until the hunter arrives. Dogs must not
engage in unnecessary battle with the pig.
POCTAA is very clear on the need to avoid
unnecessary animal pain and suffering. Pigs
need to be killed quickly and efficiently, avoiding
as far as is possible, injury to the dogs.
To achieve this you will need to spend time
training your dogs. Not only will this ensure that
there are good welfare outcomes for both your
dog and the pigs that you hunt, but it will also
ensure that you do not contravene the POCTAAs
mandatory prohibition on inflicting unnecessary
pain on animals.
Muzzles
Where you have a concern that a dog may
attempt to maul a pig, a muzzle is required.
Select a muzzle that will not cause the dog to
heat stress (dogs need to pant to cool) and that
will not catch in scrub.
A muzzle will prevent your dog from engaging in
battle with a pig or mauling either protected
fauna or domestic stock. Muzzle or no muzzle,
the bottom line is that aggressive and
disobedient dogs must be retired from hunting.
2.4.8 V1 11.05
2.4.9
V1 11.05
Collars and chest plates
To protect dogs against injury, good quality
protective collars and chest plates are essential.
They protect the dog from the tusks of pigs
charging to get away and also from sharp sticks
poking up from the ground as the dog is
running through the bush.
Selection of collars and chest plates should be
made with regards to the size of your dog,
cooling, weight and construction. There are
various styles of protective equipment, from just
a simple 8-10cm wide thick leather collar to
protect the dogs neck to the full
neck/chest/legs/face synthetic armoured collars
and plates.
When wearing one of these collars, dogs will
heat up and tire more quickly, so special care
must be taken to limit the length of the hunt and
to have fresh water, shade and a comfortable
place for the dog to rest.
Radio tracking collars are reasonably priced and
lightweight, and will prevent your dog from
becoming lost in the bush. They affix easily to
the dogs collar and will also assist you in
making a kill.
Remember that a lost dog left out in the bush
may die or become feral. It is an offence to
wilfully abandon a dog in the bush.
Hunting after dark
If hunting in low light situations, there are small
battery powered lights available to attach to your
dog. Chemical glow sticks are also very effective.
They are lightweight, last for eight hours, come
in a range of colours and are safe and non toxic.
They have a small loop built into one end and
can be tied to a dogs collar.
A popular method for tracking your dog in
low light is by attaching a red reflector on
the left side of your dogs armour and a
green reflector on the right side. This way
your dog can easily be identified. Hunting
after dark is hazardous!
Transportation
Your vehicle needs to be set up to ensure
the welfare of your dogs during the hunt.
An abundance of fresh water must be
available for them as well a comfortable,
shaded resting place.
Dogs must also be secured to the vehicle
to prevent them from being injured by
falling off the tray as the vehicle bounces
along on rough tracks and cross country
pursuits. A mattress will prevent the dogs
getting pressure sores. Shade is of
particular importance, especially in
summer.
Injuries: prevention and treatment
First aid is important for your dogs. Make
sure you carry a First Aid kit in your
vehicle. From a legal viewpoint the three
Acts that need to be considered are the
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, the
Veterinary Surgeons Act and the Drugs,
Poisons and Related Substances Act.
These Acts can be found via the internet at
http://www.legislation.nsw.gov.au/. They
will help with information on how much
First Aid should be administered before
seeking veterinary assistance. Use common
sense and seek veterinary assistance
where available.
Wounds, cuts and lacerations
The first priority for these types of wounds is to
control bleeding. This may be done with a
pressure bandage. A fresh wound should be
bandaged to prevent contamination whereas an
infected contaminated wound may best be left
unbandaged to allow the wound to drain.
Veterinary attention should be promptly sought
for all wounds.
Falls
Car accidents, falling off cliff ledges and other
misadventures lead to tissue trauma, fractures,
and possible shock. If an accident occurs the
hunt must be suspended and the dog taken to a
veterinarian without delay. Keep the dog quiet
and restrained on the way to the veterinarian.
Heat stress
Heat stress with hyperthermia will progress
through rapid panting, then collapse and if left
untreated the dog will die. Heat stress is a
rapidly fatal medical emergency. When
hyperthermia occurs cool the dog with water. If
possible immerse the dog in a dam or place it
under a tap or hose until the dog is no longer
panting excessively and is able to walk. Once the
emergency is over seek veterinary advice.
Stings, bites, poisoning
Insect stings, ticks and snake bites are common
hazards. Check your dog regularly to remove any
ticks. Identify the snake where it is safe to do so.
This will allow your veterinarian to use the most
appropriate anti-venin.
Poisoning is a potential hazard. Avoid any areas
posted with 1080 Warning Notices. Remember
pigs poisoned with 1080 are themselves
poisonous to dogs and other scavengers. Dogs
are particularly susceptible to this poison.
Learning Exercise: monitoring breathing
patterns
The purpose of this learning exercise is to make
you familiar with a normal dogs breathing
pattern both at rest and while panting. Once
familiar, you will be able to pick subtle changes
that occur with the onset of heat stress and to
recognise the urgent laboured respiration that
will precede collapse in clinical hyperthermia.
While your dog is quietly resting count the
number of breaths it takes per minute. To do
this watch the chest rise and fall and count the
number of times this happens over two or three
minutes. Then calculate your dogs resting
respiration rate or breaths per minute. Make a
note of the figure for future reference.
Now take you dog for a run. The exercise should
be sufficiently vigorous to make your dog pant.
Observe the different breathing pattern during
panting when compared to normal resting
respiration. This is normal and nothing to be
alarmed at.
WELFARE OF THE PIGS
Animal welfare guidelines for humane slaughter
require that an animal must not be inflicted with
unnecessary pain and suffering. Pigs are a major
pest species and there is no question about the
need to control them. However the method of
slaughter used must be reasonable when
compared to available alternatives.
The best possible welfare outcome occurs when
pigs are taken undisturbed with a kill zone shot
delivered with an appropriate firearm
ammunition combination. There are a number
of situations where this is not practicable and
dogs are required to assist in the harvest of pigs.
2.4.10 V1 11.05
2.4.11
V1 11.05
Where pigs are hunted with dogs, there are a
number of ways animal welfare outcomes may
be achieved. These may be divided into two
approaches depending on whether the hunter
intends to kill the pig with a firearm or knife.
1. Using a firearm
The dogs are released to bail up the pig. The
hunter then moves in to kill the pig using a
firearm at close range. The pig is shot then
stuck to bleed out.
Advantages:
in this situation you have a stand off
between the dogs and the bailed up pig.
Consequently there is less likelihood of fight
injury to either the dogs or the pig; and
the pig is killed with a firearm without contact
by the hunter. This is safer for the hunter.
Disadvantages:
bailed up pigs may break from the bail
up and charge to escape. This may then
require further pursuit and a second bail
up; and
using a firearm at close range has hazards to
both the hunter and the dogs. A dog may be
accidentally shot. Dogs shift position during
a bail up and may pass through the line of
fire just as the hunter fires. Bullets may
ricochet in any direction and bullets may
pass through the pig and exit to hit a dog or
bystander.
2. Using hold and stick
The dogs are released to bail up or lug the
pig. The hunter takes hold of the pig, usually by
a hind leg, pulls the legs out from under the pig
and then fatally sticks it to the heart. The pig
rapidly loses consciousness due to a sudden
drop in blood pressure and will die due to
massive blood loss.
Advantages:
the technique is effective, especially in
thick scrub where it is difficult to use a
firearm safely in the rapidly moving
confusion of dogs and pigs;
the technique leaves less time for the
pig to charge away from a bail up;
and
the pig carcass is recovered without
gunshot damage.
Disadvantages:
the technique is not without significant
risk to the hunter;
sticking with a knife may cause more
panic and stress to a pig in the very
short holding period between capture
and sticking than would death by
gunshot. The pig does experience
panic, will vocalise noisily and does
suffer a short period of pain and stress
in the hold and stick;
the technique may result in tusk
wounds to the pig dogs; and
the technique may produce dog bite
wounds to the ear of the pig.
Slaughter
It needs to be remembered that abattoir
slaughter also produces noisy vocalisation
and some stress of the pigs during
slaughter. The possible pain and suffering
inflicted on pigs by field sticking may be
justified on the grounds that it is
minimised to only that which is necessary
and that it is within the pain and suffering
level generally agreed to as being
acceptable to the community.
It is much quicker than death induced by widely
used agents such as 1080 poison. Sticking prior
to stunning has precedents in kosher and halal
slaughter. Field slaughter avoids the transport
and abattoir stresses suffered by commercially
raised and slaughtered pigs.
SAMPLE ASSESSMENT QUESTION
Pigs dogs are used to find, bail up and lug
pigs. They must be trained not to unnecessarily
maul a pig.
True or False?
Give four reasons to support your answer
AND LEARNING
Burch, M.R., Bailey, J.S. How Dogs Learn ISBN
0-87605-371-1
Moxon, P.R.A. Gundogs: Training and Field
Trials Century Hutchinson: Australia ISBN
0091647606
Other useful references:
Pryor, K. (1985) Dont shoot the dog! The New
Art of Teaching and Training. New York:
Bantam Books Martin, G. and Pear, J. (1996)
Behaviour Modification: What it is and how to
do it. New Jersey: Prentice Hall
Campbell, W.E. (1992) Behaviour Problems in
Dogs California: American Veterinary
Publications
American Kennel Club (1998) The Complete
Dog Book 19th Edition New York: Howell Book
House
1.
2.
3.
4.
2.4.12 V1 11.05
2.4.13
V1 11.05
True
False
1.
Dogs can travel for long distances in cars without needing to be
watered and exercised.
2.
Individual dogs within a breed may vary greatly in hunting aptitude
and temperament.
3.
In training a hunting dog the emphasis should be on positive
reinforcement.
4. A dog should never be given corrective discipline.
5. Aggressiveness is not a desirable trait in a pig dog.
6.
The maximum number of dogs that can be used by a single pig
dogger is three.
7. Protective breast plates should be fitted to pig dogs.
8.
Radio tracking collars are reasonably priced and lightweight, and
will prevent your dog from becoming lost in the bush. They affix
easily to the dogs collar and will also assist you making a kill,
because you wont have to wander the bush looking for where
your dog has bailed up a pig.
9. Carcasses of pigs poisoned with 1080 are safe for dogs to feed on.
10.
Dogs should be released as close as possible to the pig being
hunted.
V1 11.05

V1 11.05
Game Council NSW
PO Box 2506
Orange NSW 2800
Phone: (02) 6360 5100 Fax: (02) 6361 2093
3.1.0 V1 11.05
3.1.1
V1 11.05
LIST OF CONTENTS
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.1
Hunting on Declared Public Land:
Game animals for which a Game
Hunting Licence is required . . . . . . . . 3.1.2
Table 3.1: Game Species
Characteristics - Deer . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.3
Deer Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.4-5
Table 3.2: Game Birds Species
Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.6
Bird Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.7
Table 3.3: Feral and Game Animal
Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.8
Table 3.4: Game and Feral
Animal Hunting Information . . . . . . . 3.1.9
Notes on Behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.10
Additional Information . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.10
Example Assessment Question . . . . . . 3.1.11
and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.11
INTRODUCTION
The State of NSW offers many game and
feral animal hunting opportunities. The
NSW Game and Feral Animal Control Act
2002 sets out those species that may be
legally hunted. If you wish to hunt these
species successfully, you will need to know
their characteristics and habits.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Know the species of birds and animals that
you are permitted to hunt as an R-Licence
holder.
Know the basic characteristics of the birds
and animals that you are permitted to hunt.
Know what hunting methods can be used for
each of these species.
Have gained basic knowledge about the
habits, food preferences and special
behaviours of these species.
References for further reading will be supplied
at the completion of the text. You are
encouraged to read the reference books to
improve your knowledge of the species that are
available for hunting.
HUNTING ON DECLARED PUBLIC LAND:
Game animals for which a NSW Game Hunting
Licence is required
The species listed in Tables 3.1 and 3.2 are
those declared as Game Species if living in the
wild, under the Regulations of the NSW Game
and Feral Animal Control Act 2002.
You must hold a current NSW Restricted Game
Hunting licence in order to hunt these species
on declared public land.
Game or feral species do not include any animal
that is, or is part of a threatened species
population (or ecological community) that is
declared protected fauna. Protected animals
include all species of native fauna.
3.1.2 V1 11.05
3.1.3
V1 11.05
DEER SPECIES
Mating
Peak
Birth
Peak
Antler
Casting
MALE FEMALE SUMMER WINTER
Hog Deer
(Axis porcinus)
40-55 30-35
1. None
2. Feb-Mar
None
All
months
Sep-Oct
Red-
Brown
Greyish-
brown
Fallow
(Dama dama)
75-95 40-45 Mar-April
Dec-
Jan
Oct-Nov
Red with
white
spots
Greyish*
Chital
(Axis axis)
85 45 None None
All
months
Red with
white
spots
Red-brown
with white
spots
Red Deer
(Cervus elaphus)
250 90 Mar-April
Dec-
Jan
Oct-Nov Red
Greyish
brown
Wapiti
(Cervus elaphus
canadensis)
280-
400+
130 Mar-April
Dec-
Jan
Oct-Nov
Red-
brown
Grey, light
rump patch
Rusa
(Cervus
timorensis)
100-
160
60-80 May-Aug
Mar-
Apr
Feb-
Mar
Brownish
-grey
Brownish-
grey
Sambar (Cervus
unicolor)
300# 170 None None
Any
month
Brownish
-grey
Brownish-
grey
* Fallow are the only deer species with other natural colour variants that are ginger (common colour), white,
black and menil. The menil is like the ginger form but has no black rump stripes and retains the white spots
in its winter coat.
# The heaviest recorded deer in NSW are mature sambar stags.
The above deer species are listed as game species under the Regulations of the NSW Game and
Feral Control Act 2002 if living in the wild.
TABLE 3.1 GAME SPECIES CHARACTERISTICS: DEER
Mature Weights
(kg)
Coat Colour
Hog stag Hog hind
Chital hinds Chital stag
Fallow does Fallow buck
DEER SPECIES
3.1.4 V1 11.05
3.1.5
V1 11.05
All photos provided by the
Australian Deer Association
Red stag
Red hind
Rusa stag
Rusa hinds and calf
Sambar stag
Sambar hind
The above game birds are listed as game species
under the Regulations of the NSW Game and
Feral Control Act 2002 if living in the wild.
