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Tissue types
cells of Arabidopsis epidermis
The major classes of cells differentiate from undifferentiated meristematic cells (analogous to the stem
cells of animals) to form the tissue structures of roots, stems, leaves, flowers and reproductive structures.
Xylem cells[15] are elongated cells with lignified secondary thickening of the cell walls. Xylem cells are
specialised for conduction of water, and first appeared in plants during their transition to land in the
Silurian period more than 425 million years ago (see Cooksonia). The possession of xylem defines the
vascular plants or Tracheophytes. Xylem tracheids are pointed, elongated xylem cells, the simplest of
which have continuous primary cell walls and lignified secondary wall thickenings in the form of rings,
hoops or reticulate networks. More complex tracheids with valve-like perforations called bordered pits
characterise the gymnosperms. The ferns and other pteridophytes and the gymnosperms only have xylem
tracheids, while the angiosperms also have xylem vessels. Vessel members are hollow xylem cells aligned
end-to-end, without end walls that are assembled into long continuous tubes. The bryophytes lack true
xylem cells, but their sporophytes have a water conducting tissue known as the hydrome that is composed
of elongated cells of simpler construction.
Phloem is a specialised tissue for food conduction in higher plants. Phloem consists of two cell types, the
sieve tubes and the intimately-associated companion cells. The sieve tube elements lack nuclei and
ribosomes, and their metabolism and functions are regulated by the adjacent nucleate companion cells.
Sieve tubes are joined end to end with perforate end-plates between known as sieve plates, which allow
transport of photosynthate between the sieve elements. The companion cells, connected to the sieve tubes
via plasmodesmata, are responsible for loading the phloem with sugars. The bryophytes lack phloem, but
moss sporophytes have a simpler tissue with analogous function known as the leptome.
Plant epidermal cells are specialised parenchyma cells covering the external surfaces of leaves, stems and
roots. The epidermal cells of aerial organs arise from the superficial layer of cells known as the tunica (L1
and L2 layers) that covers the plant shoot apex[13], whereas the cortex and vascular tissues arise from
innermost layer of the shoot apex known as the corpus (L3 layer). The epidermis of roots originates from
the layer of cells immediately beneath the root cap.
The epidermis of all aerial organs, but not roots, is covered with a cuticle made of waxes and the
polyester cutin. Several cell types may be present in the epidermis. Notable among these are the stomatal
guard cells, glandular and clothing hairs or trichomes, and the root hairs of primary roots. In the shoot
epidermis of most plants, only the guard cells have chloroplasts. The epidermal cells of the primary shoot
are thought to be the only plant cells with the biochemical capacity to synthesize cutin.[16]
The following is a glossary of animal cell terms:
cell membrane - the thin layer of protein and fat that surrounds the cell. The cell membrane is
semipermeable, allowing some substances to pass into the cell and blocking others.
centrosome - (also called the "microtubule organizing center") a small body located near the nucleus - it
has a dense center and radiating tubules. The centrosomes is where microtubules are made. During cell
division (mitosis), the centrosome divides and the two parts move to opposite sides of the dividing cell.
The centriole is the dense center of the centrosome.
cytoplasm - the jellylike material outside the cell nucleus in which the organelles are located.
Golgi body - (also called the Golgi apparatus or golgi complex) a flattened, layered, sac-like organelle
that looks like a stack of pancakes and is located near the nucleus. It produces the membranes that
surround the lysosomes. The Golgi body packages proteins and carbohydrates into membrane-bound
vesicles for "export" from the cell.
lysosome - (also called cell vesicles) round organelles surrounded by a membrane and containing
digestive enzymes. This is where the digestion of cell nutrients takes place.
mitochondrion - spherical to rod-shaped organelles with a double membrane. The inner membrane is
infolded many times, forming a series of projections (called cristae). The mitochondrion converts the
energy stored in glucose into ATP (adenosine triphosphate) for the cell.
nuclear membrane - the membrane that surrounds the nucleus.
nucleolus - an organelle within the nucleus - it is where ribosomal RNA is produced. Some cells have
more than one nucleolus.
