Metals

Outline and examine some uses of different metals through history, including Metal Copper metal (around 6000 years ago) Historic Uses Ornaments, tools, weapons and cooking Contemporary uses Electrical cables and wiring, radiators, refrigeration systems, water pipes Iron metal (3000 BC) Tools and weapons found at 3000BC Usually converted into steel due to its corrosion to make buildings, bridges, automobiles Gold uncombined metal Oldest native metal. Egyptians used gold in their ornaments Bronze alloy 3000-1000BC Used for cutting tools and armour Church bells, statues Jewellery, dentistry, electrical connections

contemporary uses, as uncombined metals or as alloys An alloy is a mixture of two or more metal elements or non-metal and metal elements fused together through dissolving each other in molten state

Metal Steel

Properties Usually is susceptible to corrosion but when alloyed with other metals, it will become corrosion resistant. Steel is also strong

Common Uses Sinks, cutlery, buildings

How it relates to its properties Steel is a ferrous metal, meaning it contains iron. The iron in the metallic matrix will combine with oxygen creation iron oxide (rust). Therefore, to counter rust, other metals are alloyed with steel to create different types of alloy steels. For example, stainless steel, which is used in cutlery and utensils that handle food, must be resistant to corrosion to ensure that food contamination does not occur. This is mainly due to the 10% chromium that is added to the steel, by mass.

Brass Solder

Resists corrosion and ductile Low melting point

Doorknobs, screws Joining wires

Explain why energy input is necessary to extract a metal from its ore Process of extraction

1. Mining To extract the ore, energy for heavy machinery is needed to break and obtain the desired ores from the earth (Physical separation method/process) 2. Milling Processes such as froth floatation are needed which requires a lot of water and energy to agitate the bubbles to separate the gangue. Also transportation of the ores/minerals is needed in this process. (Physical separation method/process) 3. Smelting Ores are blasted at high temperature to extract the metal. Energy is required to maintain the high temperatures in a furnace. (Chemical separation method/process) 4. Refining High amounts of heat and electricity is needed and is to be maintained throughout the process to purify the metal, depending on the type of refining process. In electrolytic refining (electrolysis), electricity/energy is needed to separate the chemical bonds. (Chemical separation method/process)

Identify why there are more metals available for people to use now than there were 200 years ago More advanced technology and extraction processes to extract ores that were unable to be used 200 years ago. In previous centuries, there was limited knowledge on the extraction processes that offered pure extracts. As the rate of technology and knowledge increased, mankind began to apply more advanced machinery and derive better extraction methods and thus extract and use more metals. Some technology/extraction methods we use today to obtain metals were unavailable centuries ago due to the slow rate of technology advance. More discoveries of metal and locations allows more extraction

Describe observable changes when metals react with dilute acid, water and oxygen. When a very reactive metal reacts with water, a metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas is produced. o metal + water metal hydroxide + hydrogen gas Eg.2Na(s) + 2HO(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H(g) When a less reactive metal reacts with water, a metal oxide is produced. o metal + oxygen metal oxide

Eg. 2Mg(s) + O(g) 2MgO(s) describe and justify the criteria used toan place metals into an order ofhydrogen activity based on ease of reaction with oxygen, water When a metal reacts with acid, a metal salt and gas istheir formed and dilute acids o metal + acid metal salt + hydrogen gas the most active metals are at the top , the least reactive are Eg.Zn + 2HCL(aq)ZnCl(aq) + H(g) at the bottom (s) the more reactive, the harder it is to extract It can be established by observation of the reaction of the metals with water, oxygen or acids. The lower the metal, the earlier it was found/discovered., The order of reactivity with oxygen is {Li, Na, K, Ca, Ba} > {Mg, Al, Fe, Zn} > {Sn, Pb, Cu}, {Ag, Au, Pt} The order of reactivity with water is { Na, K } > {Li, Ca, Ba} > {Mg, AL, Fe, Zn}, {Sn, Pb, Cu, Ag, Au, Pt}

construct half-equations to represent the electron transfer reactions occurring when metals react with dilute hydrochloric and dilute sulfuric acids. Half-equations help us understand the electron transfer process between metals and non-metals. Generally: metals lose electrons to form metal ions (cations) non-metals gain electrons to form non-metal ions (anions) hydrogen ions gain electrons to form hydrogen gas. Using these generalisations, we can write half-equations for the reactions between metals and dilute acids. Half-equations must be balanced in terms of atoms and charges. Example: Reaction of aluminium with hot sulfuric acid Aluminium atoms will lose three electrons and the hydrogen ions will gain two electrons. 3 Electron loss: Al(s) > Al +(aq) + 3e Electron gain: 2H+(aq) + 2e > H2(g) To balance the electrons, multiply half-equation (1) by 2 and halfequation (2) by 3, and then add the two half-equations. Check that the atoms and charges balance. Electron loss: 2Al(s) > 2Al3+(aq) + 6e + Electron gain: 6H (aq) + 6e > 3H2(g) Ionic equation: 2Al(s) + 6H+(aq) > 2Al3+(aq) + 3H2(g)

