Published in: Writing Ulster: Northern Narratives, edited by Bill Lazenbatt, Number 6, 1999, pages 49-67.

Seamus Heaneys Prose: Preoccupying Questions

! say that "eamus #eaney$s %!r& is a'ademi'ally p!pular %!uld be an understatement. here are, t! date, s!me thirty b!!&s '!mpletely de(!ted t! the study

and analysis !) his %riting, and t! list the number !) arti'les and 'hapters !n #eaney %!uld pr!bably be a b!!&-length enterprise in itsel). *i(en that #eaney is a N!bel Prize %inner, as %ell as being !ne !) the m!st p!pular p!ets 'urrently %riting in +nglish, and gi(en that he rea'hes a gl!bal audien'e, then this pr!)usi!n !) a'ademi' attenti!n sh!uld '!me as n! surprise. #!%e(er, %hat is surprising is that, in all !) these b!!&s, there is n!t !ne %hi'h is de(!ted t! the study !) his pr!se %ritings, and this is remar&able as these !))er an insight int! many !) his 'entral '!n'erns.

,n terms !) reading #eaney$s essays in this light, , %!uld !))er his !%n pra'ti'e as a use)ul paradigm. ,n The Government of the Tongue, he dis'usses the %!r& !) the P!lish p!et -bignie% #erbert, and as be)its !ne %h!se a'ademi' rite !) passage %as underg!ne %hen .pra'ti'al 'riti'ism held great s%ay$,1 there is a 'l!se, in pla'es line-byline, e/aminati!n !) passages )r!m three %!r&s by #erbert. hese are Barbarian in the

Garden, Selected Poems and Report from the Besieged Cit and !ther Poems. 0hat is interesting, in the '!nte/t !) this dis'ussi!n, is that Barbarian in the Garden is a '!lle'ti!n !) pr!se %ritings, .ten meditati!ns !n art and hist!ry %hi'h mas1uerade as tra(el %riting$.2 #eaney d!es n!t see these essays as a metalinguisti' gl!ss !n the p!etry3 n!r d!es he see them as separate in terms !) themati' '!n'erns )r!m #erbert$s

p!etry3 rather d!es he see them as an!ther enun'iati!n !) the themati', aestheti' and ethi'al imperati(es that gr!und #erbert$s %!r&.

he same standards 'an be applied t! #eaney$s !%n beginnings as a pr!se %riter. ,n the )!re%!rd t! Preoccupations, he ma&es the )!ll!%ing p!ints:

4ll that , really &ne% ab!ut the art %as deri(ed )r!m %hate(er p!etry , had %ritten, and )r!m th!se p!ets %h! had helped me t! %rite it. , had a hal)-'lari)ied desire t! '!me t! p!eti' terms %ith mysel) by '!nsidering the e/ample !) !thers, and t! try t! bring int! )!'us the little , &ne%5., h!pe it is 'lear that the essays sele'ted here are held t!gether by sear'hes )!r ans%ers t! 'entral pre!''upying 1uesti!ns: h!% sh!uld a p!et pr!perly li(e and %rite6 0hat is his relati!nship t! be t! his !%n (!i'e, his !%n pla'e, his literary heritage and his '!ntemp!rary %!rld67

,n this 1u!tati!n, #eaney !utlines the raison d"#tre !) the essays in the b!!&. , %!uld ma&e t%! p!ints ab!ut this asserti!n. 8irstly, it dem!nstrates the 'entrality that #eaney as'ribes t! his pr!se %riting, seeing it as a meditati!n !n art and p!etry, as a '!ming t! terms %ith his !%n (!i'e thr!ugh a '!nsiderati!n !) !ther p!ets, %hat he terms, b!rr!%ing )r!m 4uden, .brea&ing bread %ith the dead$.4 8r!m the !utset, this is n! pie'emeal series !) disparate essays and re(ie%s3 instead it is a bringing .int! )!'us$ !) his '!n'erns ab!ut the n!ti!n !) .art$. ,n sh!rt, he is attempting t! de(el!p s!me the!reti'al pre'epts ab!ut art and p!etry, %hat !ne might tentati(ely term, an aestheti' the!ry.

"e'!ndly, this 1u!tati!n attests t! the tele!l!gy !) his pr!9e't, namely the .sear'hes )!r ans%ers$ t! th!se 'entral pre!''upying 1uesti!ns %hi'h are 'ited ab!(e. #e begins using the pers!nal pr!n!un, )irst pers!n singular: .:a;ll that $ really &ne% ab!ut the art %as deri(ed )r!m %hate(er p!etry $ had %ritten and )r!m th!se p!ets %h! had helped me t! %rite it. $ had a hal)-'lari)ied desire t! '!me t! p!eti' terms %ith m self $ :m 2

italics;. ,t is 'lear that #eaney himsel), and his %!r&, are b!th the sub9e't and !b9e't !) this sear'h )!r ans%ers. #is %riting %ill )!'us !n his !%n %!r&, and !n the %!r& !) !thers in terms !) h!% they ha(e helped him t! '!me t! p!eti' terms %ith himsel). ,nterestingly, th!ugh, the se'!nd part !) the 1u!tati!n dem!nstrates the dei'ti'al pr!gressi!n )r!m the pers!nal t! the general, %ith the tele!l!gi'al !b9e't !) the sear'hes )!r ans%ers n!% be'!ming .the poet$, and his :sic; relati!nship %ith (!i'e, pla'e, literature and s!'iety: .h!% sh!uld a poet pr!perly li(e and %rite6 0hat is his relati!nship t! be t! his !%n (!i'e, his !%n pla'e, his literary heritage and his '!ntemp!rary %!rld6$ :m italics;.

,n sh!rt, %hat is attempted in his (ari!us pr!se pie'es is n!thing less then a the!ry, !r epistem!l!gy !) p!etry in parti'ular and %riting in general, %hat Bernard <$=!n!ghue 'alls, spea&ing spe'i)i'ally !) The Government of the Tongue, #eaney$s ars poetica.> , %!uld argue that su'h a pr!9e't is the result !) the .sear'hes )!r ans%ers$ that ha(e set in m!ti!n his pr!se %ritings in the )irst pla'e.

