1

1.INTRODUCTION
A Stirling engine is a heat engine operating by cyclic compression and expansion o air or other gas! the "or#ing l$id! at di erent temperat$re le%els s$ch that there is a net con%ersion o heat energy to mechanical "or# &i#e the steam engine! the Stirling engine is traditionally classi ied as an external comb$stion engine! as all heat trans ers to and rom the "or#ing l$id ta#e place thro$gh the engine "all. This contrasts "ith an internal comb$stion engine "here heat inp$t is by comb$stion o a $el "ithin the body o the "or#ing l$id. Unli#e a steam engine's (or more generally a Ran#ine cycle engine's) $sage o a "or#ing l$id in both its li*$id and gaseo$s phases! the Stirling engine encloses a ixed *$antity o permanently gaseo$s l$id s$ch as air. Typical o heat engines! the general cycle consists o compressing cool gas! heating the gas! expanding the hot gas! and inally cooling the gas be ore repeating the cycle. The e iciency o the process is narro"ly restricted by the e iciency o the Carnot cycle! "hich depends on the temperat$re di erence bet"een the hot and cold reser%oir. Originally concei%ed in 1+1, as an ind$strial prime mo%er to ri%al the steam engine! its practical $se "as largely con ined to lo"-po"er domestic applications or o%er a cent$ry. The Stirling engine is noted or its high e iciency compared to steam engines!*$iet operation! and the ease "ith "hich it can $se almost any heat so$rce. This compatibility "ith alternati%e and rene"able energy so$rces has become increasingly signi icant as the price o con%entional $els rises! and also in light o concerns s$ch as pea# oil and climate change. This engine is c$rrently exciting interest as the core component o micro combined heat and po"er (C./) $nits! in "hich it is more e icient and sa er than a comparable steam engine.

1.1 NA12 AND D23INITION

Robert Stirling "as the Scottish in%entor o the irst practical example o a closed cycle air engine in 1+1,! and it "as s$ggested by 3leeming 4en#in as early as 1++5 that all s$ch engines sho$ld there ore generically be called Stirling engines. This naming proposal o$nd little a%o$r! and the %ario$s types on the mar#et contin$ed to be #no"n by the name o their indi%id$al designers or man$ act$rers! e.g. Rider's! Robinson's! or .einrici's (hot) air engine. In the 1657s! the /hilips company "as see#ing a s$itable name or its o"n %ersion o the 'air engine'! "hich by that time had been tested "ith "or#ing l$ids other than air! and decided $pon 'Stirling engine' in April 1658. .o"e%er! nearly thirty years later 9raham :al#er "as still bemoaning the act s$ch terms as 'hot air engine' contin$ed to be $sed interchangeably "ith 'Stirling engine'! "hich itsel "as applied "idely and indiscriminately. The sit$ation has no" impro%ed some"hat! at least in academic literat$re! and it is no" generally accepted 'Stirling engine' sho$ld re er excl$si%ely to a closed-cycle regenerati%e heat engine "ith a permanently gaseo$s "or#ing l$id! "here closed-cycle is de ined as a thermodynamic system in "hich the "or#ing the regenerator. It ollo"s rom the closed cycle operation the Stirling engine is an external comb$stion engine that isolates its "or#ing l$id rom the energy inp$t s$pplied by an external heat so$rce. There are many possible implementations o the Stirling engine most o "hich all into the category o reciprocating piston engine. l$id is permanently contained "ithin the system! and regenerati%edescribes the $se o a speci ic type o internal heat exchanger and thermal store! #no"n as

.ISTOR<

The Stirling engine (or Stirling's air engine as it "as #no"n at the time) "as in%ented and patented by Robert Stirling in 1+1,. It ollo"ed earlier attempts at ma#ing an air engine b$t "as probably the irst to be p$t to practical $se "hen in 1+1+ an engine b$ilt by Stirling "as employed p$mping "ater in a *$arry. On September 0=! 1+1,! Ch$rch o Scotland minister Robert Stirling applied or a patent or his economiser in 2dinb$rgh! Scotland. The de%ice "as in the orm o an in%erted beam engine! and incorporated the characteristic phase shi t bet"een the displacer and piston that "e see in all Stirling 2ngines today. The engine also eat$red the cyclic heating and cooling o the internal gas by means o an external heat so$rce! b$t the de%ice "as not yet #no"n as a Stirling 2ngine. That name "as coined nearly one h$ndred years later by D$tch engineer Rol 1ei>er to describe all types o closed cycle regenerati%e gas engines. Stirling engines are $ni*$e among heat engines beca$se they ha%e a %ery high theoretical Carnot e iciency! in act it is almost e*$al to their theoretical maxim$m Carnot e iciency. Stirling engines are po"ered by the expansion (heating) and contraction (cooling) o gas. The ixed amo$nt o gas inside a Stirling engine is trans erred bac# and orth bet"een a hot end and a cold end! "hich cyclically expands and contracts the gas.Robert Stirling contin$ed to "or# on his engines thro$gho$t his li e. In the 1+07's he "as >oined by his yo$nger brother 4ames! "hose ma>or contrib$tion "as to s$ggest press$ri?ing the internal gas to increase the po"er o$tp$t. 3$rther impro%ed design patents "ere applied or in 1+0= and 1+57.