SPECIES
AVERAGE
WEIGHT (KG)
SIZE (CM)
BREEDING
SEASON
SUNDRIES
Californian quail
(Lophortyx californicus)
250 gm 24 Sept-Jan
One clutch (10-13 eggs)
per year
Chukar Partridge
(Alectoris chukar)
600 gm 33 Spring Clutch size 9-20 eggs
Peafowl
(Pavo cristatus)
3-5 kg 90-100 Spring Clutch size 3-5 eggs
Common pheasant
(Phasianus colchicus)
3 kg 76-89 Spring
Lay continuously, clutch size
8-14 eggs
Turkey
(Meleagris gallopavo)
8-10 kg 90-125 Spring Clutch size 8-15 eggs
TABLE 3.2 GAME BIRDS SPECIES CHARACTERISTICS
3.1.6 V1 11.05
3.1.7
V1 11.05
Californian Quail Common Pheasant
Turkey
Chukar Partridge
Photos: Game Council of NSW
Photos: Feathers and Fur Magazine
BIRD SPECIES
* Other than Dingo which is a protected
species in NSW.
The species listed in the table above are those
declared as game species, if living in the wild,
under the Regulations of the NSW Game and
Feral Animal Control Act 2002. A NSW
Restricted Game Hunting Licence is not required
if these species are hunted on private land.
Photos: J.Dunn
Feral Pig
Feral goats
SPECIES
AV. MATURE
WEIGHT (KG)
BIRTH SEASON MATING SEASON NUMBER OF YOUNG (AVERAGE)
Pig (Sus scrofa) 150 October-June April-Dec 3-10
Goat (Capra hircus) 60 June-Dec Jan-June 1-2
Dog *(Canis familiaris) 10-20
Twice a year
All year round
All year round 2-6
Cat (Felis catus) 6 Oct-March Aug-Jan 2-6
Fox (Vulpes vulpes) 5-7 Oct-Nov Aug-Sept 2-4
Hare (Lepus capensis) 3-4 August March July-Feb 2-4 Multiple litters
Rabbit (Oryctolagus
cuniculus)
2 Variable Variable 4-5
TABLE 3.3 FERAL AND PEST ANIMAL CHARACTERISTICS
3.1.8 V1 11.05
SPECIES
AV. MATURE
WEIGHT (KG)
BIRTH SEASON MATING SEASON NUMBER OF YOUNG (AVERAGE)
Pig (Sus scrofa) 150 October-June April-Dec 3-10
Goat (Capra hircus) 60 June-Dec Jan-June 1-2
Dog *(Canis familiaris) 10-20
Twice a year
All year round
All year round 2-6
Cat (Felis catus) 6 Oct-March Aug-Jan 2-6
Fox (Vulpes vulpes) 5-7 Oct-Nov Aug-Sept 2-4
Hare (Lepus capensis) 3-4 August March July-Feb 2-4 Multiple litters
Rabbit (Oryctolagus
cuniculus)
2 Variable Variable 4-5
3.1.9
V1 11.05
TABLE 3.4 GAME AND PEST ANIMAL HUNTING INFORMATION
* Can be hunted with dogs or spotlight, subject to normal welfare requirements and in accordance with the
Game and Feral Animal Control Regulation 2004.
This table lists the game and feral species set down in the NSW Game and Feral Animal Control Act 2002 and
shows their declared season, the legal bag limit if any, each species preferred habitat, predator avoidance
methods, social behaviour patterns, and legal hunting methods.
NOTES ON BEHAVIOUR
Group behaviour increases survival by increasing
the number of eyes, ears and noses that are
continually searching for signs of danger.
An individual communicates alarm to all the
members of a group. This is more practical in
species that prefer open spaces than those
preferring dense forest.
Less gregarious species rely more on their own
senses and tend to be hiders and this usually
applies to species preferring more densely
vegetated habitat.
Each species will have a home range with which
it is familiar and will feel secure in.
Disturbance is unlikely to drive an animal from
its home range in the short term. Home ranges
will vary between species and between the sexes
with considerable overlap between individuals of
that species.
All the above species use flight as avoidance
behaviour when they detect humans. Many take
note of bird alarm calls to avoid predators.
All animals have well developed senses that will
readily detect movement and scent.
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
Hog deer tags
In order to hunt hog deer you must purchase a
pair of hog deer tags (male and female) and
possess a NSW Game Hunting Licence. The Game
Council issues these tags.
The appropriately marked and numbered tag
must be affixed to the deer by the hunter
immediately after it is taken, this is done by
inserting it around the rear shinbone between
the bone and the Achilles tendon.
The possession of untagged hog deer is illegal.
Offenders will be subject to prosecution and
penalties may include fines and possible
confiscation of equipment.
A return information form must be submitted
within 28 days of the end of the hog deer
season, together with any unused tags. Penalties
apply for non-compliance.
Disclaimer
The hunting information provided in this Unit is
not intended as a legal substitute for the NSW
Game and Feral Animal Control Act 2002 and
the Game and Feral Animal Control
Regulation 2004.
LEARNING EXERCISE
For each game and feral animal species that you
intend to hunt, gather information. To do this
you may need to access the Internet or go to
your local library and find:
1. A description of the species including colour
variations and differences between sexes.
2. The biology of the species including detailed
information on distribution and breeding
seasons.
3. The behaviour of the species including
preferred habitat, diet and daily activity cycles.
For example, you are hunting in fallow deer
country, where would you most likely find a
fallow deer at midday in summer and late
afternoon in winter?
3.1.10 V1 11.05
3.1.11
V1 11.05
A game animal does not include any animal that
is, or is part of a threatened species, population
(or ecological community) that is protected
fauna.
True or False?
List four animal species protected in NSW.
AND LEARNING
1. Allison, C. The Australian Hunter.
2. Australian Deer Association Hunter
Education Program. 10th Edition. A manual.
ADA Victorian State Executive. Warragul Vic.3.
Banwell, B. The Red Deer.
4. Bentley, A. 1998. An Introduction to the
Deer of Australia. (Second Edition). The
Australian Deer Research Foundation,
Melbourne.pp. 189-206.
5. Blutchel, K.G. 1997. Game and Hunting Vols
1 & 2. Konemann Verlagsgellschaft mbH, Bonner
Sr, Cologne.pp. 10.
6, 1906. Chapman, D & N. 1975. Fallow Deer,
Terrence Dalton Suffolk.
7. Dunn, J. 1989. Hunting in Australia,
Croydon Vic.
8. Moore, G. and Mayze, R 1990. The Hog
Deer. ADRF Ltd Croydon Vic.
9. Butcher, R. 1973. The Book of Hunting.
Paddington Press London, New York.pp
78-101.
10. Simpson,K and Day, N. The Birds of
Australia. 2nd Edition 1986. Lloyd ONeil,
South Yarra. Pp. 80.
1.
2.
3.
4.
True
False
1.
It is permissible to hunt all species of deer on public and private
land in NSW if you hold a current NSW Game Hunting Licence.
2.
A game licence is not required to hunt wild goats, pigs, dogs, and
cats on private land in NSW.
3.
Turkeys, peafowl, pheasants, chukar partridge and California
quail are game birds and require a game licence in order to
legally hunt them on both public and private land in NSW.
4. Only one colour variety normally exists in fallow deer.
5. Mature sambar stags are the heaviest recorded deer in NSW.
6.
Hares can have multiple litters of between 2 to 4 young during
their early spring to late summer breeding season.
7.
A bag limit of one male and one female applies to hog deer and
they may only be hunted in the month of April. The hunter must
possess a NSW Game Hunting Licence and obtain the appropriate
hog deer tags before hunting hog deer.
8.
It is illegal to hunt game from a motorised boat, aircraft or motor
vehicle in NSW.
9.
It is legal to hunt feral species such as pigs, goats, wild dogs and
cats as well as foxes, hares and rabbits using a spotlight on private
land with permission.
10. It is illegal to hunt game animals fleeing from fire or smoke.
3.1.12 V1 11.05

V1 11.05
Game Council NSW
PO Box 2506
Orange NSW 2800
Phone: (02) 6360 5100 Fax: (02) 6361 2093
V1 11.05
3.2.1
V1 11.05
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2
Hunting Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.3
Disease Outbreak: the signs . . . . . . . . 3.2.3
Finding Sick or Dead Animals
(mass mortalities) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.4
Animals Behaving Unusually . . . . . . . . 3.2.4
Dressing Game Animals: finding
lumps in organs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.5
Finding Animals with Sore Feet
and Mouths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.5
Protecting Yourself . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.5
Personal Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.5
Wildlife Incident Report . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.6
Collecting Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.7
Labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.7
information Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.7
Sample Storage and Transport . . . . . . 3.2.8
Learning Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.8
Sample Examination Questions . . . . . 3.2.8
and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.8
Self Assessment Checklist . . . . . . . . . 3.2.9
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
ARWH The Australian Registry of
Wildlife provides a wildlife diagnostic
service and it is a wildlife health resource
centre. Information, materials and advice
on diseases affecting free and captive
wildlife in Australia are provided to
veterinarians, wildlife caregivers,
researchers, wildlife managers, and
agriculture departments.
Funding comes in the form of donations,
sponsorship and contributions from
members of the public, corporate
sponsors, wildlife groups and NSW
National Parks and Wildlife Service.
AWHN The Australian Wildlife Health
Network is a National initiative of the
Commonwealth Government and is
managed under the Wildlife Exotic Disease
Preparedness Program (Australian
Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and
Forestry). Its mission is to promote and
facilitate collaborative links in the
investigation and management of wildlife
health in support of human and animal
health, biodiversity and trade.
Endemic Disease A disease or disease
causing agent that is part of an Australian
ecosystem. This disease may have always
been present in Australia or may have been
introduced at some time in the past.
Epidemic Disease A rapidly spreading
disease attacking many animals.
Exotic Disease A disease that does not
occur in Australia.
Granuloma A granuloma is an abnormal firm
yellow or white mass that may be found within
any diseased tissue.
GPS Global Positioning System.
Histopathology Examination of fixed tissue
that is embedded in wax, thinly sliced, placed on
a glass slide, stained, and observed under a
microscope.
Lesion Any change of colour, consistency,
texture, size, or shape of a body organ or tissue,
associated with a disease process.
Morbidity The condition of being diseased or
sick.
Mortality Fatalilty, or resulting in death.
Morphometrics Body weight and
measurement data.
Necropsy (Autopsy) Post mortem
examination of an animal.
Pandemic Disease A widespread epidemic
disease.
Pustule Small blister or pimple
containing pus.
Vesicle A vesicle is a fluid filled blister.
A vesicle is of concern when it occurs on
the mouth, nose or around the feet of a cloven-
hoofed animal.
Zoonotic Disease (Communicable
disease) Disease of animals transmissible
to man.
INTRODUCTION
Hunters need to be aware of diseases in wildlife
for several reasons.
Firstly, the game taken for food must be disease
free if it is going to be safe to eat. Even if you
dont intend to take game for food, there are still
diseases that can transfer from animals to
humans, whether youre culling as part of a feral
animal control program or preparing a trophy
mount.
Apart from your own safety, alerting land
managers to the presence of diseases which may
have serious impact on their domestic stock will
ensure you are a valued visitor.
Also, hunters need to act in the Australian
national interest. There are a number of
zoonotic and exotic diseases which, if they were
to become established in Australia, could
threaten human health or cause much pain and
suffering to our domestic livestock. They may
also seriously damage Australian trade in
primary produce. To control outbreaks of exotic
disease, it is essential that our government has
an early warning network to identify an outbreak
before it has time to spread widely.
Who is better placed than hunters to detect and
report on exotic disease outbreaks in wild or
feral animals? If you come across a significant
mortality in feral animals where the cause is not
apparent, it is appropriate to report the details
to the National Emergency Disease Watch
Hotline on 1800 675 888.
Finally, there are diseases which can have
serious impacts on our native wildlife. From a
conservation viewpoint, outbreaks of disease in
our wildlife need to be promptly identified and
reported so they can be contained. Where you
come across an outbreak of disease in native
3.2.2 V1 11.05
3.2.3
V1 11.05
wildlife, contact the NSW state coordinator for
the Australian Wildlife Health Network on
02 6391 3688.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
This unit of study will assist you to:
Extend your understanding of animal
disease.
Improve your ability to recognise particular
animal diseases.
Carry out basic autopsy procedures.
Recognise the differences between normal
and diseased tissue.
Collect specimens for laboratory analysis.
Protect yourself from infection from animal
borne diseases.
Accurately report diseases to the relevant
authorities.
HUNTING INFORMATION
Information regarding animal disease is
available from the NSW Department of Primary
Industries (NSW DPI www.agric.nsw.gov.au).
Nationally, animal health information is available
from the Department of Agriculture, Fisheries
and Forestry (www.affa.gov.au), and Animal
Health Australia (www.aha.org).
Information regarding disease in native and feral
animals is available through the Australian
Wildlife Health Network (AWHN), a national
initiative of the Commonwealth Government
managed under the Wildlife Exotic Disease
Preparedness Program (Australian Department
of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry). AWHNs
mission is to promote and facilitate collaborative
links in the investigation and management of
wildlife health in support of human and
animal health, biodiversity and trade. The
AWHN website contains animal health
information relevant to hunters
(www.wildlifehealth.org) or the AWHN can
be contacted directly on 02 9978 4788.
The following information is drawn from
the Wildlife Health Investigation Manual,
published by the Australian Registry of
Wildlife Health at Taronga Zoo. If you wish
to obtain a copy of the manual, order
forms can be downloaded from the
Registry website at www.ARWH.org.
DISEASE OUTBREAK: THE SIGNS
Exotic diseases are those that occur
overseas, but have not occurred in
Australia. The impacts of introducing an
exotic disease into Australian wildlife
populations are unknown, since we dont
necessarily know what one of these
diseases may do to a local native animal
population. Australian fauna is diverse.
Our species and ecosystems are different
from those overseas, thus, the effects of an
introduced disease are uncertain. Exotic
diseases may present themselves differently
in Australian fauna than in animals
overseas. So you must not hesitate to
report ANY unusual or unexpected wildlife
health events.