Identify the reaction of metals with acids as requiring the transfer of electrons Oxidation is losing electrons O.I.L (Electrons on the right) [Reductant] Reduction is gaining electrons R.I.G (Electrons on the left) [Oxidant]

Reactions with dilute acid Most metals react with dilute hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid to form hydrogen. We can write these

equation as:

o Balanced formulae equations- shows the whole balanced equation o Net ionic equations- shows only the ionic species that undergo change o Complete ionic equations- shows all the ions involved in the solutions used for the reaction. For example when aluminium reacts with Hydrochloric acid we get: o 2AI2+ + 6HCI > 2AlCI3+ + 3H2 o 2AI + 6H + 6CI- > 2AI3+ + 6CI- + 3H2 o 2AI + 6H+ > 2AI 3++ 3H2

Outline examples of the selection of metals for different purposes based on their reactivity, with a particular emphasis on current developments in the use of metals 1. Magnesium: Used as a sacrificial layer. The magnesium is galvanised, over the layer of steel on the underside of ships. Because of the reactivity, magnesium will corrode before the steel. 2. Calcium: In vacuum tubes, calcium is used, where air must not be present. The calcium will react the oxygen forming calcium oxygen which will no longer affect the vacuum tubes application. 3. Tin and chromium: Both metals are used to coat another metal to create a shiny appearance.

Outline the relationship between the relative activities of metals and their positions on the Periodic Table For alkali and alkaline earth metals: 1. Left is more reactive than right 2. Down is more reactive than up 3. Left-right is more dominant than down-up 4. Therefore, potassium is the most reactive (most down and most left) and magnesium is the least reactive (most top and most right) 5. Trends are non-existent for transitional metals Identif y the imp orta nce of first ioni sati on ene rgy in dete rmi nin g the rela tive reac

tivit y of met als I o n i s a t i o n e n e r g y i s t h e a m o u n t e n e r g y r e q u i

r e d t o r e m o v e a n e l e c t r o n . T h e m o r e i o n i s a t i o n e n

e r g y l e v e l s , t h e h i g h e r t h e e n e r g y i s r e q u i r e d t

o r e m o v e t h e e l e c t r o n d u e t o t h e p r o t o n : e l e c t r o

n r a t i o . A s m o r e e l e c t r o n s a r e r e m o v e d ( i o n i s a t i

o n e n e r g y l e v e l s ) , t h e r e i s a n i n c r e a s i n g p r o t o n

c h a r g e i n t h e n u c l e u s a n d h e n c e a g r e a t e r p o s i t

i v e p u l l . T h e r e f o r e , t h e r e m a i n i n g e l e c t r o n s w i l

l f e e l a g r e a t e r p o s i t i v e c h a r g e a n d b e m o r e c l o

s e l y a t t r a c t e d t o t h e n u c l e u s d u e t o t h e l o w e r e

l e c t r o n p o p u l a t i o n . B e c a u s e o f t h i s , m o r e r e a c t i v

e m e t a l s , s u c h a s s o d i u m , w i l l h a v e a 1
s t

I o n i s a

t i o n E n e r g y l e v e l b e c a u s e i t i s r e a d y t o l o s e t h

e l o n e e l e c t r o n i n i t s v a l e n c e s h e l l . F i r s t i o n i s

a t i o n e n e r g y i n c r e a s e s a c r o s s a p e r i o d a s e l e c t r

o n s h e l l s g o f r o m e m p t y t o f u l l F i r s t i o n i s a t i o n

d e c r e a s e s d o w n a g r o u p a s e l e c t r o n s g o f u r t h e r a

w a y f r o m n u c l e u s . H e n c e w h y p o t a s s i u m i s m o r e r e

a c t i v e t h a n l i t h i u m Identify an appropriate model that has been developed to describe the atomic structure The modern atomic model At the centre of the atom is a positively charged nucleus consisting of neutral charged neutrons and positively charged protons Around the nucleus are negatively charged electrons

Outline the history of the developments of the Periodic Table including its origins, the original data used to construct it and the predictions made after its construction In 1789, Antoine Lavoisier published a table of 33 elements. 1. Contained some compounds which at that time could not be broken down into simpler substances 2. Divided his table into metals and non-metals In 1817 and 1829, Johann Dobereiner observed the chemical similarities between certain groups of 3 elements called triads. In 1864, Meyer arranged that elements in order of increasing atomic mass and placed them in groups based on their valency. In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev arranged the elements in horizontal rows in order of increasing atomic mass. Elements with similar properties were arranged in vertical columns in the table. Mendeleev was also able to make accurate predictions about elements that bad not been discovered by leaving gaps. In 1913, Henry Moseley proposed the concept of atomic number to fix the irregularities in Mendeleevs table. It was eventually determined that atomic number determines the chemical properties rather than atomic mass.