3ig-1@basic stirlig engine The main s$b>ect o Stirling's original patent "as a heat exchanger "hich he called an AeconomiserA or its enhancement o $el economy in a %ariety o applications. The patent also described in detail the employment o one orm o the economiser in his $ni*$e closed-cycle air engine design in "hich application it is no" generally #no"n as a 'regenerator'. S$bse*$ent de%elopment by Robert Stirling and his brother 4ames! an engineer! res$lted in patents or %ario$s impro%ed con ig$rations o the original engine incl$ding press$ri?ation "hich had by 1+5; s$ iciently increased po"er o$tp$t to dri%e all the machinery at a D$ndee iron o$ndry. Tho$gh it has been disp$ted it is "idely s$pposed that as "ell as sa%ing $el the in%entors "ere moti%ated to create a sa er alternati%e to the steam engines o the time! "hose boilers re*$ently exploded ca$sing many in>$ries and atalities. The need or Stirling engines to r$n at %ery high temperat$res to maximi?e po"er and e iciency exposed limitations in the materials o the day and the e" engines that "ere b$ilt in those early years s$ ered $nacceptably re*$ent ail$res (albeit "ith ar less disastro$s conse*$ences than a boiler explosion) B or example! the D$ndee o$ndry engine "as replaced by a steam engine a ter three hot cylinder ail$res in o$r years.

1.0.1 &ater nineteenth cent$ry

A typical late nineteenthCearly t"entieth cent$ry "ater p$mping engine by the Rider-2ricsson 2ngine Company S$bse*$ent to the ail$re o the D$ndee o$ndry engine there is no record o the Stirling brothers ha%ing any $rther in%ol%ement "ith air engine de%elopment and the Stirling engine ne%er again competed "ith steam as an ind$strial scale po"er so$rce (steam boilers "ere becoming sa er and steam engines more e icient! th$s presenting less o a target to ri%al prime mo%ers). .o"e%er! rom abo$t 1+,7 smaller engines o the StirlingChot air type "ere prod$ced in s$bstantial n$mbers inding applications "here%er a reliable so$rce o lo" to medi$m po"er "as re*$ired! s$ch as raising "ater or pro%iding air or ch$rch organs. These generally operated at lo"er temperat$res so as not to tax a%ailable materials! so "ere relati%ely ine icient. D$t their selling point "as that! $nli#e a steam engine! they co$ld be operated sa ely by anybody capable o managing a ire. Se%eral types remained in prod$ction beyond the end o the cent$ry! b$t apart rom a e" minor mechanical impro%ements the design o the Stirling engine in general stagnated d$ring this period.

1.0.0 T"entieth cent$ry re%i%al

D$ring the early part o the t"entieth cent$ry the role o the Stirling engine as a Adomestic motorA "as grad$ally ta#en o%er by the electric motor and small internal comb$stion engines. Dy the late 16;7s it "as largely orgotten! only prod$ced or toys and a e" small %entilating ans. At this time /hilips "as see#ing to expand sales o its radios into parts o the "orld "here mains electricity "as $na%ailable and the s$pply o batteries $ncertain. /hilips' management decided that o ering a lo"-po"er portable generator "o$ld acilitate s$ch sales and tas#ed a gro$p o engineers at the company's research lab in 2indho%en to e%al$ate alternati%e "ays o achie%ing this aim. A ter a systematic comparison o %ario$s prime mo%ers! the team decided to go or"ard "ith the Stirling engine! citing its *$iet operation (both a$dibly and in terms o radio inter erence) and ability to r$n on a %ariety o heat so$rces (common lamp oil E Acheap and a%ailable e%ery"hereA E "as a%o$red). They "ere also a"are that! $nli#e steam and internal comb$stion engines! %irt$ally no serio$s de%elopment "or# had been carried o$t on the Stirling engine or many years and asserted that modern materials and #no"-ho" sho$ld enable great impro%ements. 2nco$raged by their irst experimental engine! "hich prod$ced 1, : o sha t po"er rom a bore and stro#e o ;7mm F 08mm! %ario$s de%elopment models "ere prod$ced in a program "hich contin$ed thro$gho$t :orld :ar II. Dy the late 1657s the 'Type 17' "as ready to be handed o%er to /hilips' s$bsidiary 4ohan de :itt in Dordrecht to be prod$ctionised and incorporated into a generator set as originally planned. The res$lt!