Endemic diseases are those that are
already a part of an Australian ecosystem.
These diseases may have always been
present in Australia, or may have been
introduced at some time in the past.
Endemic diseases can be of concern when
they occur in species or places where they
have not previously been known to exist.
ALL exotic diseases as well as some endemic
diseases are notifiable by law. A full list of
notifiable diseases is available from NSW DPI.
Such diseases, if detected, must be notified to
the state Department of Agriculture by either the
owner of the stock or the person in charge of
the land on which they are found.
FINDING SICK OR DEAD ANIMALS
(MASS MORTALITIES)
Many dead or dying wildlife can be an indication
of a significant infectious disease, exposure to a
poison or events such as extreme weather
conditions. If you were to come across a group
of dead animals where there is no obvious cause
for their death, you should report the event to
your state AWHN coordinator. A large number
of deaths within a single species may indicate the
presence of an unusual infectious agent. When a
variety of species are found dead
there might be an environmental problem or
exposure to poisons.
When faced with a mass mortality in wildlife,
samples must be collected as soon as possible in
order to diagnosis the cause. Animal tissues
decompose very quickly and the cause of the
deaths may disappear just as rapidly. Thus, it is
important to report a mass mortalities to the
appropriate agency as soon as possible
ANIMALS BEHAVING UNUSUALLY
Each species has its own range of natural
behaviours and activities. Detecting abnormal
behaviour requires a considerable knowledge of
the species in question. If you are uncertain
whether or not an animals behaviour is unusual,
contact a local naturalist or state wildlife agency.
Changes in behaviour of an animal may relate to
altered environments or food sources.
Behavioural changes may be the result of altered
brain function (neurological dysfunction)
resulting from exposure to infectious agents,
parasites or toxins.
We need to be aware of animals with altered
behaviour since many exotic diseases affect
animal behaviour.
Examples of the types of unusual behaviour to
look out for include:
Head tilt.
Circling.
Abnormal locomotion-staggering, wandering.
Apparent blindness.
Aggression in a species that is normally
timid.
Altered diurnal patterns. For example, a
nocturnal species active in the daytime.
DRESSING GAME ANIMALS:
FINDING LUMPS IN ORGANS
Abnormal lumps within tissues could be a
cancer, soft abscess, parasite, or granuloma. A
granuloma is a yellow or white nodular mass
that has a firm, cheesy centre. Tissues or organs
containing abnormal lumps should not be used
for human consumption, nor should they be fed
to dogs. Ideally, they should be disposed of by
deep burial.
3.2.4 V1 11.05
3.2.5
V1 11.05
FINDING ANIMALS WITH SORE FEET
AND MOUTHS
Animals with sore feet and mouths caused by
blisters (vesicle), could be infected with foot
and mouth disease. An outbreak of foot and
mouth disease is a national emergency.
A vesicle is a fluid filled blister usually found on
the skin. The vesicle can become infected,
forming a pustule, or the skin covering a vesicle
can tear away, leaving an ulcer which may
appear as a raw surface or be covered by a scab.
If you find any vesicle or ulcer in a cloven-
hoofed animal, particularly if the lesion is in the
mouth, on the feet, nose or genital region, it
should be immediately reported to the national
Emergency Disease Watch Hotline on 1800
675 888.
PROTECTING YOURSELF
The following information should protect you
from infective disease if you are asked to collect
samples in the field for researchers, wildlife
health surveillance projects, or to obtain a
diagnosis for unusual disease events.
Do not collect specimens until you have
obtained specific instructions from the person
asking you to collect samples. Always obtain
specific instructions from the person asking you
to collect samples.
Some diseases are very dangerous because they
can easily cause human illness (such as anthrax
or rabies), or they can so readily spread from
one location to another (foot and mouth
disease). In the case of unusual disease events
or sudden death in animals, it may be best for
you to lead a veterinarian to where you found
the animal rather than to collect specimens
yourself.
Observing, recognising and reporting
unusual disease events in wild
animals is a primary role for hunters.
PERSONAL SAFETY
Dead animals can contain germs that are
potentially harmful to you or your family.
Never dress the carcass of a sick
animal for human consumption.
Wear gloves when handling dead
animals - vinyl, latex or dish-washing
gloves.
Wash your hands and equipment very
well after handling dead animals.
Change your clothes before you contact
live animals, food, or your children.
Do not handle bats, They may infect
you with DANGEROUS viruses.
Dont collect samples from animals.
that have suddenly died in areas where
anthrax is known to occur.
WILDLIFE INCIDENT REPORT FORM
Submitter Information Incident Information
Submitters Name Date of Observation
Dept/Organisation Date of Report
Address Location (Exact Location - with GPS data if
possible)
Phone Landowner and land access
Fax
Mobile No.
Signature
Animal Details
Species Affected
Total of Each Species:
Normal Sick Dead
Approximate Ages of Affected Animals
Sex of Affected Animals:
# Male # Female
Description of Incident
Clinical Signs of Affected Animals
Environmental Conditions (Weather, rainfall, sea conditions, local use of chemicals, changes in
ground water levels, changes in domestic animal management)
Management Actions Taken
Specimens Collected Animals Euthanased/ Died Samples Fresh/Frozen
Entire Carcass:
Microbiology:
Histopathology:
Photos:
Frozen Tissues (For Toxicology or Viral Culture):
Tissues for Other Researchers:
Specimens Sent Where or Stored Where:
3.2.6 V1 11.05
3.2.7
V1 11.05
COLLECTING SAMPLES
Fresh and preserved tissue samples may need to
be taken and forwarded for veterinary
pathological examination. If requested to collect
specimens, there are things that you need to
know.
Tissue fixatives like formalin and ethanol are
poisonous if swallowed or inhaled, and they can
cause serious skin and eye irritation on contact.
These chemicals can be flammable and caustic.
Be careful when handling, pouring, and
transporting these chemicals and wash off
any skin spillage immediately with water.
Ask for advice from your laboratory prior to
using these chemicals.
Sharp knives and hypodermic needles can
be dangerous in the field.
Always carry a hard plastic container to
dispose of your sharp objects.
When using knives always cut away from
your body.
Never have more than one person cutting on
a carcass at one time.
When not in use, put your knife onto a
cutting board or in a container. Do not leave
it on the carcass or on the ground.
LABELS
Samples are useless and a waste of time if
they are not properly labelled.
Label your samples in pencil or indelible
before you start, while your hands are
still clean. Include:
Date
Species
Identification number
Sample type - skin, blood, organ
INFORMATION COLLECTION
Whenever you are faced with an unusual
disease event in wildlife, such as those
listed above, please try to collect as much
of the following information as possible to
provide to the district veterinarian. Take
several photos of the animals and their
surroundings.
When you have been asked to collect
samples for wildlife health surveillance
projects or researchers, please label the
sample and also collect the following
information in your notebook:
Assign each animal a separate
identification number.
Only select one identification number
per animal, even if you are collecting
several samples from the animal.
Species.
Tissue Types Collected.
Location.
Time since death.
Age/Sex/Reproductive Status.
Body Condition or Fat Deposits.
Ensure that your identification number on
the sample and paperwork are the same.
SAMPLE STORAGE AND TRANSPORT
If possible, place the labelled sample vials
into a plastic bag and then in a disposable
styrofoam cool box containing ice or ice
packs. The bag will stop the sample labels
from rubbing off.
Keep the samples cool and out of the sun.
Do not freeze the samples, unless asked to
do so.
Keep the paperwork somewhere dry, on the
outside of the cool box.
Get the samples to the lab as soon as
possible, or ring the lab to see how they
want the samples stored and shipped.
LEARNING EXERCISES
1. The websites of the Australian Wildlife Health
Network (www.wildlifehealth.org) and the
Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and
Forestry (www.affa.gov.au) contain information
on how to deal with an outbreak of disease.
Download one animal disease fact sheet from
each website.
2. Conduct an autopsy on a dead bird such as a
domestic fowl and a mammal, ie a rabbit.
Consult the Wildlife Health Investigation Manual
for instructions, or the website Australian
Registry of Wildlife Health (www.ARWH.org).
Practice making notes and taking photographs of
different organs. What are the differences
between an autopsy carried out for disease
diagnosis purposes and an inspection for disease
while dressing a carcass for food consumption?
3. Enter the contact numbers for the National
Emergency Disease Watch Hotline and AWHN
state co-ordinator in your hunting diary so that
you can notify them in the event of a disease
outbreak.
4. List the precautions you would take to prevent
becoming infected by a communicable disease
while handling game animals.
SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTION
You should report all unusual animal behaviour
and deaths you observe to the manager of the
land on which you hunt. Suspected exotic
diseases should also be reported to the National
Emergency Disease Watch Hotline.
True or False?
AND LEARNING
Rose K. (2005) Wildlife Health Investigation
Manual
Woods, R. AWHN FACT SHEET
3.2.8 V1 11.05
3.2.9
V1 11.05
True
False
1.
When hunting game animals for meat, if you have any doubt
about the health of any particular animal, or if you see any
discharges from its body, or any abnormal of its tissues, or if it
has any wounds or lumps, it would be humane to kill the animal
but do not take it for food. If the problem is detected during
dressing then the carcass should be discarded.
2. You should autopsy every dead animal that you find.
3.
If you see a cloven-hoofed animal with vesicles on its mouth or
feet you may be dealing with a national emergency disease. You
should suspend your hunt and immediately contact the national
emergency disease watch hotline.
4.
Tissues or organs containing abnormal lumps are OK to feed to
dogs.
5.
A pandemic disease occurs when an occasional animal becomes
sick.
6.
It is normal for you to be able to closely approach a healthy wild
animal.
7.
You should always wash your hands and equipment well after
handling dead animals.
8. The lungs of the rabbit and the domestic fowl look the same.
9.
Samples from suspect diseased wildlife or game animals should
only be collected as specifically advised by the disease
surveillance authority.
10.
It is not important if your sample label is smeared with blood,
faeces, and mud.
V1 11.05

V1 11.05
SECTI ON THREE
U N I T 3 . G A M E U T I L I S A T I O N
Game Council NSW
PO Box 2506
Orange NSW 2800
Phone: (02) 6360 5100 Fax: (02) 6361 2093
V1 11.05
3.3.1
V1 11.05
LIST OF CONTENTS
Glossary of terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1
Game Meat Hygiene and Handling:
Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2
Meat Hygiene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.4
Dressing Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.5
Dressing a Rabbit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.6
Trophy Skulls, Caping out,
Preparing Hides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.8
Deer Caping Out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.10
and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.11
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Den Trophy room, office, recreation room.
Esky Portable ice chest.
Germs Microorganisms eg, bacteria.
Zoonosis A disease of animals that can infect
people.
Sheath Prepuce, skin covering the penis.
Gut contents Faeces.
Spine Backbone.
INTRODUCTION
Many hunters when challenged with the
question Why do you hunt? simply reply
that they enjoy hunting. Non-hunters often
fail to understand the pleasure of being out
in natural surroundings, together with the
sense of self sufficiency gained from a
successful hunt. You may choose to hunt to
provide a service to others in the form of
pest or vermin control. Or alternatively,
you may hunt to obtain meat, a trophy, or
skins, or all of these. Ultimately you hunt
because you enjoy hunting.
Another approach that may help the non-
hunter to understand the value of hunting
is to point to the price of meat in the
butcher shops. It is not uncommon to
bring home 50kg or more of dressed and
packaged game meat for your freezer.
A successful hunt may see sucker pig,
young goat, rabbit, hare and fallow deer on
the menu.
If you ask a non-hunter what they think of
game meat you will find most commonly,
that they have never eaten it. When you
point out the meat is low in fat and
organically grown without the aid of any
agricultural chemicals, together with the
fact that the cost of game meat is simply a
round of ammunition and the skill to back
it up, hunting makes a lot of sense. Game
meats can be prepared into many gourmet
dishes. A wide range of small goods such
as sausages, terrines, pates, and smoked
ham and bacon are prepared using a
variety of traditional and cultural recipes.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Understand the principles of game meat
hygiene and handling.
Understand how to use these principles to
dress bird, rabbit, goat, pig and deer
carcasses.
Have constructed your checklist of the basic
equipment you need to process game meat.
Know how to prepare hides for tanning.
Know how to cape out a trophy and take
care of the cape to prepare it for taxidermy.
Know how to prepare skull cap trophy
antlers, horns, and full skulls.
GAME MEAT HYGIENE AND HANDLING:
PRINCIPLES
There are five simple principles for game meat
hygiene and handling.
1. Minimise damage to the meat when you kill
the animal
The best meat comes from an animal shot while
quietly feeding. Meat may be less tender if taken
from an animal that has been stressed by a
chase.
Your hunting skills, whether stalking or still
hunting, are very important as they allow you to
get close enough for accurate shot placement.
You must keep your shot in the heart/lung kill
zone to avoid damaging the prime cuts of meat
located along the spine and hindquarters. Meat
in the region of projectile impact is unsightly as
it contains blood clots, hair, dirt and impacted
skin germs. Also, it is unsafe to eat due to
projectile residues. This area of the carcass must
be completely trimmed away.
Note: Shotgun pellets can be removed from the
carcass much more easily than the residues
from high velocity, soft jacketed rifle projectiles.
With a shotgun the aim is to cover the animal
with the shot pattern rather than to place a
single projectile into the heart/lung kill zone.
2. Only take meat from normal, healthy
animals
Animals may carry diseases that can affect
people. If you eat meat from an animal carrying
such a disease you may become sick. You must
never take an animal for food that looks sick,
walks or carries its head in an unusual way, or
has bloody or pussy discharges from eyes,
nostrils, mouth, anus, genitals, or has body
wounds or carries any unusual external or
internal growths or fluid filled lumps.
Once you have shot your animal you need to
check to see that it was healthy. To do this it is
not necessary to know about all the possible
diseases. All you need to know is what a normal
healthy animals body parts look like. Then you
follow a simple rule; if on inspection an animal
is not normal, you discard the carcass. You do
not need to know what the abnormality is, you
only need to know if the animal is normal or
abnormal. A key threat to Australias livestock
industries is the possibility of serious exotic
diseases becoming established in feral animal
populations. Hunters need to be aware of this
threat and report diseased game to the
appropriate authority(please refer to Section 3.2
Disease Surveillance). Make detailed notes of
any diseased or abnormal animals that you
shoot.