Explain the relationship between the position of elements in the Periodic Table, and their properties. Trend electrical conductivity

Physical Property Electrical Conductivity

Definition A materials ability to conduct electric currents The energy required to remove an electron from an gaseous atom. Inner electron shells also reduces the energy needed for ionisation. The radius of an atom. It depends on the number of electron shells and the size of the nucleus charge Melting point is when the element turns into an liquid. Boiling point is when an element turns into an liquid. The metallic bond is strongest in the transition metals. the combining power of an element that it will combine with A measure of the electron-attracting ability of an element. The rate at which a chemical substance tends to undergo a chemical reaction in time.

Across a Period Generally decreases as elements become less metallic. Non-metals have no free mobile electrons Increases because the atomic radius decreases across the period so the valence electrons are closer to the nucleus

Down A group Generally increases as elements become more metallic (except group III)

Ionisation Energy

Decreases because the atomic radius increases hence meaning there are more electron shells. The outer shell electrons are weaker attracted to the nucleus.

Atomic Radius

Decreases as the valence shell moves closer towards the increasingly positive nucleus

Increases as the number of electron shell increases

Meting Point and Boiling Point

increases in groups I to IV decreases as the lattice changes from metallic to covalent network and then covalent molecular

decreases in groups I to IV increases in groups V to VIII generally increases for transition metals

Combining Power (Valency)

Electronegativity

Maximum valency increases from groups I to VII, in which group number equals maximum valency. increases as the metallic character decreases

Maximum valency is constant and equal to the group number (except for group VIII with a valency of 0). decreases as the metallic character decreases

Reactivity

Each period starts with a reactive metal and ends with an unreactive noble gas.

increases down groups I and II. decreases down the group of transition metals. decreases down groups III and IV for soft metals. generally decreases down groups V to VII for non-metals. increases down the group of noble gases.

Hence, most reactive elements at bottom left and least reactive elements at top right

Moles The unit of measurement for the amount of substance or chemical amount. 23 12g of the carbon-12 isotope contains 6.02210 atoms which is 1 mole The moles of an substance = mass/molar mass isotopes o Each of 2 or more forms of the same element contain equal numbers of protons but different amount of neutrons. Molar mass o The mass of an element per mole of its atom. E.g. the molar mass of water, (H 20 ) is 1.008+1.008 +16) = 18.061g/mol

compare mass changes in samples of metals when they combine with oxygen Law of conservation of mass: matter can neither be created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction 2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s) (using the periodic table to find the elements masses) 1. 224.305 + 2x15.999 2(24.305 + 15.999) 2. 80.608 80.608 3. LHS = RHS, therefore it obeys the law of conservation

Describe the contribution of Gay-Lussac to the understanding of gaseous reactions and apply this to an understanding of the mole concept Gases combine in simple whole number ratios; Stoichiometric Ratio

Derives chemical equations and finds moles

Recount Avogadros law and describe its importance in developing the mole concept Avogadros law states that equal volumes of gases, at the same temperature and pressure, contain equal number of molecules 1. The number of molecules in equal volume of gases is independent of size or mass. 2. If each gas has the same volume and under the same conditions, they will contain the same amount of molecules 3. E.g. hydrogen + chlorine > hydrogen chloride. 1 litre + 1 litre > 2 litres 4. 1 mole of any gas is 24.79L at SLC or 25 degrees 5. 1 mole of any gas is 22.71L at 0 degrees

Distinguish between empirical formulae and molecular formulae An empirical formula shows the ratio in which atoms are present in a compound A molecular formula shows how many of each type of atom are present To change between molecular and empirical, Determine the molecular formula If it is written structurally, convert it to standard Write the new equation

E.g. hydrogen peroxide 1. Molecular formula = H2O2 2. All subscripts divided by 2 or lowest common factor 3. Empirical = HO