rated at 1+7C077 : electrical o$tp$t rom a bore and stro#e o 88 mm x 0= mm! "as designated 1/1770CA (#no"n as the AD$ngalo" setA). /rod$ction o an initial batch o 087 began in 1681! b$t it became clear that they co$ld not be made at a competiti%e price besides "hich the ad%ent o transistor radios "ith their m$ch lo"er po"er re*$irements meant that the original rationale or the set "as disappearing. Approximately 187 o these sets "ere e%ent$ally prod$ced. Some o$nd their "ay into $ni%ersity and college engineering departments aro$nd the "orld gi%ing generations o st$dents a %al$able introd$ction to the Stirling engine. /hilips "ent on to de%elop experimental Stirling engines or a "ide %ariety o applications and contin$ed to "or# in the ield $ntil the late 16=7s! b$t only achie%ed commercial s$ccess "ith the 're%ersed Stirling engine' cryocooler. .o"e%er! they iled a large n$mber o patents and amassed a "ealth o in ormation! "hich they licensed to other companies and "hich ormed the basis o m$ch o the de%elopment "or# in the modern era.

1.0.; /ro essor I%o Golin

2arly in 16+;! /ro essor I%o Golin o the Uni%ersity o Hagreb! Croatia! demonstrated the %ery irst lo" temperat$re di erential Stirling engine to an ama?ed a$dience. This engine ran on a temperat$re di erence o 177IC! "hich at the time "as an astonishingly lo" ig$re. The demonstrated engine ran or a long time as the temperat$re di erential lo"ered! e%ent$ally stopping "hen the di erence dropped belo" 07IC. This eat "as all the more remar#able "hen yo$ consider the engine "as constr$cted entirely "ith hand tools. The engine had no po"er piston and cylinder! instead relying on a r$bber diaphragm to transmit the po"er rom the s*$are main chamber. A eat$re o this engine "as the 'slip-lin#'! a de%ice or imparting an intermittent motion to the displacer inside the main chamber. At the lo" speed that this engine ran at! a d"ell at each end o the displacer stro#e "as %ery bene icial. D$ring the 16+7's! /ro essor Golin contin$ed to re ine his lo" temperat$re engines! still relying on a diaphragm b$t simpli ying the original complex displacer dri%e mechanisms

1.0.5 /ro essor 4ames Sen t

D$ring the late 16+7's and the early 1667's /ro essor Sen t o the Uni%ersity o :isconsin too# $p the idea o lo" temperat$re di erential Stirling engines. The irst models he prod$ced "ere Ringbom engines! "here there is no direct connection bet"een the ly"heel and the displacer! the Ringbom engine is reliant on the changing press$re inside the main chamber to mo%e the displacer bac# and orth. /ro essor Sen t! "or#ing closely "ith /ro essor Golin! contin$ed "or#ing "ith stirling engines! "or#ing o$t many o the design sol$tions that are $sed today in lo" temperat$re di erential Stirling engines. In 1660 /ro essor Sen t "as as#ed to design and b$ild a lo" temperat$re di erential engine or NASA. This engine! called the N-60! "as optimised or hand held operation! "ith a temperat$re di erence as lo" as ,IC eno$gh to po"er it. /ro essor Sen t contin$es to "or# "ith Stirling 2ngines! and has "ritten se%eral boo#s detailing the history and man$ act$re o Stirling engines.

1.0.8Gontax 2ngineering &td

The GS range o lo" temperat$re di erential Stirling engines "as designed and de%eloped in 2ngland in 0770! and has been in contin$al prod$ction e%er since. Gontax $se modern prod$ction machinery to man$ act$re most o the parts inho$se! "hich allo"s or %ery strict *$ality control.