For example: As you gut the animal, you inspect
the intestines. If their normal light pinkish grey
colour has changed to brick red or purple, you
discard the carcass. You do not need to know
3.3.2 V1 11.05
3.3.3
V1 11.05
that this is an enteritis and possibly dangerous to
humans. You do know that it is abnormal. So,
you discard the carcass as unfit for human
consumption.
For example: As you skin the animal you find a
large lump in its leg. You do not need to know if
the lump is an abscess, cyst or cancer. You know
that it is abnormal. So, you err on the side of
safety and discard the carcass as unfit for human
consumption. Such rejected meat is generally
safe for dog meat provided it is well cooked.
The fundamental principle is if in doubt
chuck it out or contact your local vet.
3. Do not contaminate the meat as you dress
and butcher the carcass
The meat in a healthy animal is usually free of
dangerous, illness causing microorganisms or
germs. Unfortunately, many dangerous and meat-
spoiling organisms are present in the gut and on
the skins of healthy animals as well as in the
dust of the ground.
As you dress and butcher a game carcass, the
trick is not to smear these invisible germs onto
the meat. Keeping the meat clean while dressing
a carcass in the bush takes time to learn. To
obtain a clean carcass you should hang the
animal off the ground while skinning it. You
should be careful not to handle the meat during
skinning as muck from the hide (which is full of
germs) sticks to your hands and transfers to the
meat. You must not cut into, or tear the
intestines or stomach, or spill the contents
(again full of germs) over the carcass.
Contaminated meat must be trimmed and
discarded.
Hint: Washing a carcass with water will not
remove contaminating germs; it will only serve
to spread them.
Hint: You will do a much cleaner job if
you wear gloves light disposable latex
gloves are adequate. Carcasses and joints
should be placed in clean calico game
bags to keep flies and dust off. Plastic
coverings will cause meat to sweat,
promoting spoilage and this should be
avoided where possible.
4. Wrap the meat to prevent
contamination in transport
Calico or linen game bags are ideal for
this.
5. Chill the meat to increase shelf life
and prevent spoilage.
Germs do not multiply as fast when
meat is kept cool.
After the meat has had time to hang and
age in the game bag, it should be
butchered into your favourite cuts,
wrapped in plastic, labelled and frozen in
meal size portions. This can be done in the
field if you have access to a freezer or the
meat can be brought home in the game
bags, butchered at home and placed
straight into your freezer.
Hints: Heavy plastic tubs as well as eskies
are useful for game meat transport. Use
wads of newspaper to absorb fluid drip
from the calico game bags.
MEAT HYGIENE
Feral pig hung ready for dressing. Dressing on the
ground often leads to unacceptable contamination of
the meat.
Fallow deer (guts removed) being carried to a hygienic
site for dressing.
Field dressing a goat. Note that the hunter is
wearing gloves.
Head shot rabbits for consumption awaiting transport
to chiller.
Photos above: G Harle
Photos above: M King
3.3.4 V1 11.05
3.3.5
V1 11.05
DRESSING GAME
Birds
There are two basic approaches to dressing
game birds.
Pluck and gut: This is the traditional method
and has been used by hunters for many years.
The advantages are that it gives a slightly higher
yield of meat and leaves you with a whole
carcass for roasting with better taste.
Skin and cut away meat or carcass parts:
This method is quick and clean. Dress the birds
as the shoot progresses. Do not leave them till
the end of the day. With a pair of secateurs cut
off both wings at the body and both feet/legs at
the feather line. (Check on local wildlife
regulations to see if this is permitted for the
species you are hunting. A wing may need to be
retained for identification in some States. This is
not required in NSW for ducks taken on a pest
mitigation permit).
Hang the bird by the head. Wear a pair of
disposable latex gloves. Cut through the skin of
the neck. Strip the skin (fat and feathers come
with it) off the carcass. Twist each leg outwards
and remove the leg close to the backbone with
secateurs.
Place both drumsticks in a plastic freezer bag.
With the secateurs, remove the breast (with
bone) from the carcass. Place in the freezer bag,
seal and put on cooler bricks in an Esky.
Discard the head, neck and backbone with the
guts still attached. All this can be done in a few
minutes.
Note: Shot pellets may rupture the gut. If you
see brownish yellow or green gut spillage stains,
discard the carcass or trim the affected part. Most
commonly, a drumstick will be contaminated.
However, when handling any species of
game bird it is essential to ensure a
hygienic carcass and safe food. Bacteria
migrate into the meat from the gut after
death and shot pellets passing through the
abdomen may rupture intestines spreading
potential pathogens. This may be difficult
to detect with the traditional
plucking/gutting method unless the carcass
is opened laterally and the body cavity
inspected for contamination. If you choose
to pluck and gut you should do so as soon
as possible after shooting the bird.
Hint: Disposable white paper towel is
helpful to wipe blood off the meat before
bagging.
Rabbits and hare
The guts should be removed immediately
after shooting. With spotlight shooting the
remaining carcass dressing can be finished
first thing the next morning. Carcasses
awaiting dressing are best hung in pairs
from interlocked back legs. They may be
placed in plastic tubs but if held this way
should be packed with newspaper to
absorb fluid drip. To skin the rabbit or
hare make a cut on the inside of each back
leg from ankle to ankle of the other leg, or
tear the skin over each shin by pinching it,
then pull the skin from the ankle all the
way down each back leg.
Wear disposable latex gloves. Hang the
rabbit from a leg. Cut well around the anus
and remove anus and rectum complete
with the scent glands. Now pull the skin
down over the body until it is hanging
around the head. Free the skin from the
shoulder and foreleg and with secateurs
cut through both forelegs between wrist
and elbow. Cut off the head from the neck and
discard with the skin and forepaws.
Remove both belly flaps parallel to the back
muscle and with secateurs remove the rib cage
parallel to the back muscle. Discard the belly
flaps and brisket. Trim projectile wound areas.
Using the secateurs discard both hind feet by
cutting through the hind leg between the knee
and ankle. Wipe away any blood with paper
towel. Separate the forequarters from the
hindquarters by cutting through the backbone
with the secateurs. Fold the forequarters onto
the hindquarters and seal the dressed carcass
into a plastic freezer bag. Put the bagged carcass
onto freezer bricks in an esky.
Hint: If you use ice beware of it melting and
leaving water in the bottom of the esky to slosh
over and through your packaged meat. If you
must use ice place a rack in the bottom of the
Esky on which to place your packets of meat.
DRESSING A RABBIT
Hanger keeps
carcass off
ground and
gloves ensure
hygiene.
Skin, viscera
and body flaps
removed.
Dressed rabbit carcass.
Carcass packed and ready to be placed in a
cool box.
Dressed hare
carcass.
Photos: M Draisma
3.3.6 V1 11.05
3.3.7
V1 11.05
Goats, pigs, deer
Hint: Young animals make better eating. Think
about this before you shoot the biggest animal in
a group.
To dress larger game involves hard work. Work
steadily and methodically. First step is to hang
the animal by a hind leg from a rope thrown
over a tree limb. Pick a nice shady spot to work.
Avoid dressing game on the ground if possible.
(Another way of gutting and skinning is done by
hanging the game by the head and working from
the neck down.)
Hint: Knife safety is very important. Blunt knives
are dangerous, as you need to use too much
force. Remember to bring a small sharpening
stone in your daypack. Never cut towards your
body. Concentrate on where the point of the
knife is and where your hand holding the
carcass is!
Hint: If the animal is too heavy to hoist remove
the guts while it is on the ground and then hoist
it up. For larger deer, you may need to half hoist
the animal to a convenient working height for
skinning the hindquarters and then fully hoist it
to clear the ground while you are working on
the forelegs and head. (Very large deer can be
quartered and carried out in chunks with the
skin on, but cut surface contamination will be
inevitable and will need to be trimmed later.
Avoid doing this if possible)
It may be convenient to cut off both hind legs
just below the ankle (hock) and discard them
while the carcass is still on the ground. Wear
disposable latex gloves. Pull the skin away from
one ankle, attach the hoist rope shackle between
the ankle bone and the Achilles tendon and raise
the carcass to a convenient work height.
Run a cut just through the skin from the
inside of one ankle to the inside of the
opposite ankle. Commence removing the
skin from both hind legs. In male animals,
you will need to remove and discard the
sheath, penis and scrotum. Make a
circular cut through the skin around the
anus. Work the skin from around the rump
area and pull it off the body towards the
head. Run a cut through the skin along the
mid-line of the belly. This cut should go all
the way from the anus to the head. Cut off
both forelegs at the knee. Run a cut just
through the skin of the foreleg, from the
inside of one knee to the inside of the
opposite knee. Remove the skin from the
chest, forelegs and neck.
Hints: Avoid touching the meat as you
remove the skin. Grip the skin and let the
carcass hang free. You do not want to
transfer dirt and hair from the skin to the
meat.
Use your knife to free up strong tissue
attachments between the skin and carcass
but punch the skin to break the thinner
attachments. Cut off the head from the
neck and discard. It is easier to skin a hot
carcass. Where possible dress the animal
as soon as it is shot.
Free up the anus and rectum and draw
them away from the carcass with the
intestine trailing after them. Sever the
rectum from the intestine and knot the
intestine on itself. The reason for the knot
is to stop gut contents getting into the belly
cavity. Drop the knotted intestine back
inside the pelvic hole.
Make a small cut through the belly wall in
the midline. Be very careful not to cut into
the underlying guts. Push two fingers into
the cut and use these fingers to keep the
intestine away from the belly wall as you extend
the cut the full extent of the belly. Allow the guts
to fall out of the belly. Carefully cut away any
attachments until all of the belly contents
(stomach, intestines, liver, spleen, kidneys,
bladder and uterus are removed).
Note: If you tear the guts and spill the contents
on the meat you will have to trim all the
contaminated areas. With a bad spillage, you may
have to discard the carcass. It pays to be careful.
Washing with water will not remove spillage
contamination, but only serves to spread it.
You may wish to cut away the belly flaps parallel
to the muscle of the backbone and discard them
as they often get contaminated, but clean flaps
can make good mince. Use a pair of heavy snips
to cut through the brisket to one side of the
breast bone to open the chest. Discard the lower
part of the ribs with the breast bone. Pull the
wind pipe, lungs and heart out of the chest cavity
and discard.
Note: Offal can make good eating. Hearts and
kidneys may be recovered relatively hygienically.
It is not recommended that you attempt to
recover intestines for sausage casings due to
hygiene problems. It is wise to check livers for
cysts or other disease. Novice hunters may best
avoid collecting offal unless sure of your game
dressing hygiene.
Finally, trim the carcass of any damaged or
contaminated meat. Blood clots can be removed
with disposable paper towel.
Fallow deer carcass dressed and sawn into halves.
Photos: M Draisma
Hanging game
Place a calico game bag over the carcass. Let the
carcass hang till aged. Freshly shot meat may be
tough. The game bag should be hung in a
shaded area out of direct sunlight. The time
required for aging varies from a day in warm
weather to several days in cold weather. Butcher
into cuts and wrap in meal size portions.
TROPHY SKULLS, CAPING OUT,
PREPARING HIDES
The art of preparing a trophy is best left to a
taxidermist. It is your job to present the
taxidermist with good quality capes or skins, as
hair that is falling out due to improper
preservation cannot be fixed, nor can a good
mount be made out of a cape that has been
wrongly cut or damaged. The taxidermist must
not be blamed for your failings.
3.3.8 V1 11.05
3.3.9
V1 11.05
Trophy skulls
These can be mounted whole after boiling with
washing powder and cleaning, or sawed off the
skull at a suitable cross section that takes your
fancy. Conventional skull cap sections transect
the eye sockets and so leave a skull cap attached
to the horns or antlers. These are usually
screwed onto a wooden board or shield but are
also the standard presentation for later
taxidermy. The skull mount is the least expensive
method of presenting a trophy and can be done
at home by the average hunter
Trophy heads for taxidermy
Each taxidermist has his or her own special
requirements so it is wise to inquire in advance
with your taxidermist. Select your taxidermist by
seeing examples of their work or by referral by a
friend. Some taxidermists specialise in particular
species. Price alone should not entirely
dominate your decision. Quality mounts cost
more but are more likely to last and look better
longer. Generally, you will get what you pay for.
Never drag an animal whose cape or skin is to
be kept, as there will be irreversible damage
done to the hair coat.
Never cut the throat of a trophy to bleed it, such
damage is difficult to repair. Do not carry
trophy heads out of the bush in a way that
other hunters could mistake you for a deer.
Reverse the antlers and be careful not to
spike yourself if you were to slip and fall.
Full shoulder mounts are usually the most
common. For these the first cuts are mid-
way around the chest, well behind the
forequarters, and around each fore leg just
above the knee. A further long cut is made
along the TOP of the neck towards the
head. Always make these cuts from the
inside of the skin and outwards to avoid
cutting the hair. Proceed to skin out the
shoulders, lower neck and brisket and go
down the forelegs so these are sleeved out
rather than cut. Extend the long neck cut
to the back of the head, then make a Y
shaped cut from here to the back of each
horn or antler. Free enough skin over the
back of the head so that the head itself can
be cut off at the neck. Salt the free skin
heavily, wrapping the lot in a Hessian bag
remembering to keep it cool during
transport. You can leave it at that if you
intend to deliver the cape and head to a
taxidermist without delay.
If you are unable to deliver the cape within
12 hours then further skinning and salting
of the head and cape will be required,
including the eyes, nostrils, ears and lips.
The ears and lips also need to be turned.
This rather specialised job can easily be
ruined and requires a lot of further
knowledge, which is available from your
taxidermist, through courses, clubs or
hunting literature. It is worthwhile learning
more about this if you intend to be a
trophy hunter.
Above: Example of goat skull cap mount
Photo: M.Draisma
Always dispose of your game waste thoughtfully;
leaving it laying about may offend others. Do not
throw it into streams or creeks. Burial is the
neatest disposal method.
