On Education and Media Closing the Gender Gap in Media Representation

Jhoemar Rey O. Altomea 2002-44428 MMS 111 - Gender and Multimedia

INTRODUCTION

The production and distribution of information plays a significant part in presenting social reality as well as deconstructing established ones. Surprisingly, the information which represents the people belonging in a specific social construct raise pragmatic issues especially with how media is being owned and used, and how the said information is being consumed. As establishing a society involves direct interaction or socialization between its people, media serves as an instrument for a person to perceive social reality, and may as well be part of the reality itself. Consequently, this process involving the media may directly or indirectly manipulate ones perception of reality. This may either be beneficial or detrimental to the people concerned, though is still relative to the societys current state of affairs.

Media as means for communicating information serves as a powerful tool. Once acquired, it may give a person the capability to control and even acquire other available resources. As information is produced and presented as to what is beneficial to the interest of those who have control over media, the audience consequently consumes deconstructed truths. And in order to correct this entails equal opportunity and unbiased representation in media. Again, media as a tool may consider issues from political, socio-cultural and economic perspectives. Nonetheless, access and knowledge in media is a common denominator.

The aim of the research is to analyze the gap in media representation and participation through womens educational attainment. The full potential of women may be actualized by capitalizing on their talents and skills through proper education, which will consequently help in closing the gender gap. Nonetheless, as the gap may result from womens lack of education and access to information, it is apparent that a societys culture, customs, policies, etc. (sociocultural/means variables) are also significant factors in promoting it. Given such, an analysis on educational attainment and these means variables will both be discussed on a global and local perspective.

The definition of gender and gender equality is being provided to give us a clearer view on the issue. Even though the attributes, relationships, and opportunities given to gender are socially constructed and learned through socialization, these will only be associated with being male and female, between women and men. As such, issues concerning other gender identities (i.e. third gender), which may also be socially constructed, is generally considered under the

definition given. On the other hand, as gender equality is a human rights issue, the social status of both women and men is analyzed. Nonetheless, as the gender gap is apparently in favor of men, an extensive analysis on promoting womens rights is provided.

The dimension on educational attainment gives us a global and local overview on gender gap. The Gender Gap Reports (2006-2010) published by the World Economic Forum serves as a tool for analyzing gender gap in media. These reports justify the direct relationship of education as a significant factor in promoting womens rights. Nonetheless, other sociocultural, economic, and political variables are equally important. And to strengthen the claim, reports from the International Womens Media Foundation and Paula Maurie Poindexters discussion on the socialization processes are also provided.

Given the importance of education and means variables, the status of women is then presented from the perspective of media. The concept on digital divide will give us an overview on how women are being represented in information and communication technologies (ICTs). Despite the fact womens status is being challenged by this divide, some developing countries are able come up with alternatives that helps women realize their potentials like Chad and Kenya.

Apparently, there are already existing policies and movements advocating the advancement of womens rights and empowerment through gender mainstreaming. As gender mainstreaming requires the participation of both women and men, the challenge now shifts to whether the principles behind mainstreaming are being recognized.

Gender and Gender Equality A Human Rights Issue

In order to promote an advocacy or movement, or before forwarding a specific policy for implementation, it is necessary to properly qualify the concepts revolving around it. This gives us a framework that can support or warrant our claims. The issue on gender inequality can espouse several theories. Moreover, relating the issue to media representation the discussion may take up even more. Nevertheless, this study makes use of the concepts as defined by the Office of the Special Advisor on Gender Issues and Advancement of Women. They have defined gender as: the social attributes and opportunities associated with being male and female and the relationships between women and men and girls and boys, as well as the relations between women and those between men. These attributes, opportunities and relationships are socially constructed and are learned through socialization processes. They are context/ time-specific and changeable. Gender determines what is expected, allowed and valued in a women or a man in a given context. In most societies there are differences and inequalities between women and men in responsibilities assigned, activities undertaken, access to and control over resources, as well as decision-making opportunities. Gender is part of the broader socio-cultural context. Other important criteria for socio-cultural analysis include class, race, poverty level, ethnic group and age. (United Nations Office of the Special Advisor on Gender Issues and Advancement of Women: n.d.)