Starting in 16+,! In inia Corporation began de%eloping both highly reliable p$lsed ree-piston Stirling engines! and thermoaco$stic coolers $sing related technology. The p$blished design $ses lex$ral bearings and hermetically sealed .eli$m gas cycles! to achie%e tested reliabilities exceeding 07 years. As o 0717! the corporation had amassed more than ;7 patents! and de%eloped a n$mber o commercial prod$cts or both combined heat and po"er! and solar po"er. 1ore recently! NASA has considered n$clear-decay heated Stirling 2ngines or extended missions to the o$ter solar system.

1.0., The 3$t$re

Deca$se Stirling 2ngines are able to operate rom a "ide %ariety o heat so$rces they ha%e attracted a lot o attention in today's energy conscio$s "orld. Ine icient comb$stion o $el need not ta#e place in a Stirling engine po"er plant! the comb$stion can ta#e place externally th$s allo"ing or harm $l emissions to be controlled and drastically red$ced. 1any co$ntries and instit$tions are no" researching Stirling 2ngines. In co$ntries that ha%e a lot o geothermal acti%ity! s$ch as Ne" Healand! Stirling engines are seen as a %iable alternati%e to ossil $els and n$clear po"er. Stirling 2ngine po"ered %ehicles are being in%estigated. Units designed to extract po"er rom the "aste heat generated by domestic gas- ired boilers ha%e been b$ilt. Stirling 2ngine applications are being in%estigated by NASA! or $se in space cra t. :ith the recent rati ication o the Gyoto /rotocol by 151 co$ntries! Stirling 2ngines "o$ld seem per ectly placed to ta#e $p the challenge presented by an energy conscio$s "orld. Stirling engine i modi ied or ne" generation by o$r engineers!then "e can expect that it "ill be one o the greatest inno%ations in engines! especially in the sector o a$to mobiles. :e #no" that i "e contin$e the $se o petrol and diesel li#e this "ithin 107 years this "ill to a end o non rene"able reso$rces. So that the present a$tomobiles and other non rene"able reso$rce based engines "ill become $seless or a "aste. Then imagine the si?e o the >$n# yard that is going to be illed by these "astes in $t$re.

0.G2< CO1/ON2NTS

1..eat so$rce 0..eater or .ot side heat exchanger ;.regenerator 5.Cooler or cold side heat exchanger 8..eat sin# ,.displacer

0.1

.2AT SOURC2

The heat so$rce may be pro%ided by the comb$stion o a $el and! since the comb$stion prod$cts do not mix "ith the "or#ing l$id and hence do not come into contact "ith the internal parts o the engine! a Stirling engine can r$n on $els that "o$ld damage other types o engines' internals! s$ch as land ill gas "hich contains siloxane. Other s$itable heat so$rces are concentrated solar energy! geothermal energy! n$clear energy! "aste heat! or e%en biological. I the heat so$rce is solar po"er! reg$lar solar mirrors and solar dishes may be $sed. Also! resnel lenses and mirrors ha%e been ad%ocated to be $sed ( or example! or planetary s$r ace exploration). Solar po"ered Stirling engines are becoming increasingly pop$lar! as they are a %ery en%ironmentally so$nd option or prod$cing po"er. Also! some designs are economically attracti%e in de%elopment pro>ects.

0.0 .2AT2RC.OT SID2 .2AT 2JC.AN92R

In small! lo" po"er engines this may simply consist o the "alls o the hot space(s) b$t "here larger po"ers are re*$ired a greater s$r ace area is needed in order to trans er s$ icient heat. Typical implementations are internal and external ins or m$ltiple small bore t$bes Designing Stirling engine heat exchangers is a balance bet"een high heat trans er "ith lo" %isco$s p$mping losses and lo" dead space ($ns"ept internal %ol$me). :ith engines operating at high po"ers and press$res!

17

the heat exchangers on the hot side m$st be made o alloys that retain considerable strength at temperat$re and that "ill also not corrode or creep.