Preparing hides for tanning
Once the hide is removed lay it out and remove
as much adhering flesh as possible, then apply a
heavy layer of salt to the entire flesh side and
roll it up with the salt inside. Leave it to sit for
12 hours then shake off the wet salt and repeat
with new applications until salt remains dry. Roll
up and store in a hessian bag in a cool place till
ready to be tanned.
DEER CAPING OUT
Above: Commencing the caping out procedure. Note
how the skin is taken from well behind the front leg.
Left: Backpacking
the trophy head out
of the bush.
Left: Removing
skin from the
carcass. Be careful
not to damage the
skin especially
around the eyelids,
lips and nose.
3.3.10 V1 11.05
3.3.11
V1 11.05
Example question 1
Five principles of game meat harvesting require
that you minimise carcass damage when you
shoot the animal; only harvest normal healthy
animals; do not contaminate the meat during
carcass dressing; wrap the meat to prevent
future contamination; and cool the meat to
prevent spoilage and increase shelf life.
True or False?
List four things that you would do to recover
quality game meat.
AND LEARNING
1. Allison, C. 1979 The Trophy Hunters:
Action Packed Tales of Hunting Big
Game Trophies Around the World 1860
to Today. Sydney: Murray.
2. Smith, G. A Guide to Hunting and
Association of Australia Publications, Unley
S.A.
3. Harrison, M. and Slee, K. Aust. The
Australian Deerhunters Handbook.Deer
Research Foundation, Croydon Vic Second
Edition 1995.
4. Andriessen, EH. 1987 Meat Inspection
and Veterinary Public Health in Sydney.
Rigby.
Above: Mounted awarded trophy head
Photo: C Allison
1.
2.
3.
4.
True
False
1.
You should minimise damage to the meat when you shoot an
animal with a rifle by only shooting into the brain or heart kill
zones.
2. You should only take game meat from normal, healthy animals.
3.
You should not spread dangerous germs onto the carcass meat as
you dress an animal. These germs are most commonly found in
the gut and on the hide.
4. You should wrap meat to prevent contamination in transport.
5. Chilling meat increases its shelf life.
6. Game meat should be frozen as soon as practicable.
7. Game meat should be hung in a cloth bag to tenderise.
8.
Gloves (rubber or latex) should be worn when dressing game
animals.
9. Game should be dressed off the ground.
10.
Never drag an animal whose cape or skin is to be kept, as there
will be irreversible damage done to the hair coat.
3.3.12 V1 11.05

V1 11.05
Game Council NSW
PO Box 2506
Orange NSW 2800
Phone: (02) 6360 5100 Fax: (02) 6361 2093
4.1.0 V1 11.05
4.1.1
V1 11.05
LIST OF CONTENTS
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.1
Prehistoric Hunting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.2
Evolution of the Bow . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.3
Early Game Hunting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.3
Colonial Australian Hunting . . . . . . . . 4.1.4
Indigenous Australian Hunting . . . . . . 4.1.5
Present Day Hunting . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.5
Lessons from the Past . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.6
and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.9
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Auroch Extinct primitive wild cattle.
Buffalo American bison.
Indigenous Native person of any culture.
Lapps Indigenous people from Norway who
herd reindeer.
Mammoth Large extinct woolly elephant-like
animal.
Multicultural Different cultures existing side
by side.
Primate Monkey-related species of mammal.
Shaman Eskimo medicine man.
INTRODUCTION
Hunting and hunting tradition in New
South Wales has its origins in our near and
distant past. It is a blend of various ethnic
and cultural hunting traditions heavily
influenced by early British Colonial Law.
Australian indigenous hunter-gatherer life
has further added to this rich tapestry,
resulting in the present multicultural
outlook on hunting.
Our present tradition should not be looked
upon as fixed or static but rather as an ever
growing and evolving process. Hunting has
changed through history to accommodate
new technologies, ideas and animal
welfare concerns, and this hunting
tradition will continue to change into the
future.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
On the completion of this unit you will:
Know more about the contributions to
present hunting tradition in New South
Wales from prehistoric, recent historic,
colonial, indigenous and immigrant
sources.
Possess an understanding of how these
various contributions have shaped
present day hunting methods and
traditions in New South Wales.
Have an insight into the valuable skills
these traditions can provide to present
day hunting.
Understand the balance of sustaining
both native wildlife and agriculture in
NSW.
PREHISTORIC HUNTING
There is strong evidence that our distant primate
ancestors gradually changed from tree dwelling
vegetarians to opportunistic meat scavengers and
later to active hunters. This is thought to have
occurred in the African grasslands in the past
one hundred thousand years. It has been
suggested that the fashioning of wood, stone,
flint, and bone tools, and the development of
human speech and language was a direct result
of this early hunting activity.
The mastery of fire, and the sharing of meat
during a communal meal remains very much
a part of our culture even today, enacted for
example in the ritual of the typical
Australian barbeque.
Civilisations reaching back many thousands of
years have recorded our ancestral hunting
culture. In many parts of the world there are
rich art works left on the walls of caves by
early hunters.
Hunting was an occupation that provided not
only food for our early ancestors but also
clothing and shelter. Not only were small
animals hunted but also with an increase in
hunting skills it became possible to hunt large
animals. Many groups became specialists at
hunting a particular species, the mammoth
hunters of the ice age (30,000 years ago) for
example. These kinds of hunting traditions have
been carried into our more recent history by
many specialist groups, such as the American
plains Indians who hunted and depended upon
buffalo herds, the northern Lapp Landers who
followed the reindeer migrations, European
groups hunting horses or aurochs and some
Asiatic and African people hunting elephants.
Hunting culture was depicted on the walls of our
ancestors dwellings, on pottery and on hunting
weapons. Sometimes these drawings also had
religious significances as seen in surviving
shamanistic rites today among the Eskimos and
Siberian hunters.
People from some of these cultures captured
and tamed or domesticated their quarry
becoming the first herders. This reduced the
need to hunt, as meat was now at hand when
required. This practice of domestication
eventually led to some of these animals being
used as beasts of burden, such as the use of
oxen for ploughing, and elephants for logging.
Hunting wild animals to supplement the diet and
eventually for use in recreational pursuits
continued to be an important part of our
ancestors lifestyles, even when agriculture was
well established and our first recorded urban
communities were forming in the Middle East
and China. It is thought that writing was invented
at about the same time that communities were
being established and so the hunting culture
recorded from that point in history is even
richer. Beautiful drawings on silk are to be
found from China, India, Japan, and Persia.
Floor mosaics from Macedonia and Byzantium
depict hunting practices.
Aboriginal cave painting of a man throwing a spear
from a woomera from the collection of the National
Archives of Australia.
4.1.2 V1 11.05
4.1.3
V1 11.05
EVOLUTION OF THE BOW
No one knows when the first bow was made or
by whom or even on which continent it was
developed. What we do know is that bow hunting
has been around for up to 20,000 years.
Cave paintings in France show Cro-Magnon man
using bows to hunt game. Clearly, bows were
developed after the spear and they could be
considered as great a technological advancement
as the wheel in improving humankinds ability to
survive and flourish.
Bows of various kinds have been in use by
aborigines on all continents with the exception
of Australia. It is not certain why Australian
aborigines did not develop the bow. In its place,
the Australian Aborigine developed the highly
effective woomera.
The rapid spread of firearms throughout all
continents by colonising world powers was the
virtual death knell of bow hunting worldwide.
Only in isolated pockets did bow hunting survive
as a means for obtaining food, such as with the
Bushmen of Africa and people in other remote
regions.
It was not until the early 1900s when Ishi a
Native American Indian from the Yahi tribe of
Northern California was found half starved in a
hay barn, did bow hunting begin its resurgence
to become what we now know as modern bow
hunting. Ishi eventually fell into the care of Dr
Saxton Pope, an anthropologist from the
University of California in San Francisco. Along
with friend Art Young, Dr. Pope befriended Ishi.
Ishi taught them all he knew about his culture
and tribal home including bow hunting. Dr Pope
wrote several scientific papers on Ishi, his tribe
and his culture, as well as stories on his bow
hunting adventures with Ishi. His writings led to
the resurgence of interest in bow hunting in the
Western world.
As the number of game animals across
North America increased so did the
opportunity to hunt and bow hunting
flourished. Bow hunter numbers increased
to such a level that in the 1930s the state
of Wisconsin instituted the first archery-
only deer season prior to the regular rifle
hunting season. Today Dr Saxton Pope and
Art Young are known as the fathers of
Modern Bow hunting.
Many other notable bow hunters helped
the growth of bow hunting through their
writing and innovations. Fred Bear was one
of the great bow hunters and Innovators
through the 1950s, 60s and 70s. He
hunted and wrote about his bow hunts
across North America, India and Africa.
His list of game taken with a bow includes
brown and polar bear, tigers, lions, Cape
buffalo and elephants. He is also the
founder of Bear Archery Inc., which to this
day is one of the leading bow
manufacturers in the world.
EARLY GAME HUNTING
A big development in hunting practices was
the introduction of gunpowder and its use
in firearms, which from around the
fifteenth century onwards became more
reliable and suitable for this purpose.
By the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries,
firearms had started to eclipse the lance,
bow and crossbow as the main hunting
tool and some forms of hunting became
more restricted to the wealthy and landed
sector of society .
During this period, early elements of game
management were introduced. For
A drawing of early colonial
kangaroo hunting on
horseback.Artist: ST Gill,
Hunting the Kangaroo 1845.
Original copy owned by the
National Library of Australia
(nla.gov.au/nla.pic-an2377119)
example the practice of reserving wildlife habitat
for the production of game and exerting
predator controls, including restricting human
poachers. Evidence of elaborate hunting parks of
the period complete with water hazards, traps
and chase corridors, and specially constructed
shooting pavilions for driven game are well
documented.
These hunting parks were set up to provide
entertainment for the nobility and to provide a
valuable supply of meat. This period of hunting
history is also notable for its social injustices.
Reservation of fish streams occurred and the
common people were often gaoled for illegally
trapping fish or game. Some of our early
colonists had been transported to NSW as a
penalty for such activities.
COLONIAL AUSTRALIAN HUNTING
Hunting was a vital activity in the early days of
settlement of the colony of New South Wales, as
food supplies were meagre and the colony was
on the brink of starvation. Later, when pastoralists
established their runs, hunting kangaroos for
meat was a way of saving valuable domestic
breeding stock from the butchers knife.
Various individuals and acclimatisation societies
turned to importing game species of mammals
and birds from their own native lands to provide
more traditional hunting opportunities. This
unwittingly caused major ecological disasters
such as the introduction of the rabbit, the
English starling and the house sparrow.
Hares, many species of deer, trout, salmon and
other fish species were introduced to this
country with various degrees of success or
failure.
The escape of domesticated species such as
goats, pigs, camels, donkeys, and the horses
recorded in Banjo Patersons immortal tale of
The Man from Snowy River, have added diverse
hunting opportunities. Many of these species
also caused ecological problems once they
became established as feral populations.
4.1.4 V1 11.05
4.1.5
V1 11.05
INDIGENOUS AUSTRALIAN HUNTING
Indigenous Australians are skilled
hunter/gatherers from whom we learn much
about hunting methods and bush tucker.
Their traditional survival skills are valuable
assets to any modern hunter and their
conservation traditions are worthy of
consideration.
Indigenous Australians practice many basic
principles that are wise and life-preserving,
examples being controlled scrub or grass
burning to foster food plants for kangaroos and
wallabies, digging out only some of the yams
from a patch so there will be some left to
replace those taken, camping away from a
waterhole to allow the local wildlife necessary
access .
The acute observation skills of indigenous
Australians in regards to the habits and
peculiarities of native birds and animals is the
key to their unique hunting and gathering skills.
Their self sufficiency and tracking skills were
ably utilised by our early explorers and
pastoralist communities and are still very
much admired by all Australians. As
hunters, we have much to learn from
indigenous Australians.
PRESENT DAY HUNTING
In todays world, hunting is no longer a
necessity for most of us, but is something
we are never the less driven to by the
associations with our past. This basic drive
cannot be denied. In some individuals, the
hunting instinct is much stronger than in
others. Our present day society allows
hunting in recognition of its benefits and
our inbuilt drive to hunt.
We may still wish to go out and harvest our
own meat instead of buying it from a shop.
Indeed some of the game we hunt for the
table cannot be purchased or obtained
except by hunting. Others hunt to obtain
trophy animals or for pest control. Every
hunter has their own reasons and their
own level of drive to hunt for game.
Since our colonial days, governments have
Three aboriginals
of the Kimberly
region hunting
with traditional
weapons
From the
collection of the
National Archives
of Australia.
seen the wisdom of making hunting available to
all Australians as a legal right, in recognition of
our cultural right to hunt. However, we are
restricted by law with regard to licensing, land
access, animal welfare and practices involved in
the hunt.
We can hunt with rifle, shotgun, or bow and the
technological advances that we have in these
tools lends us a huge advantage over the game
we hunt. Rifle construction and trigger
improvements, advanced telescopic sights, and
specialised projectile construction have vastly
improved accuracy.
We must learn as much as possible to improve
our hunting skills and to hunt responsibly and
ethically.
Post war migration has brought to our country
an influx of varied hunting traditions from many
nations and cultures. Some of these traditions
have the potential to improve how we hunt. It is
worth taking the time to learn the hunting
traditions of other cultures.
LESSONS FROM THE PAST
Domestic examples
There was a time in recent history that the need
for species conservation and the important role
hunters could play in this, was a foreign
concept.
Australia was a land of plenty with boundless
opportunities and from 1788 things changed at
an alarming rate to the detriment of many
native animal species.
Massive clearing of the natural bush and the
proliferation of exotic domestic grazing animals
took place and by 1900 a number of native
animal species became extinct, including the
Tasmanian tiger (Thyalacine) which was
persecuted to extinction as a predator of
domestic stock.
The impact of settlement
The deliberate and non-deliberate establishment
of exotic animal populations proliferated and a
fur industry that utilised many native animals
was established. For example, more than two
million Koala pelts were exported overseas by
the mid 1920s.
The proceedings of a workshop on Agriculture,
Forestry and Wildlife: Conflict or Coexistence?
held at the University of New England in 1975,
highlighted the fluctuating populations of wildlife
(and their management) following settlement of
the New England Tablelands.