?nder%riting all !) these '!n'erns, !r pre!''upati!ns, is the !ng!ing attempt t! bring int! )!'us s!me )!rm !) the!rizati!n !) p!etry, t! ta&e up s!me )!rm !) 'riti'al distan'e s! as t! better understand the m!de !) &n!%ledge that is !perati(e %ithin p!etry and %hi'h, by e/tensi!n, is !perati(e thr!ugh p!etry in terms !) the s!'i!p!liti'al sphere. 0hat emerges in these essays is a s!phisti'ated appr!a'h t! p!etry, an appr!a'h %hi'h grants the internal la%s !) language and aestheti's %hi'h are appli'able %ithin the d!main !) p!etry, but %hi'h at the same time dem!nstrates a gr!%ing a%areness !) the need t! re'!n'ile %hat he terms .lyri' 'elebrati!n$, 6 and its '!n'!mitants .the phrase !r 'aden'e %hi'h haunts the ear and the eager parts !) the mind,.7 %ith the demands !) an ethi'al imperati(e %hi'h .the p!et may )ind as he e/er'ises his )ree gi)t in the presen'e !) the un)ree and the hurt$.@ 7

,) p!etry is t! be !) (alue, he n!tes, it must a(!id the .'!nsensus and settlement !) a meaning %hi'h the audien'e )astens !n li&e a se'urity blan&et$. 9 he pr!blems %ith

su'h a (ie% !) p!etry are that the (ery '!mple/ity and ambiguity that are part !) the )!r'e !) p!etry are denied and eti!lated. ,) the se'urity blan&et !) a '!nsensual meaning is seen as s!mething t! be a(!ided, perhaps the best %ay t! pr!'eed is n!t by thr!%ing !)) the blan&et alt!gether, but instead, t! e/amine m!re 'l!sely the %e)t and %ea(e !) the te/tile !) the blan&et s! as t! bring !ut the interse'ti!ns, 9!ins and inter)usi!ns that 'reate the blan&et in 1uesti!n.

,n terms !) su'h a %ea(e, the m!de !) its 'reati!n is that !) a l!!m %ith a shuttle %hi'h m!(es ba'& and )!rth 'reating the s!lidity !) the blan&et thr!ugh the intermeshing !) the s&eins !) threads. his metaph!r is rele(ant t! #eaney$s !%n the!reti'al pr!'esses

as in his earlier %riting, the diale'ti'al 'ut and thrust !) p!etry is a ma9!r theme. ,n Preoccupations, )!r e/ample, !ne !) the main dis'ursi(e strategies that #eaney underta&es in his dis'ussi!n !) te/ts !r their s!'i!-p!liti'al '!nte/ts, is the un'!(ering !) binary !pp!siti!ns. Neil A!r'!ran n!tes %hat he 'alls a .tenden'y t! !(er-s'hemati' !r e(en spe'i!us binary thin&ing$,1B and seems t! see it as a type !) de)e't in #eaney$s %riting.

8!r #eaney, h!%e(er, the n!ti!n !) p!etry as a m!de !) &n!%ledge is !ne %hi'h parta&es !) multiple perspe'ti(es, as e(iden'ed in his p!lygl!ssi' enun'iati!n !) di))erent (!i'es in North. ! %rite ab!ut the e/perien'e !) N!rthern ,reland, %ith!ut su''umbing t! se'tarian ata(ism is, !) ne'essity, t! inhabit s!me )!rm !) binarism. "u'h binarisms h!%e(er, are used dynami'ally and '!nstru'ti(ely, as !pp!sed t! stati'ally, t! 'reate the '!mple/ %ea(e !) inter'!nne'ti!ns and interse'ti!ns %hi'h are the results !) his sear'hes )!r ans%ers. his be'!mes 'lear %hen %e l!!& at the primal 4

binarisms that de)ine N!rthern ,reland C Aath!li' and Pr!testant3 nati!nalist and uni!nist3 republi'an and l!yalist3 ,rish and British. ! put it an!ther %ay, %hat

A!r'!ran is des'ribing may be imagined as the se'urity blan&et %hi'h %as addu'ed earlier in !ur dis'ussi!n3 a simple '!(ering de(i'e %ith little '!mple/ity atta'hed, !n )irst sight. #!%e(er, #eaney %ill dem!nstrate that %!(en material 'an als! emb!dy the '!mple/ities !) identity and diale'ti'al th!ught.

,n %mong Schoolchildren #eaney sp!&e ab!ut a great-aunt !) his, Aatherine Bradley, and ab!ut an e/ample !) her s'h!!l needle%!r&, )r!m 1@47. )!ll!%ing (erse, embr!idered !n her .sampler$: his in'luded the

,reland as she !ught t! be *reat gl!ri!us and )ree 8irst )l!%er !) the earth 8irst gem !) the sea

he embr!idery beneath this (erse %as !) a shamr!'&, the traditi!nal symb!l !) ,reland, but .s1ueezed t! the right !) the (erse$ %ere the %!rds .*!d "a(e the Dueen$.11 #ere the pre(alen'e !) binarisms in #eaney$s th!ught is emb!died !n a pie'e !) ?lster linen. ,s the imperati(e here, stressing h!% ,reland .!ught$ t! be, in'lining t! the n!ti!n !) being )ree !) British in)luen'e, as signi)ied by the shamr!'&, !r else !) being )ree as part !) the uni!n bet%een *reat Britain and ,reland, as signi)ied by the rubri' .*!d "a(e the Dueen6$

hr!ugh!ut this pamphlet, and in Place %nd &isplacement, #eaney stresses the bi)ur'ati!n !) ide!l!gies and identities that ha(e mar&ed his gr!%th. 8r!m learning ab!ut Eane 4usten, ennys!n and La%ren'e and )r!m attending sherry parties at the h!use !) a pr!)ess!r in Dueens ?ni(ersity %h! hailed )r!m </)!rd, t! a'ting %ith the >

Bellaghy =ramati' "!'iety, playing a ?nited ,rishman and F!bert +mmett, %e see s!me!ne %h! is being in)luen'ed by b!th the ,rish and +nglish aspe'ts !) ?lster 'ulture. ,n many 'ases, su'h binarisms %ere e/pressed in antag!nisti' t!nes !) sel) and !ther, !r us and them. 8!r #eaney, as he puts it, the e/p!sure t! aspe'ts !) b!th 'ultures, br!ught ab!ut an un'ertainty in terms !) 'ultural and ide!l!gi'al identi)i'ati!n.

he physi'al !s'illati!n bet%een %ee&ly e/p!sure t! .the elegan'es !) <s'ar 0ilde and the pr!)undities !) "ha&espeare$,12 and the %ee&end, %ith its religi!us de(!ti!ns in the 'hapel, and a'ting as fear a" tigh Gmaster !) 'erem!niesH at the *44 ceilidhs has its psy'hi'al and identi)i'at!ry e))e't in a number !) 1uesti!ns %hi'h are br!adly '!termin!us %ith th!se pre!''upying 1uesti!ns %ith %hi'h %e began !ur dis'ussi!n. #eaney as&s:

0as , t%! pers!ns !r !ne6 0as , e/tending mysel) !r brea&ing mysel) apart6 0as , being led !ut !r led a%ay6 0as , )ailing t! li(e up t! the aspiring literary intelle'tual e))!rt %hen , %as at h!me, %as , betraying the 'ulture !) the parish %hen , %as at the uni(ersity.17

he pre'!nditi!ns %hi'h set up this 1uesti!ning are de)ined in terms !) spatial and temp!ral !s'illati!ns. emp!rally, he spent the %ee&days !) term at Dueens ?ni(ersity

studying +nglish literature and be'!ming en'ulturated int! the middle-'lass, literary, 'ultured eth!s that is '!nn!tated by .sherry parties !n the Ial!ne F!ad$. 4t

.%ee&ends and during the h!lidays$ he %as immersed in Aath!li', rural, *aeli', nati!nalist s!'ial and 'ultural mores. "patially, he !s'illated bet%een 'ity and '!untry, Bel)ast and Bellaghy, the a'ademy and the parish. his physi'al m!(ement, '!nstituted

in time and spa'e, ser(es as a paradigm )!r the psy'hi'al and '!gniti(e m!ti!n !) %hat !ne might term #eaney$s epistem!l!gy !) p!etry. ,t in)!rms statements %hi'h see the

p!et as being .displa'ed )r!m a '!n)iden'e in a single p!siti!n by his disp!siti!n t! be a))e'ted by all p!siti!ns, negati(ely rather than p!siti(ely 'apable$.14

his pr!gressi!n )r!m physi'al m!(ement t! diale'ti'al '!gniti!n is a )eature !) &igging, the !pening p!em !) &eath of a Naturalist and the )irst p!em %here he )elt his .)eelings had g!t int! %!rds$.1> #ere the e/periential pra'ti'e !) digging int! earth be'!mes trans)!rmed int! an epistem!l!gi'al paradigm !) an artesian imaginati!n as %ell as !) an unearthing !) ne% e/perien'es thr!ugh the pr!'ess !) upturning the gi(ens !) the sur)a'e s! as t! 'reate .!pened gr!und$, in terms !) ideas and %!rld (ie%s.

#en'e, his diale'ti'al relati!nship is the de)ining )a't!r in his epistem!l!gy !) p!etry in that it all!%s him t! set up trans)!rmati(e and transgressi(e stru'tures %hi'h he sees as ans%ering his !%n '!mple/ p!siti!n in terms !) the &n!%ledge !r truth-'laims !) p!etry. ,nstead, su'h binarisms, as %e %ill see, are part !) a diale'ti'al m!de !) ! be a))e'ted by ea'h p!siti!n is t!

th!ught %hi'h is ethi'al in its m!de !) !perati!n.

a'1uire s!me )!rm !) negati(e &n!%ledge inasmu'h as !ne 'an see that neither p!siti!n has a m!n!p!ly !n truth !r right, and als! that !ne has s!me )!rm !) ethi'al resp!nsibility t! this !ther3 it in(!l(es a resp!nsibility t! the th!ught !) the !ther.

+thi's, in the sense !) the %!rd as used by +mmanuel Le(inas, en(isi!ns a sense !) resp!nsibility t! the !ther, t! )!rms !) alterity %hi'h are !utside the sel) as a primary )a'et !) human dis'!urse. Ea'1ues =errida has made the p!int, in !f Spirit, that the !rigin !) language is resp!nsibility,16 in the sense that t! spea& is t! spea& t! s!me!ne else, t! assume a resp!nsibility !) addressing s!me !ther pers!n. ,n a binary !pp!siti!n, s!mething is de)ined in terms !) the !ther, and as su'h, 'an be pla'ed in an ethi'al '!nte/t by ta&ing n!te !) the di))eren'es and '!nne'ti!ns bet%een sel) and !ther. ,t is %hat #eaney terms the n!ti!n !) .needing t! 7

a''!mm!date t%! !pp!sing n!ti!ns !) truth)ulness simultane!usly$,17 the (ery '!nditi!n %hi'h has been emblemati'ally rendered in Aatherine Bradley$s embr!idery sampler, %here .t%! (alue systems, %hi'h n!% e/pl!de daily, are l!dged li&e d!rmant muniti!ns$ !n !ne pie'e !) ?lster linen.1@

, %!uld suggest that #eaney$s %riting %ill disl!dge these p!siti!ns s! as t! bring !ut the etym!l!gi'al sense !) .muniti!n$ as b!th a )!rti)i'ati!n G. munitio'onis$H but als! its '!gnate term .muniment$, meaning a d!'ument entailing rights !r pri(ileges. %! sets !) )!rti)ied rights and pri(ileges are e/a'tly %hat is signi)ied by the shamr!'& and the sl!gan !n the sampler, and b!th ha(e munimental designs !n the n!ti!n !) .?lster$ in that pie'e !) ?lster linen. By disl!dging these )!rti)i'ati!ns, #eaney is, symb!li'ally, bringing these d!'uments int! diale'ti'al intera'ti!n. ,t is %!rth &eeping in mind that the term .diale'ti'$ !riginates )r!m the *ree& .diale(tos$, meaning dis'!urse !r '!n(ersati!n, and the sampler is a mimeti' e/ample !) this pr!'ess in #eaney$s epistem!l!gy !) %riting, as he sets up an !s'illati!n bet%een the t%! p!siti!ns )!und !n this pie'e !) ?lster linen, an !s'illati!n that parallels his physi'al !s'illati!n he under%ent at uni(ersity.

he pr!per ad9e'ti(e .?lster$ is signi)i'ant here. ,n Place and &isplacement: Recent Poetr in Northern $reland, deli(ered in 19@4, #eaney ma&es it 'lear that t! be a %riter in ?lster is t! be (ery mu'h in t%! minds, t! be .in t%! pla'es at !n'e$, t! be a%are that he !r she bel!ngs t! a pla'e .that is patently ri(en bet%een n!ti!ns !) bel!nging t! !ther pla'es$.19 his (ie% !) pla'e as inhabited by !pp!siti!ns pulling in

di))erent dire'ti!ns pla'es an !bligati!n, !r resp!nsibility !n the %riter t! delineate the p!siti!ns C ide!l!gi'al, s!'ial, p!liti'al and 'ultural C !) his !%n gr!uping Gsel)H and that !) the .!ther$ in a pla'e %here the %h!le p!pulati!n are .adepts$ in the .mystery !) li(ing in t%! pla'es at !ne time$.2B ! de)ine the identi)i'at!ry parameters, the @

muniments, !) ea'h gr!up is n!t as simple as it might )irst seem, as there are '!mple/ e1uati!ns and interse'ti!ns %hi'h are b!th mutually e/'lusi(e and at the same time, mutually intert%ined. mentalite) %ill !utline. hese n!ti!ns )!rm parts !) the %ea(e that his diale'ti'al