nucleus - spherical body containing many organelles, including the nucleolus. The nucleus controls many
of the functions of the cell (by controlling protein synthesis) and contains DNA (in chromosomes). The
nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear membrane.
ribosome - small organelles composed of RNA-rich cytoplasmic granules that are sites of protein
synthesis.
rough endoplasmic reticulum - (rough ER) a vast system of interconnected, membranous, infolded and
convoluted sacks that are located in the cell's cytoplasm (the ER is continuous with the outer nuclear
membrane). Rough ER is covered with ribosomes that give it a rough appearance. Rough ER transports
materials through the cell and produces proteins in sacks called cisternae (which are sent to the Golgi
body, or inserted into the cell membrane).
smooth endoplasmic reticulum - (smooth ER) a vast system of interconnected, membranous, infolded
and convoluted tubes that are located in the cell's cytoplasm (the ER is continuous with the outer nuclear
membrane). The space within the ER is called the ER lumen. Smooth ER transports materials through the
cell. It contains enzymes and produces and digests lipids (fats) and membrane proteins; smooth ER buds
off from rough ER, moving the newly-made proteins and lipids to the Golgi body, lysosomes, and
membranes.
vacuole - fluid-filled, membrane-surrounded cavities inside a cell. The vacuole fills with food being
digested and waste material that is on its way out of the cell.
HUMAN CELL
Cells are the smallest structures capable of basic life processes, such as taking in
nutrients, expelling waste, and reproducing.
All living things are composed of cells. Some microscopic organisms, such as
bacteria and protozoa, are unicellular, meaning they consist of a single cell. Plants,
animals, and fungi are multicellular; that is, they are composed of a great many
cells working in concert. But whether it makes up an entire bacterium or is just one
of millions in a human being, the cell is a marvel of design and efficiency. Cells
carry out thousands of biochemical reactions each minute and reproduce new cells
that perpetuate life.
Cells vary considerably in size. The smallest cell, a type of bacterium known as a
mycoplasma, measures 0.0001 mm (0.000004 in) in diameter; 10,000
mycoplasmas in a row are only as wide as the diameter of a human hair. Among the
largest cells are the nerve cells that run down a giraffe's neck; these cells can
exceed 3 m (9.7 ft) in length. Human cells also display a variety of sizes, from
small red blood cells that measure 0.00076 mm (0.00003 in) to liver cells that may
be ten times larger. About 10,000 average-sized human cells can fit on the head of
a pin.
Along with their differences in size, cells present an array of shapes. Some, such as
the bacterium Escherichia coli, resemble rods. The paramecium, a type of
protozoan, is slipper shaped; and the amoeba, another protozoan, has an irregular
form that changes shape as it moves around. Plant cells typically resemble boxes or
cubes. In humans, the outermost layers of skin cells are flat, while muscle cells are
long and thin. Some nerve cells, with their elongated, tentacle-like extensions,
suggest an octopus.
In multicellular organisms, shape is typically tailored to the cell's job. For example,
flat skin cells pack tightly into a layer that protects the underlying tissues from
invasion by bacteria. Long, thin muscle cells contract readily to move bones. The
numerous extensions from a nerve cell enable it to connect to several other nerve
cells in order to send and receive messages rapidly and efficiently.
The components of cells are molecules, nonliving structures formed by the union of
atoms. Small molecules serve as building blocks for larger molecules. Proteins,
nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids, which include fats and oils, are the four
major molecules that underlie cell structure and also participate in cell functions.
For example, a tightly organized arrangement of lipids, proteins, and protein-sugar
compounds forms the plasma membrane, or outer boundary, of certain cells. The
organelles, membrane-bound compartments in cells, are built largely from proteins.
Biochemical reactions in cells are guided by enzymes, specialized proteins that
speed up chemical reactions. The nucleic acid deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) contains
the hereditary information for cells, and another nucleic acid, ribonucleic acid(RNA),
works with DNA to build the thousands of proteins the cell needs.