The first European settlers arrived around 1832
and rapidly settled the area to the extent that by
1848, all the best grazing land was occupied by
70-80 Stations.
Squatters undertook regular burning in the late
winter as a pasture improvement practice. This,
plus grazing and the use of introduced grasses
and clovers, altered the very nature of the
grassland.
Early native predators
Reports of the 1830s indicated that dingoes were
predating sheep, and kangaroos and possums
were scarce in numbers. By the 1870s, possums
had increased so greatly that they were major
pests of maize crops, and rat kangaroos were
noted as pests on small potato fields. Kangaroos
and, it appears, wallaroos had increased to an
extent where they competed strongly with sheep
for pasture.
Several species of large kangaroos were thought
to be sufficiently damaging in the 1870s for
4.1.6 V1 11.05
4.1.7
V1 11.05
bounties to be offered. Despite this, by the 1880s
kangaroo numbers had increased to the extent
that there are records of 10,000 being killed on
one (large) property in one year.
There are similar events and stories to those
mentioned above to be recounted from many
other countries and the similarities to NSW dont
stop there.
One major common theme in the push for the
conservation of species through a number of
mechanisms was by a growing number within
the community (many of whom were hunters)
who recognised the need for self imposed
change. These people placed pressure on the
decision makers of the day to act for the future
well-being of species.
It is worth noting that the major contributing
factors to the massive decline or extinction of
certain species were almost never related to
hunting.
The New England University example is just one
of many that aptly demonstrates the existence or
conservation of all species (including ourselves)
requires three important factors: food, shelter
and water. Alter one or a combination of these
factors and populations become altered.
Whilst the granting of bounties may have had
some affect on the population of target species,
the greatest affect on the increase or decrease of
species was changes to land use. The
introduction of grasses and clover gave ample
and easy access for grazing (food); the retention
of forested areas alongside improved pastures
(shelter); and the construction of dams and
ponds lessened the frequency of drought
(water).
In simple terms, those species of animals that
required tussocky native grasslands declined and
other species that favoured the altered
landscape thrived to the extent of vastly
increased numbers. Pest animal problems
are a symptom of widespread
environmental disruption or change.
International examples
Passenger pigeons
In America, the extermination of the
passenger pigeon, a bird species so
numerous that they darkened the skies for
days as they flew over in their millions,
should forever remain a lesson in
unethical hunting coupled with
uncontrolled greed.
The pigeons were over harvested by
market hunters who reduced the
population below the critical density
required for breeding. Pigeons surviving
the hunting stopped breeding and so the
population died out.
American Bison
The American bison almost shared the
same fate, having been over hunted for
both commercial and political reasons,
before becoming protected. We have since
learnt that over exploitation, especially
under commercial pressures, must be
controlled and carefully limited so that the
harvest does not exceed the species
capacity to replenish their numbers.
American bison have in fact survived and
are thriving as a result of the
implementation of effective game laws, and
are now being hunted again.
The need for predators in an ecosystem
Early hunters thought that fewer predators meant
more game and so predators such as wolves in
the USA were relentlessly exterminated. When
the wolves were all but gone, there was an
explosion of the deer population.
The deer then proceeded to totally consume
their normal food supplies and killed whole
forests with their desperate stripping of bark
from trees during the winters. Following this,
deer died in massive numbers from starvation
and disease. The environmental damage took
many years to repair. Killing all the wolves
eventually resulted in fewer deer and a badly
damaged environment. The wolves had kept the
deer population to a balanced carrying capacity
by preying on the aged, the weak and the young,
and with a bit of help from hunters the deer
herds had been held in check. Every predator,
large and small performs beneficial service in
the balance of nature.
The hunters role in game management
In a wildlife system where natural predators are
ineffective or absent it becomes important that
humans takes up this role for both the welfare of
the species as well as for the habitat in which
they live.
We literally have to become the guardians of the
forest. As an example, the culling of our
kangaroos during drought becomes important to
prevent the animals dying a cruel death from
starvation and disease.
In this case, the hunter has had to act as the
main predator of the kangaroo and thus play a
valuable part in the overall balance of nature.
In Africa, when elephants were fully protected
from hunting and poaching their populations
increased to unsustainable numbers.
In their search for food during droughts, the
elephants tore down trees causing irreversible
habitat destruction. This allowed the saline water
table to rise and vast salt pans were formed in
some areas.
Elephant culls stopped the area from becoming
no more than a desert, but it could not reverse
the environmental damage in the short term.
In contrast, where managed trophy hunting of
elephants is allowed there have been many
benefits. Herd numbers are kept within
sustainable limits and monies raised provide an
economic benefit to local people. The CAMPFIRE
programme in Zimbabwe was a good example of
how local communities could benefit from safari
hunting.
EXAMPLE QUESTION 1
Hunting is a right that is extended to you by your
community and those around you. This right is a
reflection of our cultural right to hunt.
True or False?
List four historical periods in the history of
hunting and/or hunting in Australia.
1.
2.
3.
4.
4.1.8 V1 11.05
4.1.9
V1 11.05
EXAMPLE QUESTION 2
Hunting Licence Systems, as practised
internationally, are an integral part of the
conservation of species.
True or False?
List four examples of animals that have been
over or under hunted.
AND LEARNING
1. Allison, C. The Australian Hunter.
2. Bentley, A. 1998. An Introduction to
the Deer of Australia. (2nd Edition)
Melbourne.
3. Butcher, R. 1973. The Book of Hunting.
Paddington Press London, New York.
4. Blutchel, K.G. 1997. Game and
Hunting Vols 1 & 2. Konemann
Verlagsgellschaft, mbH, Bonner Sr,
Cologne.
5. Dunn, J. 1989. Hunting in Australia.
Croydon Vic.
6. Jelinek, J. 1989. Primitive Hunters.
Hamlyn Octopus Publishing Group,
London.
7. Leopold, A. 1948. A Sand County
Almanac. Oxford University Press, Oxford,
London, New York.
8. Saunders, N. J. 1995. Animal Spirits.
Macmillan Publishers Ltd., London.
and Shooting in Australia. Sporting
Shooters Association of Australia
Publications, Unley S.A.
10. The Log of Matthew Flinders. A
voyage to Terra Australis. Monday 22nd
March 1802 First published London 1814.
1.
2.
3.
4.
True
False
1.
Every culture and civilisation through the millennia records a
hunting culture.
2.
Early civilisations depicted hunting culture on pottery, on the
walls of dwellings and on hunting weapons.
3.
Hunting was not a vital activity in the early days of settlement of
the colony of New South Wales.
4.
A big development in hunting practices was the introduction of
gunpowder and its use in firearms.
5. Hunting changed the very nature of grasslands in NSW.
6. Hares and deer of many species were introduced to Australia.
7.
Observation of the habits of various animals and birds are
re-enacted in the aboriginal dances.
8.
Hunting is a right extended to us by our community and is a
reflection of our cultural right to hunt.
9.
Hunting is restricted by laws that exist with regard to licensing
and land access.
10.
Survival skills and bushcraft should not be high on the list of the
modern hunter skills.
4.1.10 V1 11.05

V1 11.05
Game Council NSW
PO Box 2506
Orange NSW 2800
Phone: (02) 6360 5100 Fax: (02) 6361 2093
4.2.0 V1 11.05
4.2.1
V1 11.05
LIST OF CONTENTS
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.1
Key Hunting Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2
The Basics of Your Checklist . . . . . . . 4.2.2
Hunting Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.5
and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.7
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Billy stick A Y shaped stick for lifting a hot
billy off the camp fire. It also helps prevent hot
water splashing everywhere when pouring from
the billy.
Debris Dirt, bark, leaf fragments.
Esky portable ice chest for cold storage of
food.
Folder Hard plastic loose-leaf document file
for important hunting information.
INTRODUCTION
In todays busy world, it can be difficult to
find the time to go hunting. Getting away
means reorganising schedules, putting
matters on hold and then catching up on
our return. All the more reason to plan
our hunting trips carefully and to make the
most from them. It is no fun to come home
from a hunting trip sunburnt because we
forgot our hat, a welter of sand fly bites
because we forgot our repellent and with
blistered feet because our hunting boots
were past it.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
This unit of study will help you:
Become familiar with the range of
equipment available to hunters.
Construct your own must have
hunting equipment list.
Become flexible and adaptable in
preparing equipment for specific
hunts.
KEY HUNTING PRINCIPLES
Weather
The climate where you are going to hunt may be
very different to where you live. For example, if
you live in Coffs Harbour and hunt in the Snowy
Mountains you are in for a winter temperature
shock. Always keep the possibility of changing
weather conditions in mind and address the
need to take appropriate clothing.
Attention to detail
A hunting trip is not a competition to prove that
you can live in the bush Tarzan style. It is true
that while you are in the bush you will not have
5 star accommodation but you can make
yourself surprisingly comfortable with simple
equipment. After each hunting trip, ask yourself
what simple things you could have prepared
beforehand to make the trip more comfortable.
For example, a billy stick saves you from
accidentally getting burnt fingers. If you pay
attention to all of the little details then you will
end up having a great time.
Checklists
Your vehicle is packed and you are a hundred
kilometres or so out from home and you start to
ask yourself some overdue questions: did I pack
this or that bit of gear, have I got my map? It is
much more reliable to use a checklist as you
pack your vehicle. Try to keep your hunting gear
together and ready to go. Rather than do last
minute repairs and replacements before a trip,
do them when you return home from a trip.
Remember, it is a long way from your hunting
camp to the corner shop.
Packing crates
Max and Peter are camped on the Wonnangatta
River. It has been a hard days hunt and both
men are slumped in folding camp chairs, each
with a mug of billy tea to hand, waiting for the
fire to die down so that the damper can go on.
The damper is ready in the camp oven with the
lid off and Peter has placed it in a handy spot
next to his chair. He looks down to see a brush
tailed possum helping itself to a few mouthfuls of
damper. Remember that although you are there
to hunt, the possums, rats, mice, blowflies and
ants are there to make a meal out of you and
yours. Plastic tubs with lids, Eskies, canvas and
Hessian bags are useful to pack your gear into
for transport and then double up to protect your
stores from pilfering by the furry ones.
Finally
Ask yourself what special gear you need to take
for this particular hunt. Think about the game
that you will encounter. A .22 rimfire is great for
rabbits but no good at all for feral pigs.
THE BASICS OF YOUR CHECKLIST
Licences, permissions, notifications, maps
From time to time you will be asked to show
your firearms licence, a landholders permission
to hunt letter, your game licence, game bird
licence or other special permits necessary to
legally take the species you are hunting. Forms
are a way of life and you need to plastic-pack
your documents. As you are packing your
documents, remember to ring the owner of the
property on which you have permission to shoot.
Check with them on the local weather. Ask them
if there is anything you can bring them from
town. Tell them what time you expect to arrive.
Ask them if there is anything they want you to
watch out for as you hunt.
4.2.2 V1 11.05
4.2.3
V1 11.05
Clothing
The basic message is warm and dry or cool and
comfortable. A bush hat or peaked cap is
mandatory. If hunting in thick heavy brush,
scrubbed soft cotton, woollen or polar fleece
clothing cut down on noise. Bushes rubbing past
nylon parkas can be extremely noisy and will tip
off game animals that you are there. Camouflage
clothing will allow you to stalk much closer to
animals. However, it can be dangerous to use
cammo if other hunters are in the area, as they
will also have trouble seeing you. In such cases
blaze orange bush shirts are the way to go so
you will be seen and be safe. Many hunters
prefer to wear a double pair of woollen socks
inside quality, soft leather, hunting boots. Always
pack at least one complete change of clothes
together with wet weather gear. A separate
hunting belt for your knife, ammo pouch, water
bottle and binocular pouch will save you from
the need to hitch and unhitch your trouser belt.
Sleeping bags and camp beds
You can pick the person in your camp who has
cold bedding. Its the one who wakes up to stoke
the fire in the wee small hours. Getting a good
nights sleep is important if you expect to hunt
hard the following day. Being warm, dry, and
free from mozzie attack needs a bit of thought.
The final decision on the type of sleeping gear to
pack will depend on whether you will be vehicle
based or back packing. Buy the best sleeping
bag you can afford, preferably a good down one
and invest in a Gortex cover bag to keep it dry.
Dacron bags are heavier but will stay warm if
wet. Camp stretchers and airbeds can be cold
unless insulated with a thick under blanket or
roll of carpet. Airbeds and the thinner
Thermarest mattresses can get holes in them. It
is not nice to wake up lying on the hard ground.
Swags are waterproof but bulky and
condensation can make them damp inside.
Test the different choices to determine
which suits you best.
Hint: A roll of foam of your preferred size,
thickness and density is bulky, but a cheap
reliable alternative.
Boots
Always take at least two pairs, of different
design and swap them daily on extended
hunts as this will give your feet a chance to
rest. Also, if one pair packs it in, or begins
hurting you feet you are still covered.
Today there is a huge choice of boots of
various weights and stiffness, with a variety
of sole patterns. Try to find boots that have
a well-gripping sole, the classic Sherpa
pattern is a reliable one. Generally the
more you pay, the longer they last, if not
abused. A good pair of boots can seem
expensive but it can end up being the
cheapest buy over their lifetime. The type
of boot you choose will depend on the
country you are hunting. For example, in
steep rocky ground you should wear a
boot that has a thick firm sole and one that
gives good ankle support. Stalking on dry
crackly flats will require a thin soled boot
with good foot feel and you may even
choose to make the last approach silently
on your socks. Areas where you repeatedly
have to wade across rivers are hard on
boots. Synthetic boots will dry quicker and
will drain water better, thereby putting a
stop to the squelching noises that will
betray you to game. To prevent toe blisters
it is best to lace up your boots with your
foot firm against the back of the boot
because this will take pressure off your
toes. Double the laces through the eyelets
at the angle of your foot and ankle. This
stops the laces from re-spacing later and
causing free-play of the boot on the foot. Any
boot should feel TOTALLY comfortable when new
and wearing two pairs of socks. Wear them
around the place, wet them and walk them dry
at home to completely form them to your feet
before you go. When back packing, your feet will
swell from your packs weight and those boots
that fitted very snugly with a single pair of light
socks will become torture devices.