They further qualified that these attributes and opportunities are socially constructed and learned through the processes of socialization. Therefore, equality between women and men, or gender equality refers to: the equal rights, responsibilities and opportunities of women and men and girls and boys. Equality does not mean that women and men will become the same but that womens and mens rights, responsibilities and opportunities will not depend on whether they are born male or female. Gender equality implies that the interests, needs and priorities of both women and men are taken into consideration recognizing the diversity of different groups of women and men. Gender equality is not a womens issue but should concern and fully engage men as well as women. Equality between women and

men is seen both as a human rights issue and as a precondition for, and indicator of, sustainable people-centred development. (United Nations Office of the Special Advisor on Gender Issues and Advancement of Women: n.d.)

Shamilla Bargon has stated that there is a dual rationale for promoting gender equality:

1. Equality between women and men is a matter of human rights and social justice.

2. Greater equality between women and men has been found to be both a pre-condition for and an effective indicator of sustainable people-centred development. The perceptions, interests, needs and priorities of both women and men must be taken into consideration not only as a matter of social justice but because they are necessary to enrich development processes. (Bargon: n.d.) The United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing has stated that womens rights are human rights. They are convinced that equality in opportunities and access to resources, and equal sharing of responsibilities between men and women are critical to their well being and that of their families. Moreover, womens empowerment and full participation on the basis of equality, including the process in decision-making and access to power, are fundamental for the achievement of equality, development, and peace. (United Nations: 1996) Applying this in Philippine context, we may support this claim by quoting Jose Agaton Sibals interpretation of social justice in the Philippine Constitution:

[Social justice] is the promotion of the welfare of all the people, the adoption by the government of measures calculated to ensure the economic stability of all the competent elements of society, through the maintenance of a proper economic and social equilibrium in the interrelations of the members of the community. (Sibal: 1994)

To further qualify the above mentioned interpretation, he also provided that: social justice does not champion division of property or equality of economic status; what it and the Constitution do guarantee are equality of opportunity, equality of political rights, equality before the law, equality between the values given and received, and

equitable sharing of the social and material goods on the basis of efforts exerted in their production. (Sibal: 1994) Promoting gender equality should not be taken as a womens issue, as it requires the participation of both women and men. Confirming the apparent preponderance of men in most societies, however, institutions and policies are inclined to support the advancement of womens rights. This of course, necessitates the involvement of men. Men live in constant social relationships with women and girls in their families and communities. Consequently, the quality of these relationships determines the quality of mens lives. Therefore, the system of gender inequality which has a negative impact on the women and girls with whom they live, work, and interact directly damage their lives as well. This provides a powerful reason for men to support gender equality. Moreover, men can play a key role in bringing about gender equality since, in most societies, men exercise preponderant power in nearly every sphere of life, ranging from personal decisions regarding the size of families to the policy and program decisions taken at all levels of government. (United Nations: 2008)

The Commission on the Status of Women recognizes that while men and boys sometimes face discriminatory barriers and practices, they can significantly contribute to gender equality. As the negative impacts of inequality are borne by the society as a whole, they are essential to the achievement of the goals of gender equality, development and peace. This includes the critical role of gendersensitive education and training and having the initiative to eliminate gender stereotypes, combating violence against women, and promote equality though networks, peer programs, and information campaigns. (United Nations: 2010)

The above mentioned definitions and participation required from both women and men would help us analyze whether existing policies are indeed promoting gender equality. These will also help in confirming whether current state of affairs in media is unbiased in representing gender.

The Gender Gap Report In its pursuit for the advancement of womens economic participation and equality of opportunity and political rights, the World Economic Forum has been publishing the annual Global Gender Gap Report since 2006. Aside from presenting the report as a tool and source of information for creating policies and analyzing gender gap status both from a local and global perspective, it also serves as a basis for monitoring related gender gap issues.