?lster, as he n!tes, is 9ust su'h a '!mple/ series !) threads in this %ea(e. 4s he puts it, the nati!nalist %ill .%in'e at the ?ni!n Ea'& and J*!d "a(e the DueenK as t!&ens !) his pla'e in the %!rld$, but )!r the uni!nist, %ith %h!m the nati!nalist '!ndu'ts his daily li)e, these emblems ha(e .pi!us and passi!nate )!r'e$.21 #eaney g!es !n t! dem!nstrate the )urther '!mple/ imbri'ati!ns and dualities !) identity in N!rthern ,reland:

he )!untainhead !) the ?ni!nist$s myth, springs in the Ar!%n !) +ngland, but he has t! h!ld his !%n in the island !) ,reland. he )!untainhead !) the Nati!nalist$s myth lies in the idea !) an integral ,reland, but he t!! li(es in an e/ile )r!m his ideal pla'e. Let %hile he has t! '!n'ede that he is a 'itizen !) the partiti!ned British state, the Nati!nalist 'an h!ld t! the physi'al )a't !) his presen'e up!n the ,rish island, 9ust as the ?ni!nist 'an a))irm the reality !) p!liti'al realm !) the ?nited Mingd!m e(en as he re'!gnizes the ge!graphi'al )a't that ,reland is his insular h!me.22

#ere %e d!n$t see A!r'!ran$s n!ti!n !) s'hemati' binaries at %!r&3 instead %e see the 'are)ul delineati!n !) a '!mple/ series !) !pp!siti!ns %hi'h are pla'ed in an e(!l(ing stru'ture %hi'h attempts t! set up s!me )!rm !) diale'ti'al '!n(ersati!n bet%een them. here is a 'are)ul %eighing !) the nuan'es !) ea'h p!siti!n, seen in terms !) its similarity %ith the !ther side !) the e1uati!n. 4s #ans-*e!rg *adamer puts it, the presen'e !) the !ther .be)!re %h!m %e stand helps t! brea& up !ur !%n bias and narr!%ness$,27 and this 'an be seen as part !) #eaney$s sear'hes )!r ans%ers.

,n *ossba+n, an early essay in Preoccupations, he p!ints !ut the genesis !) his a%areness !) di))erent types !) p!etry that in)luen'ed him, beginning %ith rhymes )r!m 9

his s'h!!ldays )eaturing a 'hara'ter 'alled Neddy I'*uigan !r =irty-8a'ed I'*uigan %h! .pissed in the DuiganN he Duigan %as h!tN "! he pissed in the p!t$, as %ell as m!re ide!l!gi'ally 'entred rhymes: .?p the l!ng ladder and d!%n the sh!rt r!peN ! hell %ith Ming Billy and *!d bless the P!pe$ Gthe ans%er t! this being .?p %ith Ming 0illiam and d!%n %ith the P!pe$H. #ere, the se'tarian di(ide is 'aptured in %hat might be termed sub'ultural p!etry, but interestingly b!th traditi!ns are set d!%n t!gether. ,ndeed, the rhythmi' and pr!s!di' similarity !) the t%! '!uplets sees b!th traditi!ns as pla'ed in a mutually de)ining, i) antag!nisti', stru'ture, %ith Ming 0illiam being de)ined in '!ntradistin'ti!n t! the P!pe, and (i'e (ersa. he same mutuality !) de)initi!n is

'lear )r!m the !ther t%! p!ems 1u!ted, !ne suggesting that .Paypishes$ GAath!li'sH sh!uld be .'ut in t%!$ %ith the ans%ering (erse suggesting that it is .red, %hite and blue$ %hi'h sh!uld be .t!rn up in t%!$. 24

0e seem t! be ba'& in the %ea(e !) Aatherine Bradley$s sampler here, %ith the binarisms being s&et'hed !ut in b!ld lines !) di))eren'e, and the mem!ry !) the p!et !s'illating bet%een them. ,n this 'ase, %e might, perhaps, agree %ith A!r'!ran$s 'riti'ism !) the )latness !) the binary !pp!siti!n, and the !(er s'hemati' nature !) the (erses. #ere, there seems t! be n! sense !) diale'ti'al intera'ti!n bet%een the t%!. his is be'ause these rhymes are separate )r!m the present tense !) the (!i'e !) the essay. he .,$ des'ribing these p!ems is n!t in(!l(ed in any !) them3 they are

remembered )r!m a distan'e, and ser(e as signi)iers !) a 'hildish sense !) rhyme, %hi'h merely enun'iates the sense !) the gr!up t! %hi'h the rhymester bel!nged. here is n!

sense !) resp!nsibility !r ad9udi'ati!n bet%een the p!siti!ns3 ea'h set !) rhymes delineates the se'urity blan&et !) ea'h traditi!n. ! paraphrase an earlier '!mment

)r!m The Redress of Poetr , this type !) p!etry is not .a %!r&ing m!del !) in'lusi(e '!ns'i!usness$3 here, this type !) p!etry does simpli)y.

1B

,n an essay entitled .Ahristmas, 1971$, a m!re '!mple/ intera'ti!n is )!regr!unded by the (!i'e !) the p!et himsel) as the locus !) the intera'ti!n. 0riting ab!ut the r!le !) the artist in the )a'e !) the p!liti'al '!n)r!ntati!n in Bel)ast in 1971, #eaney again sees the situati!n in terms !) binaries, but n!%, %e see a )ar m!re dynami' stru'ture !) th!ught, as %ell as a m!re ethi'al '!n'ern %ith the '!rre'tness !) the 'h!i'es being made. #e says that he is .)atigued by a '!ntinu!us ad9udi'ati!n bet%een ag!ny and in9usti'e, s%ung at !ne m!ment by the l!ng tail !) ra'e and resentment, at an!ther by the m!re a''eptable )eelings !) pity and terr!r$. 2> #ere, the physi'ality !) the !riginal !s'illati!n bet%een 'ultural and ide!l!gi'al p!les is restated in the (erb !) m!ti!n .s%ung$3 the p!et is struggling t! '!ntr!l these )!r'es !) .ra'e and resentment$ as !pp!sed t! th!se !) .pity and terr!r$, as they .s%ing$ him )r!m !ne t! the !ther, seemingly unable t! '!ntr!l the pendular m!ti!n.