0.; R292N2RATOR
In a Stirling engine! the regenerator is an internal heat exchanger and temporary heat store placed bet"een the hot and cold spaces s$ch that the "or#ing l$id passes thro$gh it irst in one direction then the other. Its $nction is to retain "ithin the system that heat "hich "o$ld other"ise be exchanged "ith the en%ironment at temperat$res intermediate to the maxim$m and minim$m cycle temperat$res! th$s enabling the thermal e iciency o the cycle to approach the limiting Carnot e iciency de ined by those maxima and minima. The primary e ect o regeneration in a Stirling engine is to increase the thermal e iciency by 'recycling' internal heat "hich "o$ld other"ise pass thro$gh the engine irre%ersibly. As a secondary e ect! increased thermal e iciency yields a higher po"er o$tp$t rom a gi%en set o hot and cold end heat exchangers. It is these "hich $s$ally limit the engine's heat thro$ghp$t. In practice this additional po"er may not be $lly reali?ed as the additional Adead spaceA ($n s"ept %ol$me) and p$mping loss inherent in practical regenerators red$ces the potential e iciency gains rom regeneration. The design challenge or a Stirling engine regenerator is to pro%ide s$ icient heat trans er capacity "itho$t introd$cing too m$ch additional internal %ol$me ('dead space') or lo" resistance. These inherent design con licts are one o many actors "hich limit the e iciency o practical Stirling engines. A typical design is a stac# o trans er. The regenerator is the #ey component in%ented by Robert Stirling and its presence disting$ishes a tr$e Stirling engine rom any other closed cycle hot air engine. 1any small 'toy' Stirling engines! partic$larly lo"temperat$re di erence (&TD) types! do not ha%e a distinct regenerator component and might be considered hot air engines! ho"e%er a small amo$nt o regeneration is pro%ided by the s$r ace o displacer itsel and the nearby cylinder "all! or similarly the passage connecting the hot and cold cylinders o an alpha con ig$ration engine. ine metal "ire meshes! "ith lo" porosity to red$ce dead space! and "ith the "ire axes perpendic$lar to the gas lo" to red$ce cond$ction in that direction and to maximi?e con%ecti%e heat

11

0.5 COO&2RCCO&D SID2 .2AT 2JC.AN92R

In small! lo" po"er engines this may simply consist o the "alls o the cold space(s)! b$t "here larger po"ers are re*$ired a cooler $sing a li*$id li#e "ater is needed in order to trans er s$ icient heat

0.8 .2AT SING

The heat sin# is typically the en%ironment at ambient temperat$re. In the case o medi$m to high po"er engines! a radiator is re*$ired to trans er the heat rom the engine to the ambient air. 1arine engines can $se the ambient "ater. In the case o combined heat and po"er systems! the engine's cooling "ater is $sed directly or indirectly or heating p$rposes. Alternati%ely! heat may be s$pplied at ambient temperat$re and the heat sin# maintained at a lo"er temperat$re by s$ch means as cryogenic l$id (see &i*$id nitrogen economy) or iced "ater.

0., DIS/&AC2R

The displacer is a special-p$rpose piston! $sed in Deta and 9amma type Stirling engines! to mo%e the "or#ing gas bac# and orth bet"een the hot and cold heat exchangers. Depending on the type o engine design! the displacer may or may not be sealed to the cylinder! i.e. it is a loose it "ithin the cylinder and allo"s the "or#ing gas to pass aro$nd it as it mo%es to occ$py the part o the cylinder beyond. :hen there is a temperat$re di erence bet"een $pper space o the displacer and lo"er space o it! the engine press$re is changed by the mo%ement o the displacer. The press$re incl$se "hen the displacer is located $pper part o the cylinder. The press$re decrease "hen the displacer is located lo"er part o the cylinder. The displacer has a d$ty o displacing the air and changing the engine press$re. It does not ha%e a d$ty o operating the cran# sha t and the engine.

10

;. CON3I9URATIONS
There are t"o ma>or types o Stirling engines that are disting$ished by the "ay they mo%e the air bet"een the hot and cold sides o the cylinder@ 1. The t"o piston alpha type design has pistons in independent cylinders! and gas is dri%en bet"een the hot and cold spaces. 0. The displacement type Stirling engines! #no"n as beta and gamma types! $se an ins$lated mechanical displacer to p$sh the "or#ing gas bet"een the hot and cold sides o the cylinder. The displacer is large eno$gh to ins$late the hot and cold sides o the cylinder thermally and to displace a large *$antity o gas. It m$st ha%e eno$gh o a gap bet"een the displacer and the cylinder "all to allo" gas to lo" aro$nd the displacer easily.