The Gender Gap Index presents the gap between men and women in four fundamental categories1: Economic participation and opportunity the gap is captured through the difference in labor force participation (participation gap), wage equality/earned income

(remuneration gap), and advancement of women and men (advancement gap). Educational attainment the gap between womens and mens access to education (primary, secondary, and tertiary education) and ratio of male literacy rate to the female literacy rate. Health and survival differences between womens and mens health (gap between life expectancy and sex ratio at birth) Political Empowerment the gap between women and men in political decisionmaking at the highest levels.

As of last year, the report has covered 134 countries, representing over 90% of the worlds population. The highest ranking country has managed to close over 80% of its gender gap while the lowest ranking country has closed only a little above 45%. Apparently, gender gap is still present as no country has managed to successfully close the gap.

The same categories are used to measure the Gender Gap Index from the 2006 to 2010 report. As such, explanations and analysis are based on the consolidated data from the five reports.

Table 1. Highest and lowest ranking country from 2006 to 2010

Country

Country

Country

Country

Country

Score

Score

Score

Score

Sweden 0.8133 2006 Yemen 0.4594 2007

Sweden 0.8146 2008 Yemen 0.4510

Norway 0.8239 2009 Yemen 0.4664

Iceland 0.8276 2010 Yemen 0.4609

Iceland 0.8496 Yemen 0.4603

Source: The Global Gender Gap Report 2006 to 2010

The Nordic countries have been continuously to occupying the top positions since 2006. They are considered as high income countries which can provide more resources to their people. Nonetheless, some developing countries also occupy top places. The Philippines, for example, consistently remains in the top 10. Also present are African countries like South Africa. Even though some of the developing countries have low gaps in education, there are significant gaps in job opportunities for women and wages. On the other hand, some developed countries also occupy the lower half of the rankings, including Japan, United Arab Emirates, and some from the European region.

The global pattern shows that there is still a significant gap in political empowerment, however, is slowly decreasing every year. Nonetheless, highest gap still remains in those countries belonging to the Middle East Arab region followed by Eastern Europe. The Middle East Arab region also has the lowest score with regard to economic participation and opportunities. Globally, countries are able to close below 60% of the gap, still showing a huge difference in womens participation in economic growth. A significant part of the gap in health and survival has been closed, with a consistent global score of above 95%. On the other hand, the global community has able to close a considerable gap in education, however, the score remains only above 90%. Considering the global pattern, the African region consistently remains at the lowest spot followed by the Middle East Arab region.

Score

Year

Year

Year

Year

Year

Figure 1. Global Pattern from Year 2006 to 2010

100 90 80 70
Percentage of Gap 50 Closed

Educational Attainment Health and Survival Economic Pacticipation and Opportunity Political Empowerment

60

40 30 20 10 2006 2007 2008

Year
Source: The Global Gender Gap Report 2006 to 2010

2009

2010

The gender gap analyzed by means of the four categories above may take in the issue on gender inequality through different perspectives. Moreover, as the report considers fundamental outcome variables related to basic rights such as political empowerment, economic participation, education, and health, local issues concerning the respective countrys culture or government policies may be discussed separately. In this study, however, the inequality will be gauged on how women are being educated and how their access to available resources opportunities, including the norms and culture established through social processes, promote their rights in media representation.

On Gender Gap and Education

One of the issues emerging from media representation is the gap between women and men. Various perspectives may be taken into account, i.e. ownership and access, gender stereotypes, right to information, economic participation and opportunities, education, etc. Nonetheless, as realization of ones full potential may be actualized by investing on education, it

is deemed necessary to discuss the issue on representation from this perspective. Lopez-Carlos and Zahidi in their report in the World Economic Forum have included educational attainment as one of the dimensions in quantifying gender gap, stating that:

Educational attainment is, without doubt, the most fundamental prerequisite for empowering women in all spheres of society, for without education of comparable quality and content to that given to boys and men, and relevant to existing knowledge and real needs, women are unable to access well-paid, formal sector jobs, advance within them, participate in, and be represented in government and gain political influence. Moreover, the risk increases for society as a whole that the next generation of children will be similarly ill-prepared. (Lopez-Carlos and Zahidi: 2005)

Taking into account the aspect of educational attainment will help in determining whether mere knowledge and information obtained through education may support women in penetrating the world of media equally as men do; or whether the socially constructed norms and culture will also act as barriers in achieving gender equality. To give us an overview of the global gender gap in educational attainment, below are selected countries and their respective rankings (Table 3).