Perhaps the m!st imp!rtant %!rds in this passage are .'!ntinu!us ad9udi'ati!n$.

he

intera'ti!n !) a'ti(e and passi(e (!i'es in this passage !utlines the '!mple/ity !) the struggle that is !ng!ing %ithin the 'ulture, and %ithin the p!et. here are t%! le(els

in(!l(ed here. 8irstly, he is in(!l(ed in '!ntinually ad9udi'ating bet%een ag!ny and in9usti'e, and the nature !) the stated %eariness is that %hile attempting t! e/er'ise the '!gniti(e )a'ulty !) 9udgement, he is als! Gand here %e see the se'!nd le(elH being .s%ung$ by e(ents !(er %hi'h he seems t! ha(e n! '!ntr!l, the e/ternal p!liti'al and (i!lent a'ti!ns in Bel)ast in 1971.

#eaney$s metaph!r !) being .s%ung$ by the .l!ng tail$ represents the ata(isti', (is'eral em!ti!ns that %ere ri)e in Bel)ast at this time. Iembers !) #eaney$s !%n '!mmunity %ere slaughtering )!r the .'!mm!n g!!d$, e(en as he %as %riting, and this interne'ine (i!len'e, itsel) b!th 'aused by, and 'reati(e !), a binary !pp!siti!n, )!regr!unded

11

1uesti!ns ab!ut the nature and )un'ti!n !) art.

he issue under ad9udi'ati!n appears t!

be that seminal pre!''upying 1uesti!n: .h!% sh!uld a p!et pr!perly li(e and %rite6$.26

he etym!l!gy !) .ad9udi'ate$ helps t! 'lari)y the issue at this p!int. "temming )r!m the Latin .,udicare$, the !riginal '!mp!site %as .,us$ Gla%H and .dicere$ Gt! sayH, the %!rd highlights #eaney$s di))i'ulty in '!ntinually attempting t! .say the la%$ !) pr!per aestheti', ethi'al and p!liti'al a'ti!n in the )a'e !) a (i!lent '!ntemp!rary '!nte/t. <) ne'essity, su'h ad9udi'ati!n %ill be diale'ti'al, it %ill 'reate a locus )!r the enun'iati!n !) the '!n'erns !) sel) and !ther %ith!ut ne'essarily su''umbing t! the ata(isms !) either gr!up. 4s he puts it, the l!'ating !) !ne$s identity in .the ethni' and liturgi'al habits !) !ne$s gr!up$ is all (ery %ell, but )!r that gr!up t! .'!n)ine the range !) !ne$s gr!%th$ and .t! ha(e !ne$s sympathies determined and !ne$s resp!nses pr!grammed$ by that gr!up, is 'learly a .)!rm !) entrapment$,27 an entrapment %h!se '!nse1uen'es are enun'iated in the lines already 'ited )r!m -inship, and %h!se pre(alen'e is 'lear )r!m the .s%ung by the tail$ metaph!r.

#is ad9udi'ati!n !n this issue is )irst sp!&en in an essay aptly entitled .8eeling int! 0!rds$, %here he teases !ut the di))erent r!les )!r a p!et %h! is attempting t! .pr!perly li(e and %rite$. #e p!ints t! a 'ru'ial peri!d %hen the .!riginal heraldi' murder!us en'!unter bet%een Pr!testant ye!man and Aath!li' rebel$ %as .initiated again$ in the "ummer !) 1969, in Bel)ast. ,n this '!nte/t, the epistem!l!gy !) the te/ts !) p!etry be'ame 'lear and '!nsisted !) be'!ming a .sear'h )!r images and symb!ls ade1uate t! !ur predi'ament$. he per)!rmati(e nature !) this a'ti(ity, a .sear'h$ as

!pp!sed t! a destinati!n, res!nates %ith his !riginal .sear'hes )!r ans%ers$, and is 1uali)ied dire'tly in terms !) %hat su'h symb!ls and images sh!uld not be:

12

, d! n!t mean liberal lamentati!n that 'itizens sh!uld )eel '!mpelled t! murder !ne an!ther !r depl!y their di))erent military arms !(er the matter !) n!men'latures su'h as British !r ,rish. , d! n!t mean publi' 'elebrati!ns !r e/e'rati!ns !) resistan'e !r atr!'ityCalth!ugh there is n!thing ne'essarily unp!eti' ab!ut su'h a 'elebrati!n, i) !ne thin&s !) Leats$s .+aster 1916$. 2@

he di))i'ulty #eaney has %ith b!th !) these epistem!l!gi'al p!siti!ns is that they b!th demand a suspensi!n !) the )a'ulty !) ad9udi'ati!n, and !) the n!ti!n !) sear'hes )!r s!me )!rm !) intersub9e'ti(e truth. ,n b!th !) the ab!(e p!siti!ns, p!etry is (ery mu'h in the ser(i'e !) the a'tual3 it )un'ti!ns as, at best, rep!rtage, and at %!rst, as a s!rt !) p!eti' li'en'e )!r the barbarities !) se'tarian hatred.

,n the )irst !) these, p!etry is attenuated in that it must maintain the n!te !) lamentati!n %hi'h pre'ludes any sp!ntane!us 9!y !r 'reati(ity !n the part !) the %riter. 4s he puts it in The Government of the Tongue: .art d!es n!t tra'e the gi(en map !) a better reality but impr!(ises an inspired s&et'h !) it$.29 Liberal lamentati!n is !) ne'essity, post factum, it is dependent !n the a'tual material situati!n !) p!liti's and (i!len'e. ,n this sense, it is mimeti' !) !ne !) the meanings #eaney suggests )!r his res!nant title The Government of the Tongue, %here the t!ngue is g!(erned by the 1u!tidian, %here !ne is t!ld t! g!(ern !ne$s t!ngue, %ith the impli'ati!n !) a .denial !) the t!ngue$s aut!n!my and permissi!n$ :italics original;. #ere, ir!ni'ally, liberal lamentati!n, a lamentati!n that seems t! a'hie(e a p!siti!n !) trans'enden'e %ith respe't t! the se'tarian ata(isms !) ra'e and resentment, a'tually all!%s su'h ata(isms t! di'tate the nature !) su'h liberal dis'!urse.