Food
Take plenty of it. Plan your supplies on a per
person, per meal, per day basis. Carry at least
three extra days food in non-perishable form
such as cans, dry rice, pasta, cuppa soup
packets, etc, in case of emergency. Remember
that you will be spending much of your time
eating out of your daypack so be sure it contains
snack foods such as dried fruits, nuts, chocolate,
eggs (hard boiled in shell) muesli bars, damper,
or boiled rice. For your daypack it is best to
avoid fruit that will bruise or make a sticky
leaking mess and over weight thermos flasks will
feel 10 times as heavy once you start walking
out. Several small popper packs of fruit drinks
can be convenient.
Vehicles
Only take fully serviced reliable vehicles into the
bush and always remember to tell someone
where you are going and when you expect to be
back. Where possible organise the hunt so that
you have access to two vehicles in case of
mechanical breakdowns. Take as much fuel as
you need, leaving yourself with a comfortable
safety margin. Your most common problems will
be getting bogged in mud or sand, staking tyres,
and flat batteries. Simple solutions are to stay off
wet paddocks and to stay on easy tracks. Make
sure you are fully equipped with the necessary
recovery gear and spares and be sure to know
how to use it all safely. When stuck, dont rush
the recovery. Stop, think out a plan and hasten
slowly. Check that nothing has been left behind
when finished. Pack your recovery kit into an
easily accessible place in the vehicle so that you
do not have to unload everything else to get at it.
Attending a course on four-wheel driving and
vehicle recovery may save your life. Four wheel
driving can be dangerous and the vehicles will
definitely not go anywhere, despite what the
novice might think or have been told.
Camp equipment
Firstly, you may choose to avoid taking tents by
staying in shearers quarters or empty farm
cottages. If a camp under canvas is preferred or
necessary then a small trailer will give you space
to take all the gear necessary for a comfortable
base camp. Remember to allow half a day to set
up a camp under canvas and a bit less to break
camp. Plan your arrival so that you can select a
safe site and set up your camp in daylight. Avoid
camping under large river gums, trees that are
dead or have dead limbs, or where fire hazards
exist. Avoid dry creek beds for your camp
because it might not be dry by morning if there
is rain upstream. Tents tarped over with a poly
tarp guarantees your bedding will stay dry. A tent
should be chosen that has good cross ventilation
options, the ability to withstand extreme wind
and it should be simple to put up, with strong
poles and plenty of thick long and short steel
pegs. A spade or trowel, peg hammer, axe and
chainsaw, tripod and barbie plate, gas camp
stove, a kitchen box with pots, pans, oven,
plates, cutlery etc, as well as a table, folding
chairs, washing dish, bucket and water jerry and
some form of lighting completes the camp gear.
Or you can live more spartan.
4.2.4 V1 11.05
4.2.5
V1 11.05
HUNTING EQUIPMENT
Above: Vehicle recovery gear should include wheel
chains, winch and slings, chainsaw, axe, shovel and a
range of spares to cover most eventualities.
This badly bogged vehicle will be on the road in a few
minutes with the correct recovery gear.
Snow falls are common in alpine areas. You can be
safe and comfortable in bad weather with the right
equipment.
Firearms and associated equipment
Commonly you will need to take 2 or 3
firearms into the field. Dont forget to
bring their bolts and enough ammo. To
hunt small and large game, you may
require a shotgun, a rim fire rifle and a
centre fire rifle. These will need to be
reasonably secured while in the base camp
and this can be achieved by the use of
trigger locks, plus storing spare firearms
in a locked vehicle or fully enclosed
lockable trailer. Always secure your
ammunition in a separate lockable
container. Do not, under any
circumstances leave unattended firearms in
your tent. Spotlights are prohibited under
the terms of Schedule 1 of the Game and
Feral Animal Control Regulation 2004 for
use on deer.
Hunting packs
These are a personal choice as to type and
size and what you carry in them. Canvas or
nylon packs can make noise in scrubby
areas, so wool or polar fleece covered
ones should be considered. Remember
that all that stuff adds up in terms of total
kilos, especially when carried all day and
up and down hills. Your hunting pack will
carry your survival kit, food and drink,
knife, spare ammo, camera, binoculars,
meat recovery gear, torch, and dont forget
the toilet paper. You may prefer a bum bag
or kit belt. Check out what others use, test
the various options and learn to vary and
limit what you carry according to the
circumstances and where and how you are
hunting. Always err on the side of safety
when deciding what not to take.
Photos: D Reid
Meat, hide, and trophy recovery, storing and
transporting equipment
You intend to return with several hundred
dollars worth of game meat. The meat will be
from selected prime animals and will be
wrapped and packaged similar to the meat you
buy at the local butcher shop. To do this
successfully you need to become apprenticed
to an experienced hunter for one or two trips.
Experienced hunters are skilled craftsmen.
Remember it is a privilege to be able to
accompany one. Keep your mouth closed and
your eyes open. Take a notebook to jot down all
the simple tricks and make a record of the gear
they use. For example, a very effective meat saw
is made from a special braided wire. It weighs
next to nothing and fits easily into the hunting
pack. You can assemble a camp butchery kit in a
soft carry bag: Steel, knives, cutting boards,
disposable gloves, freezer bags and labels and
marker, paper towel, cloth game bags, meat
hooks, hanging cords and offal bags. For trophy
care you will need to take four kilos of cooking
salt packed in a satchel.
First Aid
Take time out to do a First Aid course. Avoid the
toy First Aid kits. For example, what do you do
when hunting in thick brush and a bush springs
back and lodges debris in your eye? This is
painful and needs attention using the eyewash
cup and mirror from your well-equipped First
Aid kit.
HUNTING EQUIPMENT
Small game dressing setup. Small game hanger (with
paper towel), plastic wrapper bags and cutters attached
to bull bar. From left to right on ground, hares and
rabbits to be dressed, cool box, water, hunting pack
and plastic tub for waste.
Large game dressing equipment for use in the hunting
camp base. From left to right, steel, bone saw, hod
(knife holder), pointed boning knife, curved skinning
knife and broad slicing knife.
Camp cooking equipment. Note the fireplace surround
is clear of combustible litter, the fire is contained and
protected from wind. All this equipment can be folded,
packed in hessian bags and moved from site to site.
4.2.6 V1 11.05
4.2.7
V1 11.05
Hunting belt with knife, stone, 8x binoculars and
ammunition pouches. The number of pouches and
items you choose to carry on your belt may be varied to
suit your personal requirements.
Photos: M Draisma
LEARNING EXERCISE
Construct your own hunting equipment
checklist.
The hard way is to do it from scratch. Much
better to refer to checklists available in reliable
hunting textbooks and to modify those lists to
your own particular hunting needs. Remember
the list will be different on different hunts! You
will need more than one list. It is recommended
that you consult the text A guide to Hunting
and Shooting in Australia. pp. 113-114 as the
starting point for your own customised
equipment check list. The Australian
Deerhunters Handbook is another good
reference text. Work back through this unit
making notes of the equipment you wish to
include in your own checklist.
Enjoy past memories and future dreams as you
make up your list. The enjoyment of all things is
as much in the anticipation and preparation as it
is in the actual doing. Also, remember to take a
camera so that you can record your new
adventures for future review. To avoid losing
your checklist, keep it in a plastic jacket in your
Hunting Projects folder and have a copy in
your gun cupboard. Tick off each item in
pencil as you pack them. When finished,
rub out the ticks and it can be recycled for
the next trips preparation.
A hunting equipment checklist includes
licences/permissions/maps, clothing,
boots, sleeping bags, vehicles, food,
camping equipment, guns, packs, meat
and hide recovery gear, and first aid items.
True or False?
In preparing for a hunt, list four important
steps to take.
AND LEARNING
1. Absalom. J. 1992 Safe Outback Travel,
The Five Mile Press, Balwyn, Vic.
2. Australian Bowhunters Association
National Bowhunter Education Manual.
ABA. 3RD Edition.
3. Harrison, M and Slee, K 1995 The
Australian Deerhunters Handbook,
Donprint:ADRF Croydon Vic.
4. Smith, G 1992. A Guide to Hunting and
Shooting in Australia: Sporting Shooters
Association of Australia Publications Unley.
SA.
5. Electronic Journal: The Shooting
Industry on-line. ProQuest Information
and Learning Company: San Diego (Note:
This is an electronic data base for firearms
retailers and access is restricted to
subscribers)
True
False
1.
It is much more reliable to use a checklist from which to pack
your vehicle.
2.
When hunting in thick heavy brush, scrubbed soft cotton, woollen
or polar fleece clothing cut down on noise.
3.
Wear a double pair of woollen socks inside quality, soft leather,
hunting boots.
4. Firmly lace your feet into the toes of your hunting boots.
5. Food. Take plenty of it.
6.
Where possible, organise the hunt so that you have access to two
vehicles in case of mechanical breakdowns.
7.
Plan your arrival so that you can select a safe site and set up your
camp in daylight.
8. Hide unattended firearms in your tent.
9. Experienced hunters are skilled craftsmen.
10.
A guide to Hunting and Shooting in Australia. pp. 113-114 is a
good starting point from which to develop your own customised
equipment checklist.
4.2.8 V1 11.05

V1 11.05
Game Council NSW
PO Box 2506
Orange NSW 2800
Phone: (02) 6360 5100 Fax: (02) 6361 2093
V1 11.05
4.3.1
V1 11.05
LIST OF CONTENTS
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.1
Common Bush Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.2
Steps To Be Taken If You
Become Lost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.4
Distress Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.5
Map Reading and Ground Navigation . 4.2.5
Observation Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.6
Survival Kits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.7
Emergency Basic First Aid Kit
Minimum Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.8
and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.9
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Aldo Leopold father of modern
conservation theory.
ASAP As soon as possible.
EPIRB Emergency Position Indicating
Radio Beacons.
GPS Satellite based Global Positioning
System to let you know where you are and
how to get to where you want to go.
Hypothermia The body functions run
down from extreme cold.
Hyperthermia The body overheats and
goes into an internal self destruct cycle.
Lanyard Attached cord.
Myriad Vast number.
INTRODUCTION
Bushcraft and survival skills cannot be
learnt all at once and solely out of a book.
It takes time, practice and trial and error.
This unit will provide you with important
basic facts on bushcraft and a starting
point from which to develop your
bushcraft skills.
You may wish to undertake the St. Johns
Ambulance first aid course, which will
train you to deal with medical
emergencies.
Every time you are in the bush, you should
take every opportunity to hone your
bushcraft skills. Your life could depend
on them.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
On completion of this Unit you will:
Know about the common bush hazards and
how to deal with them.
Have the basic knowledge to deal with
hunting related medical emergencies.
Know what to do if you get lost.
Be able to improvise shelter and fire.
Know the basics of emergency signalling.
Have knowledge of map reading and
compass navigation and know how to
develop good location observation skills.
Be able to assemble a survival kit to suit
your needs.
COMMON BUSH HAZARDS
High winds and bushfires
The most dangerous situations in the bush are
high winds and bushfires. Fire is an obvious
hazard. Report fires ASAP. Seek and follow the
advice of the local bushfire brigade Captain.
High winds are dangerous with the risk of falling
trees or large branches. Both can be life
threatening. Immediately exit timbered areas to
open farmland. Come back for your tent and
gear later. It is replaceable, you are not.
Flooded streams and rivers
Rivers and streams must always be crossed with
caution, as they are a major killer. Flooding
streams can rise rapidly so a return trip is not
always as safe as when you first crossed. Water
swirling high over large boulders, or the sound
of submerged rocks rolling along the bottom
indicates the water is extremely dangerous and
impassable.
If you cannot determine the depth then you
should only cross with a strong staff to probe the
bottom and use a safety rope, always putting the
staff into the water upstream and to your side.
The water pressure will then keep the end down.
Never cross in the dark or barefoot, always leave
your boots on. Linking arms with one or two
companions and moving one at a time,
caterpillar style will allow the person(s) not
moving to support the one that is moving until
they gain a stable footing.
Sending one person across tied to a safety rope
held by the rest of the party is another good
practice. Cross where the water is widest as the
current here is usually at its slowest. Backpacks
should be carried ready to slip off when
crossing. Firearms must always be carried
unloaded when crossing. If in doubt, DO NOT
CROSS. Go elsewhere or wait for the waters to
drop.
Other hazards
The camping tools we use can present hazards if
not used with care. Chainsaws, axes, knives,
power winches all have inherent dangers that
must be recognised and avoided. Any vehicle
recovery exercise should be done slowly and
cautiously and members of the group not
directly involved should keep well clear of the
vehicles being recovered.
When hunting, avoid rock faces as the rocks can
be wet and slippery and a fall may be life
threatening. Hunting through bush after dark is
best avoided. Do not camp under hollow or
dead trees or limbs, as they can randomly drop
or break even in the absence of wind. Check
your camp area for bull ant nests, spiders,
4.3.2 V1 11.05
4.3.3
V1 11.05
scorpions and snakes. Clear away debris and
rocks before pitching your tent. To prevent your
fire from escaping you should remove all
inflammable materials within 3 meters of you
fireplace pit when dry, and within 1 meter when
wet. Make sure your fire is OUT when leaving
camp. Cover your fireplace with soil when
departing permanently.
Becoming lost
Getting lost is a possibility so always tell some
one where you are going and when you expect
to return, preferably in writing and do not
deviate from this plan. This is the first rule of
survival. Travel plans can be left with a relative
or with the nearest Police Station. Remember to
notify them when you return.
Medical emergencies
The most common medical emergencies are
caused by cold and exposure, heat stress, burns,
lack of water, cuts, falls and sprains.
If hunting in summer, snake bite is an added but
low risk. Most snake bites occur when people
attempt to kill snakes, so leave them alone. If
bitten, apply a bandage firmly but not too tightly
so as to cut off circulation. Start at the top of the
limb and wrap down to and over the bite.
Minimise all further activity by the victim and
arrange emergency evacuation.
Hypothermia is life threatening. It is most
common if clothing is too light or becomes wet
when there is a cold wind blowing. Speech
becomes slurred, vision becomes tunnelled and
thought processes become deranged and
confused. Excessive fatigue, shivering and
drowsiness is seen. Victims often deny that there
is a problem. Action: Provide shelter from rain
and wind and wet ground. Wrap victim in a
warm sleeping bag, or foil space blanket and get
another person inside it with them,
stripped to underwear for maximum heat
transfer to SLOWLY rewarm them. Give
small quantities of warm drinks if the
victim is conscious but never give alcohol.