The Nordic countries continue to play fairly in closing the gap in educational attainment and remain in the upper rankings. Some of the African and Middle East countries still remain on the lower rankings as well. UAE, however, still occupies a low over-all ranking despite its effort in closing the gap in education. This is because of the low economic participation of women and in the aspect of health.

Table 2. Rankings in Educational Attainment (2006 to 2010) - Selected Countries 2006 Educational Attainment Rank 23 15 18 41 100 104 102 108 60 92 90 110 93 2007 Educational Attainment Rank 27 17 21 52 111 118 116 121 68 110 101 123 87 2008 Educational Attainment Rank 33 1 1 45 115 120 116 126 46 108 105 123 85 2009 Educational Attainment Rank 39 26 1 43 116 123 121 130 67 110 107 128 92 2010 Educational Attainment Rank 41 1 28 43 119 124 120 129 37 109 110 127 92

Country

2006 Rank

2007 Rank

2008 Rank

2009 Rank

2010 Rank

Sweden Norway Finland South Africa Zambia Nigeria India Ethiopia UAE Turkey Egypt Pakistan Saudi Arabia

1 2 3 18 85 94 98 100 101 105 109 112 114

1 2 3 20 101 107 114 113 105 121 120 126 124

3 1 2 22 106 102 113 122 105 123 124 127 128

4 3 2 6 107 108 114 122 112 129 126 132 130

4 2 3 12 106 118 112 121 103 126 125 132 129

Source: The Global Gender Gap Report 2006 to 2010

a b

115 countries covered 128 countries covered c 130 countries covered d 134 countries covered e 134 countries covered

Japan, on the other hand, occupies the 82th place as of 2010 but performs quite well compared to the countries occupying the top spot, closing almost 99% of the gap. The same goes with Kenya, though is consistent in maintaining the gap closed at above 90%. Pakistan is still among the countries occupying the bottom rankings, closing only about 77% of the education gap, however, is continuously improving from 71% as of 2006.

Figure 2. Comparison of Educational Attainment Gap between Japan, Kenya, and Pakistan

100 90
Percentage 80 of Gap Closed 70

Japan Kenya Pakistan

60 50 2006 2007 2008

Year
Source: The Global Gender Gap Report 2006 to 2010

2009

2010

Educational attainment may indeed be a fundamental prerequisite in empowering women. The Global Report on the Status of Women in the News Media, however, shows otherwise. According to the report, women represent only 33.3% of the full-time journalism workforce in the 522 companies they have surveyed. Japan is already in the verge of completely closing the gap in education. Nonetheless, they have found that Japanese news companies are being dominated by men, who outnumber women 6:1. Consequently, men claim nearly all of the decision-making positions. On the other hand, men outnumber women 2:1 in the Kenyan companies surveyed. Women, however, are able to advance in both decisionmaking roles by being at the top and senior supervisory levels. (Byerly: 2011) Note that Kenya registered a lower score compared to Japan in the education gap.

Nordic countries that score quite well in closing the gap in economic opportunities and education, however, are able to represent only 37% of women in governance and top management. Women in South Africa, however, are able to represent 79.5% of those in senior management. Same goes with Lithuania, where representation is nearing parity in the middle and top management ranks. (Byerly: 2011) Both South Africa and Lithuania received lower score compared to some Nordic countries in closing education gap.

The Global Gender Gap reports show that high priority is being given to education for the past five years. Nonetheless, how women are being represented in media companies directly affects media production as well as the distribution of information. It is apparent that the

amount of resources available is likewise significant as distributing them equally among its recipients. If there are more resources available, more may as well be consumed. This is one of the important implications of education. Moreover, unutilized resources previously provided will also impede one from advancing further. Improvement does not end with merely being educated, as knowledge needs to be utilized in order to realize ones potentials and how these may be actualized.