8!r a p!et !r %riter, su'h an epistem!l!gy 'an lea(e p!etry in a .relati(ely underpri(ileged situati!n, re1uiring it t! ta&e a p!siti!n that is se'!ndary t! religi!us truth !r state se'urity !r publi' !rder$. 7B 4s %e ha(e seen in the intr!du'ti!n, su'h a 17

simpli)i'ati!n !) %riting and reading are the (ery attenuati!ns that #eaney %ishes t! a(!id, as they in n! %ay )a'ilitate any '!mple/ sear'hes a)ter ans%ers. his attenuated

(ie% !) p!etry suggests that ans%ers must be in resp!nse t! e(ents, and hen'e, %ill be di'tated by th!se e(ents. "imilarly, su'h an p!siti!n e/'ludes any myth!l!gi'al

dimensi!n t! p!etry. 4s #eaney dem!nstrated in North, an e/pl!rati!n !) the myth!s that under%rites se'tarian '!nstituti!ns !) identity 'an be a p!%er)ul t!!l in the unpa'&ing !) su'h identities. #eaney sees the r!le !) %riting as m!re than su'h an e(ent-dri(en resp!nse %hi'h must be belated %ith respe't t! a'tuality.

he se'!nd p!siti!n %ith %hi'h he ta&es issue is that !) p!etry as a 'elebrati!n !r e/e'rati!n !) resistan'e !r atr!'ity. "u'h a p!siti!n pla'es the p!et )irmly %ithin his !r her gr!up !r myth!s. #ere the h!rtat!ry !r e/e'rat!ry r!le !) the p!et '!nsists in arti'ulating the m!n!l!gi'al (isi!n !) the tribe !r gr!up, %ith!ut any n!ti!n !) di))erent perspe'ti(es !r di))erent standp!ints. his m!n!'ular (isi!n, %hi'h is at the '!re !)

-inship, is 'reati(e !) the sub9e'ti(ities !) the gr!up. ,t is a (isi!n %hi'h a'hie(es the entrapment !) '!ns'i!usness already n!ted, as the gr!%th !) the indi(idual is 'analized by the ethni' and liturgi'al (isi!n !) the gr!up. "u'h a p!siti!n !) immanen'e rem!(es any p!%er !) 'riti1ue )r!m the %riter, and als! attenuates the '!mple/ity !) any p!liti'al !r identi)i'at!ry '!n)li't. ,t denies any n!ti!n !) diale'ti'al '!mple/ity in terms !) the relati!nship !) the .,$ t! the .%e$. 0riting ab!ut the p!etry !) <sip Iandelstam, and the mem!ir !) his li)e, .ope %bandoned, %ritten by his %i)e Nadezhda, #eaney 'ites her (ie%s !n the n!ti!n !) the .%e$, the '!mmunity. "he n!tes that the relati!nship bet%een the .%e$ and the .,$ is diale'ti'al and )luid: :t;! )ind its )ul)ilment, the .,$ needs at lest t%! '!mplementary dimensi!ns: .%e$ and C i) it is )!rtunate C .y!u$.71 hese dimensi!ns e/ternal t! the .,$ yet als! '!nne'ted t! it, de)ine

a n!ti!n !) sub9e'ti(ity that is 'entral t! #eaney$s n!ti!n !) the )un'ti!n !) art.

14

he imp!rtan'e !) this '!mple/ity and plurality !) (isi!n that #eaney ass!'iates %ith p!etry is underlined by his return t! this image !) the .,$ and the .eye$ in The Redress of Poetr . ,n an essay entitled .E!y !r Night: Last hings in the P!etry !) 0. B. Leats and Philip Lar&in$, he is %riting ab!ut Leats$s p!em The Cold .eaven, and sees in this p!em a .sense !) ans%erability, !) resp!nsibility$ and g!es !n t! add that .the J,K !) the p!et as a )irst pers!n singular, a sel)-&n!%ing '!ns'i!usness, is brilliantly and '!n'retely at !ne %ith the eye !) the p!et as a retina !(er%helmed by the (isual e(iden'e !) in)inity and s!litude$.72 #ere again, the '!n)lati!n !) the sub9e't %ith (isi!n is 'entral t! #eaney$s aestheti' epistem!l!gy. 4ns%erability and resp!nsibility t! the !ther are 'entral t! his n!ti!n !) the '!nstituti(e (isi!n !) p!etry. his diale'ti'

bet%een .,$ and .eye$ is an e/ample !) the rhet!ri'al )igure !) a metalepsis, the 'reati!n !) an e))e't thr!ugh a rem!te 'ause. 8!r #eaney this metalepti' stru'ture all!%s him t! e/press the '!mple/ity !) (isi!n that p!etry 'an bring ab!ut. 4s , ha(e already n!ted, su'h an epistem!l!gy is the (ery antithesis !) simplisti' and attenuating n!ti!ns !) sub9e'ti(ity. ! .see$ is t! see the !ther, t! 'reate the .,$ %ith these !b9e'ts !) (isi!n

in mind is t! a't ethi'ally. ,n this sense, #eaney$s n!ti!n !) art is br!adly similar t! that !) +mmanuel Le(inas %h! sees art as a .relati!n %ith the !ther$. 77 #en'e, t! spea& )!r !ne$s !%n gr!up, is t! ad!pt a m!n!'ularity !) (isi!n %hi'h, in turn, leads t! a m!n!l!gi'al n!ti!n !) sub9e'ti(ity.

#en'e, #eaney$s denial !) the (alidity !) these t%! di))erent meth!ds !) pr!(iding .images and symb!ls ade1uate t! !ur predi'ament$ is an e/ample !) lit!tes in that thr!ugh des'ribing %hat these images and symb!ls sh!uld n!t be, he is gesturing (ery mu'h in the dire'ti!n !) %hat he sees as the '!rre't !r pr!per images and symb!ls. #e agrees that there is a pr!)!und relati!n bet%een .p!eti' te'hni1ue$ and .hist!ri'al situati!n$.74 #!%e(er, he re)uses t! all!% the )!rmer t! be'!me either dependent !n,

1>

!r subser(ient t!, the latter. #eaney$s epistem!l!gy !) p!etry %ill attempt t! a(!id these attenuati!ns and entrapments:

, mean that , )elt it imperati(e t! dis'!(er a )ield !) )!r'e in %hi'h, %ith!ut aband!ning )idelity t! the pr!'esses and e/perien'e !) p!etry as , ha(e !utlined them, it %!uld be p!ssible t! en'!mpass the perspe'ti(es !) a humane reas!n and at the same time t! grant the religi!us intensity !) the (i!len'e its depl!rable authenti'ity and '!mple/ity.7>

he shape !) his )ield !) )!r'e, !r '!nstellati!n, is hinted at in his essay !n <sip Iandelstam, %here he 'ites appr!(ingly Iandelstam$s n!ti!n !) the purity !) p!etry as being li&e ma&ing Brussels la'e, an a'ti(ity %hi'h in(!l(es .real %!r&$ but %h!se .ma9!r '!mp!nents, th!se supp!rting the design, are air, per)!rati!ns and truan'y$.76 #ere, the diale'ti' !) presen'e and absen'e, the imp!rtan'e !) the shad!% as %ell as the substan'e, are stressed. he similarity %ith =errida$s arti'ulati!n !) all '!mmuni'ati!n

being a'hie(ed thr!ugh di))eren'e and the tra'e is 'lear. =errida sees language as )un'ti!ning thr!ugh an .e'!n!my !) tra'es$, and in an inter(ie% %ith Eulia Mriste(a, g!es !n t! e/plain his (ie% !) a .ne% '!n'ept !) %riting$ %herein .n! element 'an )un'ti!n as a sign %ith!ut re)erring t! an!ther element %hi'h itsel) is n!t simply present$. ,n !ther %!rds, the elements !) the system are stru'turally dependent !n elements %hi'h are ne(er .simply present !r absent$, and are the results !) an inter%ea(ing bet%een presen'e and absen'e.

,t is this .inter%ea(ing, this te/tile$, %hi'h pr!du'es the .te/t$. 77 ,t is ir!ni' that, (ia =errida, %e are n!% ba'& in the realm !) Aatherine Bradley$s sampler, and the !s'illat!ry imagery !) the l!!m as it 'reates the ?lster linen !) her sampler. 4s already n!ted, this is )ar )r!m the se'urity blan&et !) !(er-simplisti' meaning3 this %ea(ing, this te/tGileH is red!lent !) the diale'ti'al stru'ture %hi'h he has been '!nstru'ting. #en'e, #eaney$s Brussels la'e des'ribes a similar e'!n!my in that %hat is present is supp!rted 16

by .air, per)!rati!ns and truan'y$. ,t is in the intersti'es !) this e'!n!my, this )ield !) )!r'e, that #eaney sees the )!r'e and e))i'a'y !) p!etry.

0riting at the '!n'lusi!n !) the title essay !) The Government of the Tongue, #eaney is dis'ussing the .parad!/ !) p!etry and !) the imaginati(e arts in general$,7@ and muses !n the e))i'a'y !) p!etry. #e says in !ne sense, the e))i'a'y is .nil C n! lyri' has e(er st!pped a tan&$3 h!%e(er, in an!ther sense he sees its e))i'a'y as .unlimited$ and g!es !n t! 'ite the metaph!r !) Eesus$ %riting in the sand C .in the )a'e !) %hi'h a''users and a''used are le)t spee'hless and rene%ed$ C as an e/ample !) the status !r )!r'e !) p!etry. Du!ting )r!m Ahapter +ight !) E!hn$s *!spel, he 'ites Eesus$ %riting, in the )a'e !) the s'ribes and Pharisees %h! %ere a''using the %!man 'aught in adultery. #e sees p!etry as anal!g!us t! this %riting, a .brea& %ith the usual li)e but n!t an abs'!nding )r!m it$. his n!ti!n !) a brea& brings us ba'& t! the intersti'es !) the )ield !) )!r'e, th!se airy truan'ies !) Brussels la'e %hi'h %ere 9ust as imp!rtant as the designs %hi'h they supp!rted. ,n terms red!lent !) =errida$s n!ti!ns !) di))eren'e and the tra'e, #eaney spea&s !) the epistem!l!gy !) p!etry as paralleling the %riting in the sand %hi'h is ephemeral in the e/treme. 4s he puts it, p!etry d!es n!t pr!mise a s!luti!n t! either .a''using 'r!%d$ !r .helpless a''used$:

,nstead, in the ri)t bet%een %hat is g!ing t! happen and %hate(er %e %!uld %ish t! happen, p!etry h!lds attenti!n )!r a spa'e, )un'ti!ns n!t as distra'ti!n but as pure '!n'entrati!n, a )!'us %here !ur p!%er t! '!n'entrate is '!n'entrated ba'& !n !ursel(es. his is %hat gi(es p!etry its g!(erning p!%er. 4t its greatest m!ments it %!uld attempt, in Leats$s phrase, t! h!ld in a single th!ught reality and 9usti'e. 79

#ere, %e see di))erent, but parallel statements ab!ut the )ield !) )!r'e. P!etry 'an be the spa'e thr!ugh %hi'h reality and 9usti'e 'an !perate, n!t !(ertly in the p!liti'al sphere, but in terms !) in)luen'ing the %riter and the reader3 he g!es !n t! des'ribe 17

p!etry as .m!re a thresh!ld than a path$ and sees it as !ne %hi'h is .'!nstantly appr!a'hed and '!nstantly departed )r!m$, and %hi'h e))e'ts reader and %riter by the e/perien'e !) being .at the same time summ!ned and released$. 4B he !s'illat!ry nature

!) this diale'ti'al m!(ement dem!nstrates the '!mple/ity !) the )!r'es a'ting !n b!th reader and %riter.

,n his .%riting in the sand$ metaph!r, #eaney %as dis'ussing these (ery n!ti!ns !) e))i'a'y and ine))i'a'y3 !n the !ne hand, he sees that p!etry d!esn$t st!p tan&s3 !n the !ther, it may alter the mindset that is sending in th!se tan&s. ,r!ni'ally, it is the (ery ephemerality !) p!etry, the %riting in the sand, that gi(es it any sense !) lasting )!r'e, it is .the imaginati!n pressing ba'& against the pressure !) reality$.41 #!%e(er, the )!r'e is mi'r!'!smi' as !pp!sed t! ma'r!'!smi'3 it has n! dire't e))e't !n the p!liti'al, but it has the e))e't !) altering the indi(idual '!ns'i!usness !) b!th %riter and reader. ,n terms !) the relati!nship bet%een %riting and p!liti's, he sees the .purely p!eti' )!r'e !) %!rds$ as .the guarantee !) a '!mmitment %hi'h need n!t ap!l!gize )!r n!t ta&ing up the 'udgels sin'e it is raising a bat!n t! attune dis'!rds %hi'h the 'udgels are 'reating$.42