Seek medical aid promptly if recovery is
not quick and remain with the victim until
such help arrives. It is critical that a repeat
episode does not occur within 7 days.
Hyperthermia occurs when we over exert
in hot weather or where sweating is
ineffective in high humidity. If allowed to
get out of control it becomes irreversible
and will kill. Symptoms are headache,
flushed features, faintness, and absence of
sweating after initially being profuse,
mental disturbance, collapse and
convulsions. Act early and quickly. Find
shade, remove clothing, create air
movement and apply cold water or
preferably ice in towels. Immerse in river.
Arrange for medical help and evacuation to
a medical facility.
Dehydration will kill within one to three
days and is discussed in further detail
below.
Gunshot wounds, because of the nature of
the soft pointed ammunition and shot shell
loads used and their muzzle velocities, will
cause massive wounds that are often
immediately fatal. Such massive trauma
can only be given minimal treatment as
first aid. Immediate priorities are pressure
dressings to reduce blood loss, treating
shock by keeping the victim warm, positive
reassurance to reduce fear. The urgent
mission is to evacuate the victim to a high-
grade hospital facility ASAP. Helicopter
transport, if rapidly available is first
choice, otherwise by car, but dont kill
yourself driving too fast as that will not fix
anything.
(Sprains, fractures, and wounds are dealt with
using standard first aid measures described in
the St Johns Ambulance first aid course.)
STEPS TO BE TAKEN IF YOU BECOME LOST
Dont panic. Stop where you are and think about
your likely location and what to do next. Dont
rush about, as you will only exhaust yourself.
Stay put, rest, think and wait awhile. If you
explore along the way you have previously
walked, mark your path with pieces of toilet
paper or bits of hot pink plastic tape tied to
bushes at regular intervals, each one being in
sight of the next. If you do not regain your
bearings and are still lost after this initial
exploration then you will need shelter, warmth,
water, and food - in that order. If you have only
the first three then you can live for many days
without food. You must always carry a knife and
a gas lighter as essential survival tools.
Shelter
Strips or pieces of bark, shrubs, palm leaves or
grass can thatch a frame shelter tied with vines,
strips of bark, bootlaces or other sources. Or
you can find a rock overhang, a hollow tree or a
log to keep off rain or wind. A lightweight
silvered space blanket, emergency poncho or
two large plastic garbage liners can keep you dry
and can act as a windbreak. Pack all three in
your survival kit. Check them from time to time
for deterioration or worn parts.
Fire
Fire can be started using a butane lighter,
matches, magnifying glass or flint and steel using
dry leaves and working inside a hollow tree or
under layers of stripped stringy bark or
paperbark even if raining, as the inner layers
remain dry. A candle stub, grease paper or inner
tube rubber strip is a good fire starter. Pick
small fine dead twigs from standing bushes for
the early fuel, as these are usually the driest.
Later use thicker ones, then any old wood, wet
or dry once it develops enough heat. Wet
matches can be dried by placing them in your
hair under a hat or beanie. Build your fire
within the protection of your chosen shelter
against a larger back log to reflect heat. Fire and
smoke is also a signal device (there will be
more on signalling later). Practice your fire
making skills under adverse conditions before it
becomes a survival necessity. This is a skill you
want to have mastered before it is really needed.
Water
Death from thirst may occur in one to three days
depending on temperatures. Try to locate a
stream, soak, or rock hole. Birds can lead you
to them at dawn or dusk. Water can be obtained
with a plastic sheet and a hole in the ground by
distilling picked foliage with the suns heat.
Learn how to do this. If you dont have much
water, then you will need to minimise water loss
through exertion, so you should stay in the
shade and rest. Certain plant roots can be dug
up which hold water and the liquid can be
sucked from the roots. Car radiator water often
contains antifreeze and is toxic so should not be
drunk. It can be distilled as above.
Food
Your bow or rifle can provide food and with a
little care or you can make a spear, or make
snares or traps. A length of fishing line and a
hook tied on a stick or used as a set line will
catch fish. Have these in your survival kit. Learn
to identify bush tucker plants and fruits and
where to find wood grubs, grass hoppers and
4.3.4 V1 11.05
4.3.5
V1 11.05
moths as they are all valuable survival foods.
DISTRESS SIGNALS
The universal signal of three rifle shots or other
sounds spaced evenly fifteen seconds apart
means come to me, and these are answered
with two shots of the same time interval to
confirm contact. Always carry sufficient
ammunition for a series of distress signals. A
whistle is useful in some situations. Smoke from
green branches on a hot fire can be a good
signal for aircraft, as are mirror flashes, flames,
or a torch in the dark. The SOS distress signal in
Morse code is three dots or short signals, three
dashes or longer signals followed by three
further dots. It can also be written in sand or
made with rows of stones.
Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacons
(EPIRBs) can be carried. Once set off they
cannot be deactivated. You will be charged for
the cost of the aerial search even if the EPIRB is
set off accidentally, you will also have to pay a
$10,000 dollar fine for using EPIRBS in non-life
threatening situations. You can expect a delay
before a ground party arrives. In remote areas, a
satellite telephone gives reliable communication.
MAP READING AND GROUND
NAVIGATION
Good maps are essential for exploring new
hunting territory. Get the smallest scale
(1:25000, that is, a scale of 250 meters of
distance per centimetre of map, or smaller) and
learn to interpret contour lines and vegetation
types. The maps usually show height levels at 20
metre intervals with darker contour lines at
every 100 metres. Rivers, creeks and dry water
courses are also marked. The more closely
packed the contour lines, the steeper the terrain.
Joined contour lines indicate a sheer cliff.
Choose your route via the easier gradients
to avoid problems.
To find your location on the map, place
your compass on it and rotate the map to
align your maps magnetic north (marked
MN as distinct from the true north. Both
are always shown) with the free-swinging
compass needle. The map is now
orientated with your surroundings. Next,
locate two high points around you and find
them on the map. By drawing a line on
your map bearing from each high point,
your exact location is to be found at the
point where these two lines intersect on
your map. The distance from this point to
a proposed destination can now be
measured using a stick or other substitute
ruler and then making a calculation using
the scale on the side of your map.
It is always wise to carry a smaller spare
compass in case the main one
malfunctions or breaks. A magnetic
compass is essential on flat areas without
landmarks and in places where thick mist
occurs, but you need to take home base
bearings in advance. Locate the direction
of your camp visually or with the map
aligned as before and read off how many
degrees on either side of magnetic north
this direction is and write it down. If your
landmarks become obscured, then try to
travel in line with the predetermined
bearing. Small deviations will upset your
course, and here you will need to add
corrections by dead reckoning.
GPS units are another way of navigating.
They are expensive but reliable, provided
you know how to use them and do not run
out of battery power. Remember that thick
overhead tree cover interferes with satellite
location signals. The unit is heavy on battery
power if used regularly so always carry a spare
set of heavy-duty batteries. Continuously
compare your location with a compass and map
to ensure that you have a backup should your
GPS fail. Do not risk becoming completely
dependant on the GPS for your location and your
direction of travel. You can run into a problem if
you discover that you forgot to set the position in
camp before you left or if the unit is damaged in
a fall.
Make a camp and wait if it gets dark, unless you
have a torch by which to read your map. It is
wise to wait until morning to continue or you
will most likely become utterly lost.
A satellite phone in remote areas can also
provide reliable emergency communications
provided you have a spare battery or means of
recharging it.
OBSERVATION SKILLS
Learn to orientate yourself to your surroundings
and take note of the suns position at various
times of the day as this can be related easily to
north. Guess where north lies as you move about
and check this against your compass. Look for
landmarks such as hills or other features. Look
behind you regularly to check what your back
trail and horizon looks like. Thats what you will
see on your return journey so it pays to be
familiar with it before turning for base camp.
Once in the bush, all trees, logs, stumps, and
rocks will appear to look the same but they are
not. Each is unique and some are more unusual
than others with big knots, lumps, peculiar
twisted limbs, etc. These oddities can be useful
landmarks to particular parts of the track or to
gulley entrances and should be noted for future
reference. Clumps of odd coloured scrub and
rock formations can also be good landmarks.
Practice these observations because continual
practice will improve your bush craft skills.
Learn to feel comfortable and to be at home in
the bush. Stay alert to your surroundings. It is
when you dont feel familiar and at ease with the
bush that you can become lost. When you stop
hearing the small birds twittering it is a sign that
your observation and hunting alertness is
flagging. Take a rest and recover this
concentration before continuing. Use all your
senses. We under utilise our sense of sight, smell
and hearing. Alarm calls from birds tell you and
the game what is going on. The passing of a fox
or rutting stag can leave an air scent trail that
will alert you to their presence. A small chip of
bark from a limb overhanging a game trail may
indicate the recent passing of an antlered deer.
Find and follow the game trails in whatever area
you are hunting. They lead you to where the
animals live and usually the game trail will be
the easiest route and gradient through the
country that you are hunting. These game trails
will lead you up or down seemingly impassable
rocky places, through or around thick scrubby
patches and around areas of tangled, dead and
fallen trees, thus sparing you from battling
through many bad places. Look also at the small
things around you. The sight of a patch of moss
can indicate that water is nearby. Coloured fungi
growing on an old cut stump tell you there is
probably an old logging track nearby. Your hunt
can become a whole new exercise in detective
work that informs you about all manner of
subtleties in your chosen patch. The more often
you visit, the more you will see. Your hunting
patch is like an open book with a new chapter to
be read each time you visit.
Aldo Leopold in his series of short essays: A
Sand County Almanac, leads us to such
revelations and this mindset can open a whole
new world to your hunting experiences. For
4.3.6 V1 11.05
4.3.7
V1 11.05
example, when you see tracks of a particular
animal in an area, follow them, but also ask
yourself, what is this one doing here and why.
The answers can often be your key to future
hunting success, but even more so, this will allow
you to walk IN the forest and become part of it,
instead of just walking THROUGH it as a visitor.
SURVIVAL KITS
Survival kits are very personalised things. Each
hunter will have his or her own variation. The
few simple objects in it have a myriad of uses
limited only by your powers of lateral thinking
and improvisation skills.
Minimal items are as follows:
Spare folding knife- in case you lose your
other one.
A second disposable gas cigarette lighter
wrapped in glad wrap - you can check wind
direction with your main one but it can
malfunction, get wet or run out.
A plastic magnifying glass.
Small second magnetic compass.
Plastic whistle and lanyard.
A candle stub and three strips of inner tube
rubber wrapped in grease paper and placed
in a snap seal bag. These items can be used
to light fires.
Several lengths of stout cord and two small
coils of light copper wire. These can be used
to repair bootlaces, rifle sling, belt etc.
A small torch, plus a set of spare heavy-duty
batteries.
Small plastic signalling mirror.
A roll of hot pink plastic non-adhesive
marking tape for marking trails.
Two large plastic garbage for shelter.
A compact polythene emergency
poncho.
Light weight space (silver) blanket.
Ten spare rounds of ammunition, in a
snap seal bag.
Light weight, very basic First Aid kit.
One water bottle of adequate volume.
Optional items:
Length of fishing line and hooks.
Rifle pull through.
Roll of red electrical tape.
Game carry strap for large, medium or
small game.
A 30 metre coil of light pliable rope.
Photo: M Draisma
EMERGENCY BASIC FIRST AID KIT:
MINIMUM CONTENTS
Triangular calico bandage for wounds and
fractures.
Bundle of bandaids.
Headache tablets.
Antacid tablets.
Water purification tablets, these can be used
as a disinfectant wash also.
10cm wide elastic bandage 2 meters in
length. Can be used for snake bandage and
sprains or wounds.
Clean handkerchief.
Half toilet roll. A multipurpose item that can
be used for wound dressing on top of a
clean handkerchief, trail marking and the
obvious.
All the items listed above are illustrated in this pack.
Weight approximately 500 gms.
LEARNING EXERCISE
Assemble your personal survival kit.
Hint: What you need in your kit will vary with
the country you are hunting, the remoteness of
your location and the number of people you are
hunting with.
4.3.8 V1 11.05
4.3.9
V1 11.05
Exercise
Make a list of dual purposes and alternative
purposes for each item in your personal survival
kit. You may wish to save on weight by not
duplicating items.
Bush hazards include high winds, wild fires,
flooded streams, becoming lost and medical
emergencies.
True or False?
List four reasonable precautions you would take
when going bush.
AND LEARNING
1. Absalom, J. 1992 Safe Outback Travel,
The Five Mile Press, Balwyn, Vic.
2. Australian Bowhunters Association
National Bowhunter Education Manual.
ABA. 3RD Edition.
3. Australian Deer Association Hunter
Education Program. 10th Edition. A
manual. ADA Victorian State Executive.
Warragul Vic.
4. Harrison, M and Slee, K. 1995. The
Australian Deerhunters Handbook.
ADRF, Croydon, Vic.
5. Leopold, A. 1933. Game Management.
The Wisconsin University Press. Wisconsin
USA.
6. Moore, F. Bush stalking Sambar Deer.
SSAA Publications, Unley S.A.
and Shooting in Australia, Shooters
Association of Australia Publications, Unley
SA.
1.
2.
3.
4.
True
False
1. You should take shelter from high winds under trees.
2.
Water swirling high over large boulders or the sound of
submerged rocks rolling along the bottom indicates that the
water is extremely dangerous and impassable.
3. Leave your boots on when crossing a flooded creek.
4.
Avoid rock faces, as rocks are often wet and slippery and a fall
can be life threatening.
5.
Always tell someone where you are going and when you expect
to return.
6.
The most common medical emergencies are caused by cold and
exposure, heat stress, burns, lack of water, cuts, falls and
sprains.
7.
With gunshot wounds, the urgent mission is to evacuate the
victim to a high grade hospital facility ASAP.
8.
If you become lost, stop where you are and think about what to
do next.
9.
If short of water conserve it by staying in shade, and resting.
Exertion increases water loss.
10.
When you stop hearing the small birds twittering it is a sign that
your observation and hunting alertness is flagging. Take a rest
and recover this concentration before continuing.
4.3.10 V1 11.05

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