On Means Variables

The data above shows that the fundamental outcome variables related to basic human rights, especially educational attainment could serve as a basis in measuring the global gender gap. Nonetheless, it also shows that these variables are merely part of the bigger picture as the rankings would tell otherwise if the countries are analyzed from a local perspective. As such, it appears that including the input or means variables in our analysis may give us a better understanding on the issue about gender equality. The report considers these factors as related to country-specific policies, cultures, or customs, which are excluded from the index.

Paula Maurie Poindexter introduced how women and men consume the media primarily through socialization. She has described socialization as the degree to which children follow the rules and norms of a culture and their learning of the definitions and expectations underlying those rules and norms. The said process may establish culture-based definition on gender, gender stereotypes, and determines ones approach towards media. Moreover, women and men are considered as products of their social- economic-cultural backgrounds as well as the historical and contemporary issues that constrain and liberate them. Consequently, this may entail differential attention towards news and media as a whole given one gender and generation to which he/she belongs. Poindexter refers to this process as differential socialization. (Poindexter et.al: 2008) Another concept equally important in defining ones approach towards media is motivation. Motivation influences one to read, watch, or listen news. If an individual is motivated to be informed of the news, it is likely that he/she would decide to pay attention to the news. Otherwise, he/she will not be interested to keep up with the news. This motivation may be

established through uses and gratification, orientation, and community attachment. (Poindexter et.al: 2008)

The above mentioned processes clearly give us an idea why most of the countries presented in the Global Gender Gap Report give equal opportunities to their people in terms of education, but an insignificant number of women are able to permeate the economic and political realm, especially in media production. On the other hand, take for example the status of gender equality in South Africa. The population of this country is diverse in terms of race, class, and language. Majority of the population are Africans followed by the whites or the so called coloreds.2 Women constitute more than 50% of the population but lag behind men in terms of literacy and employment. Still, the divide based on race should be taken into account as well. As the there is a higher percentage of Africans without formal schooling compared to the whites, it is evident that the unemployment rate is highest among blacks. (Geertsema: 2008). Nonetheless, the Global Gap Index shows that South Africa is doing quite well in closing the gender gap compared to other African countries. It has also remained at the top 20 for the past five years, except for 2008 where it ranked 22nd. It is also doing quite well in representing women in the media.

Table 3. Ranking of South Africa from 2006 to 2010 Compared to Selected Countries

2010 Rank Sweden Norway Finland 4 2 3

2010 Score 0.8024 0.8404 0.8260

2010 Rank among 2009 Countries 4 2 3

2009 Rank 4 3 3

2009 Score 0.8139 0.8227 0.8252

2008 Rank 3 1 3

2008 Score 0.8139 0.8239 0.8195

2007 Rank 1 2 3

2007 Score 0.8146 0.8059 0.8044

2006 Rank 1 2 3

2006 Score 0.8133 0.7994 0.7958

South Africa
Namibia Uganda

12
25 33

0.7535
0.7238 0.7169

12
25 33

6
32 40

0.7709
0.7167 0.7067

22
30 43

0.7232
0.7141 0.6981

20
29 50

0.7194
0.7012 0.6833

18
38 47

0.7125
0.6864 0.6797

Source: The Global Gender Gap Report 2006 to 2010

The term coloreds refers to the people of mixed descent.

On Media Representation and the Digital Divide

There is a huge education gap between women and men in Chad. Few Chadian women are able to receive primary education, and fewer, if none at all, ever reach higher level of education. Chad has consistently been at the lowest spot in giving equal education opportunities to its people, closing only about 50% of its gap as of last years survey. The mean age of marriage for women is 18 years and a fertility rate (births per women) of around 6.2. Cases of female genital mutilation remain high as well. (Hausmann et. al: 2010) The same goes with the level of gender-based violence in the refugee-rich eastern regions of the country. The lack of available resources as well as social and cultural challenges directly has directly affected womens access and use of media and information and communication technologies (ICT). Non-profit groups, however, have already started setting up small community radio stations to provide vital information, and trained local journalists to run them. Much of their programming also focuses on gender based violence and womens issues. (Reaching Out to Women in Chad http://www.audiencescapes.org)