,n Crediting Poetr , his N!bel le'ture, #eaney e/empli)ies this p!int by re'alling h!%, in 1976, a minibus )ull !) %!r&ers %as st!pped at Mingsmills, near Bessbr!!& in A!unty 4rmagh at a b!gus 'he'&p!int. he !''upants %ere lined up at the side !) the r!ad,

and %ere as&ed .any Aath!li's am!ng y!u, step !ut here$. #eaney n!tes that, sin'e the ma9!rity !) the gr!up %ere Pr!testants, %ith a single e/'epti!n, the presumpti!n must ha(e been that .the mas&ed men %ere Pr!testant paramilitaries ab!ut t! 'arry !ut a tit)!r-tat se'tarian &illing$.47 #e g!es !n:

1@

,t %as a terrible m!ment )!r him, 'aught bet%een dread and %itness, but he did ma&e a m!ti!n t! step )!r%ard. hen, the st!ry g!es, in that split se'!nd !) de'isi!n, and in the relati(e '!(er !) the %inter e(ening dar&ness, he )elt the hand !) the Pr!testant %!r&er ne/t t! him ta&e his hand and s1ueeze it in a signal that said n!, d!n$t m!(e, %e$ll n!t betray y!u, n!b!dy need &n!% %hat )aith !r party y!u bel!ng t!.44

he man did step )!r%ard, but %as thr!%n aside t! %at'h the e/e'uti!n !) the ten Pr!testant %!r&ers, murdered by .presumably, the Pr!(isi!nal ,F4$.4> #eaney n!tes that, in the )a'e !) su'h atr!'ity, %e are .rightly suspi'i!us !) that %hi'h gi(es t!! mu'h '!ns!lati!n in these 'ir'umstan'es$.46 #!%e(er, i) art is t! be !) .present use$, then its redress must ta&e a''!unt !) b!th the hand that gripped its !ther, as %ell as th!se %hi'h murdered their !thers. #eaney$s )ield !) )!r'e h!pes t! 'redit the

.mar(ell!us$ as %ell as the .murder!us$, 47 but al%ays %ithin a '!nte/t that respe'ts !ur resp!nsibility t! the !ther. Ea'1ues =errida has made the p!int that literature is that genre %herein .li'ense is gi(en t! the %riter t! say e(erything he %ants t! !r e(erything he 'an$.4@ 8!r #eaney, and his n!ti!n !) p!etry, %e '!uld perhaps add t! this: li'ense is gi(en t! the %riter t! say e(erything he %ants t! !r e(erything he 'an, and ever thing he should.

#e 'redits p!etry b!th )!r .being itsel) and )!r being a help$349 as %ell as redressing the s!'i!-p!liti'al, #eaney$s sear'hes )!r ans%ers %ill ta&e int! a''!unt the rest!rati(e relati!n !) p!etry t! the sel), and !) p!etry t! the de(el!pment !) a )uller '!ns'i!usness !) !ur humanity.

19

Endnotes
"eamus #eaney, Preoccupations: Selected Prose: /012'/032 , L!nd!n, 8aber, p. 17. "eamus #eaney, The Government of the Tongue: The /021 T4S4 5liot *emorial 6ectures and !ther Critical Writings, L!nd!n, 8aber, 19@@, p. >>. Preoccupations, p. 17. Preoccupations, p. 14. Bernard <$=!n!ghue, Seamus .eane and the 6anguage of Poetr , #emel #empstead, #ar(ester 0heatshea), 1994, 17>. The Government of the Tongue , p. 12. Preoccupations, p. 61. Preoccupations, p. /(iii. The Government of the Tongue , p. 122. Neil A!r'!ran, Seamus .eane , )irst published in 19@6, L!nd!n, 8aber, 199@, p. 27B. "eamus #eaney, %mong Schoolchildren , Bel)ast, Dueen$s ?ni(ersity, 19@7, p. 6. %mong Schoolchildren , p. 7. %mong Schoolchildren , p. @. "eamus #eaney, Place and &isplacement , *rasmere, rustees !) =!(e A!ttage, 19@>, p. @. Preoccupations, p. 41. Ea'1ues =errida, !f Spirit: .eidegger and the 7uestion , translated by *e!))rey Benningt!n and Fa'hel B!%lby, Ahi'ag!, Ahi'ag! ?ni(ersity Press, 19@9, p. 172. "eamus #eaney, The Redress of Poetr : !8ford 6ectures , L!nd!n, 8aber, 199>, p. 4. %mong Schoolchildren , p. 6. Place and &isplacement , p. 4. The Redress of Poetr , p. 19B. Place and &isplacement , p. 4. Place and &isplacement , p. >. #ans-*e!rg *adamer, . e/t and ,nterpretati!n$, translated by =ennis E. "'hmidt and Fi'hard Palmer, 19@1, pp. 21->1, in =iane P. Ii'hel)elder, and Fi'hard +. Palmer GedsH &ialogue 9 &econstruction: The Gadamer'&errida 5ncounter , Ne% L!r&, "tate ?ni(ersity !) Ne% L!r& Press, 19@9, p. 26. Preoccupations, p. 2>. Preoccupations, p. 7B. Preoccupations, p. 71. Place and &isplacement , pp. 6-7. Preoccupations, p. >6. The Government of the Tongue , 94. The Government of the Tongue , 96. The Government of the Tongue , p. 76. "eamus #eaney, The Redress of Poetr : !8ford 6ectures , L!nd!n, 8aber, 199>, p. 149. +mmanuel Le(inas, The 6evinas Reader , edited by "ean #and, </)!rd, Basil Bla'&%ell, 19@9, 147. Place and &isplacement , p. 7. Preoccupations, pp. >6->7. The Government of the Tongue , p.@4. Ea'1ues =errida, Positions, ranslated by 4lan Bass, L!nd!n, 4thl!ne, 19@1, p. 26. The Government of the Tongue , p.1B7. The Government of the Tongue , p.1B@. The Government of the Tongue , p.1B@. Redress of Poetr , p. 1. Place and &isplacement , p. 7. Redress of Poetr , p. 1@. Redress of Poetr , p. 1@. Redress of Poetr , p. 1@. Redress of Poetr , p. 19. Redress of Poetr , p. 2B. Ea'1ues =errida, %cts of 6iterature4 +dited by =ere& 4ttridge, L!nd!n, F!utledge, 1992, p. 77. Redress of Poetr , p. 11.

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