How to create an empirical formula from mass or percentage composition 1. Create a chart with six columns, and the number of rows should be equal to the number of element in the compound. 2. In the first column write the elements. 3. In the second column write the percent composition of each element. 4. Using the percent composition as the mass, divide each by the molecular mass of the respective element. 5. Divide each of those numbers by the smallest of the numbers in that column to reduce the ratio. Example: Determine the empirical formula for a compound containing 74.0% carbon (C), 8.65% hydrogen (H), and 17.3% nitrogen (N) by mass. element percentage % / molar mass Divide by largest Round up denominator C= 74% 74/12 6.16/1.24 4.96 5 H= 8.65% 8.65/1.01 8.56/1.24 6.9 7 N= 17.3% 17.3/14.01 1.24/1.24 1 1 Therefore the formula is C5H7N

Examples: A 9.2 gram sample of a compound is 2.8 grams nitrogen and 6.4 grams oxygen. Find the empirical formula of the compound. element Mass over total percentage N= 2.8/9.2 30% O= 6.4/9.2 70% Therefore the empirical formula is NO2 Percentage/mm 30/14.0 70/16

2.143/2.143 4.375/2.143

1 2.04

1 2

Define the terms mineral and ore with reference to economic and non-economic deposits of

natural resources An ore is a deposit of minerals that contains metal(s) that are considered valuableenough to be mined Minerals are naturally occurring solid homogeneous inorganic that contain a metal(s) that are deemed valuable Describe the relationship between the commercial prices of common metals, their actual abundances and relative costs of production Abundance: 1. A mineral must be sufficiently concentrated in the ore body to make it economically viable to extract. If the concentration is low, it is usually not economical, as the costs of extraction and production are greater than the value of the mineral obtained. Cost of production: 1. Companies need to determine the cost of mining, milling and extracting a metal from its ore. This would impact upon the final price; transportation costs may also vary due to the remoteness of some ore bodies. The location can also affect the price as there may be a lot of energy/water or the site may be environmentally protected. Common metals: Some metals are more expensive to extract than others due to higher energy costs involved. For example, aluminium is more expensive to extract than copper due to the high cost of the electrolytic process used to make aluminium. Explain why ores are non-renewable resources Ores are non-renewable resources as they were formed when the earth was formed and there is no way of forming more ores. Also, the rates at which humans are using these ores are much faster than the rate that these ores are formed in the earth. Therefore our consumption of these ores is much greater than their production, resulting in the classification of ores as non-renewable resources.

Describe the separation processes, chemical reactions and energy considerations involved in the extraction of copper from one of its ores Extraction of copper from copper sulphide ores Mining and Milling: Ores are mined from the earth and crushed, which are both physical methods of separation. The ores are merely reduced in particle size. Froth Floatation: With the ore in smaller particle size, froth floatation can be used to remove impurities called gangue. In this physical separation technique, bubble are agitated in a solution of water and detergent. The copper particles cling onto these bubbles and are skimmed off. Roasting: The copper is then roasted with sand and air. It is subjected to high temperatures. A chemical separation technique involves the chemical reaction of sand (SiO 2) combining with iron oxide (FeO) impurities to form a compound called a silicate (SiO3). o 2CuFeS2(s) + 4O2(g) > Cu2S(l) + 2FeO(s) + 3SO2(g) Smelting: Like roasting, smelting is a chemical separation technique that subjects the copper to high temperatures with carbon and air. The copper concentrate reacts with oxygen in the hot air to remove the sulphur as sulphur dioxide (SO 2). This leaves copper of 98% purity which is called blister copper.

o FeO(s) + SiO2(s) FeSiO3(l) Electrolytic Refining: The copper is transported to a facility that refines copper using electricity, which is a chemical separation technique. The blister copper anode gradually dissolves and pure copper deposits on the cathode. Impurities that give up electrons less readily than copper fall to the bottom. This leaves the copper 99.99% pure. 2+ o Anode: Cu(s) Cu > (aq) + 2e o Cathode: Cu2+(aq) + 2e > Cu(s) Energy considerations: 1. Froth floatation requires very little energy 2. Roasting requires little fuel since the reaction is strongly exothermic (gives out heat). It releases energy that can be useful in returning some energy. 3. Electrolysis process requires a high amount of energy since it is using electricity 4. Since copper is so reactive with other elements, it requires more energy to separate them. Elements such as gold require very little energy since no other elements are combined with gold. Recounts the steps taken to recycle aluminium 1. Aluminium is collected from recycling bins 2. The aluminium is transported to a recycling plant/facility 3. Differ the aluminium from its alloys and aluminium metal 4. Aluminium products are deposited in a furnace where they are subjected to very high temperatures. This process purifies the metal, as it removes the impurities based on melting points. 5. Analyse the purity of the aluminium and adjust it composition before casting it into ingots. 6. The solution, pure aluminium, is remoulded into the desired product and sold to companies that need it.