Kenyan people mainly relied on information through word-of- mouth. Most of them mainly get information from their friends and family (86% of both men and women) and other people in the community (64% of men and 63% of women). Internet usage remains low with only 17% of men and 8% of women who claimed to have access it for news and information. (Facing the Gender Gap in Access and Use of Information Sources

http://www.audiencescapes.org) Kenya might not have fully embraced new media yet. Nonetheless, Kenyan women are slowly permeating the world of media by representing half of decision-making roles and by being at the top and senior supervisory levels of media companies.

ICTs have become a potent driving force for development. It, however, still represents another dimension in knowledge gap between women and men, which is the gender-based digital divide. A study conducted by United States Agency for International Development (USAID) found that countless women in the developing world are further removed from the information age because of their lower levels of education. (Lopez-Carlos and Zahidi: 2005) The term digital divide refers to the differences in resources and capabilities to access and effectively utilize ICT for development that exist within and between countries, regions, sectors and socio-economic groups. As seen in most developing countries, the digital divide is often

characterized by low levels of access to technologies. Among the factors impeding access to ICT infrastructure are poverty, illiteracy, language barriers, and lack of computer literacy. These existing gaps continue downplay the importance of education for women and girls. (United Nations: 2005)

The gender dimensions of ICT i.e. access and use, capacity-building opportunities, employment, and potential for empowerment, can be a powerful instrument for promoting gender equality. As technologies are socially constructed and may affect women and men differently, women may have the capability to exploit ICT for empowerment in different ways. Such capability is dependent on various social factors and may disadvantage women. Nonetheless, womens ability to produce content relevant to their needs and priorities is equally important in controlling media. And by increasing womens access to training on and use of new technologies positive portrayals of women through ICT can be strengthened. (United Nations: 2005)

On Media and Gender Mainstreaming

Gender Mainstreaming was established as a major strategy for promoting gender equality by the Fourth World Conference of Women in Beijing in 1995, including human rights, women, and media as some of the critical areas of concern. Some of the important principles were adopted by the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) agreed conclusions (1997/2), defining gender mainstreaming as: the process of assessing the implications for women and men of any planned action, including legislation, policies or programmes, in all areas and at all levels. It is a strategy for making womens as well as mens concerns and experiences an integral dimension of the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and programmes in all political, economic and societal spheres so that women and men benefit equally and inequality is not perpetuated. The ultimate goal is to achieve gender equality. (United Nations Commission on the Status of Women http://www.un.org)

It acknowledges the potential of the media in contributing to the advancement of women, and calls for the elimination of the continued projection of negative and degrading images of women

in media communications, including electronic, print, visual, and audio. It will strengthen womens ability to combat the challenges brought about by gender inequality by enhancing their skills, knowledge, and access to information technology. As it is a global mandate, it calls for the participation of both the government and non-government organizations, national and international media systems, as well as media associations. (United Nations: 1996)

CONCLUSION

Undeniably, one can realize his/her potentials and may strengthen his/her capacity to acquire available resources through proper education. And by knowing ones strengths and weaknesses enables him/her to take chances on opportunities for improvement. As such, education may indeed serve as a powerful tool in empowering woman. Nonetheless, one also has to consider critical factors that may obstruct the process of this improvement. This may include established norms, culture, government policies, and other social and economic affairs.

Apparently, policies have already been created which calls for the empowerment of women through the principles associated to gender equality and gender mainstreaming. These policies recognize the existence of gender bias and violence in media, as well as the potential of media as a tool to eliminate these conceptions. Nonetheless, the prevalence of education, proper training, and access and availability of resources is essential for the movement to succeed.

Indeed, gender mainstreaming is not the end itself, but is a strategy towards gender equality. As the call for womens empowerment has already been acknowledged, the challenge now is to ensure that the principles and ideology behind gender mainstreaming may properly be observed and implemented. And this entails the active participation of both women and men.

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