;.1 A&/.A STIRI&IN9

An alpha Stirling contains t"o po"er pistons in separate cylinders! one hot and one cold. The hot cylinder is sit$ated inside the high temperat$re heat exchanger and the cold cylinder is sit$ated inside the lo" temperat$re heat exchanger. This type o engine has a high po"er-to-%ol$me ratio b$t has technical problems d$e to the $s$ally high temperat$re o the hot piston and the d$rability o its seals. In practice! this piston $s$ally carries a large ins$lating head to mo%e the seals a"ay rom the hot ?one at the expense o some additional dead space. The pistons rom each cylinder "ill be connected to a common cran#. In the ig$re belo" the red colored region represents the hot region and the bl$e colored region represents cold region. Using a s$itable heat so$rce the hot chamber is heated to any desire temperat$re "hile $sing s$itable heat

1;

exchanger the cold chamber is maintained at a desired lo" temperat$re. These t"o chambers "ill be connected $sing a cylinder li#e str$ct$re as sho"n in ig$re.

.ot chamber

Cold chamber

3ig$re-0@ Alpha stirling engine.

;.0 D2TA STIRI&IN9

A beta Stirling has a single po"er piston arranged "ithin the same cylinder on the same sha t as a displacer piston. The displacer piston is a loose it and does not extract any po"er rom the expanding gas

15

b$t only ser%es to sh$ttle the "or#ing gas rom the hot heat exchanger to the cold heat exchanger. :hen the "or#ing gas is p$shed to the hot end o the cylinder it expands and p$shes the po"er piston. :hen it is p$shed to the cold end o the cylinder it contracts and the moment$m o the machine! $s$ally enhanced by a ly"heel! p$shes the po"er piston the other "ay to compress the gas. Unli#e the alpha type! the beta type a%oids the technical problems o hot mo%ing seals.

piston

displacer

3ig$re-;@ Deta stirling engine.

;.; 9A11A STIRI&IN9

A gamma Stirling is simply a beta Stirling in "hich the po"er piston is mo$nted in a separate cylinder alongside the displacer piston cylinder! b$t is still connected to the same ly"heel. The gas in the t"o cylinders can lo" reely bet"een them and remains a single body. This con ig$ration prod$ces a lo"er compression ratio b$t is mechanically simpler and o ten $sed in m$lti-cylinder Stirling engines.

18

3ig$re-5@ 9amma stirling engine.

;.5 OT.2R T</2S

The hybrid bet"een piston and rotary con ig$ration is a do$ble acting engine. This design rotates the displacers on either side o the po"er piston There is also the rotary Stirling engine "hich see#s to con%ert po"er rom the Stirling cycle directly into tor*$e! similar to the rotary comb$stion engine. No practical engine has yet been b$ilt b$t a n$mber o concepts! models and patents ha%e been prod$ced or example theK$asit$rbine engine. Another alternati%e is the 3l$idyne engine (3l$idyne heat p$mp)! "hich $se hydra$lic pistons to implement the Stirling cycle. The "or# prod$ced by a 3l$idyne engine goes into p$mping the li*$id. In its simplest orm! the engine contains a "or#ing gas! a li*$id and t"o non-ret$rn %al%es. The Ringbom engine concept p$blished in 167= has no rotary mechanism or lin#age or the displacer. This is instead dri%en by a small a$xiliary piston! $s$ally a thic# displacer rod! "ith the mo%ement limited by stops.

1,

The t"o-cylinder stirling "ith Ross yo#e is a t"o-cylinder stirling engine (not positioned at 67I! b$t at 7I) connected "ith a special yo#e. The engine con ig$rationCyo#e set$p "as in%ented by Andy Ross (engineer). The 3ranchot engine is a do$ble acting engine in%ented by L3ranchotM in the nineteenth cent$ry. A do$ble acting engine is one "here both sides o the piston are acted $pon by the press$re o the "or#ing l$id. One o the simplest orms o a do$ble acting machine! the 3ranchot engine consists o t"o pistons and t"o cylinders and acts li#e t"o separate alpha machines. In the 3ranchot engine! each piston acts in t"o gas phases! "hich ma#es more e icient $se o the mechanical components than a single acting alpha machine. .o"e%er! a disad%antage o this machine is that one connecting rod m$st ha%e a sliding seal at the hot side o the engine! "hich is a di ic$lt tas# "hen dealing "ith high Other Stirling con ig$rations contin$e to interest engineers and in%entors. The hybrid bet"een piston and rotary con ig$ration is a do$ble acting engine. This design rotates the displacers on either side o the po"er piston There is also the rotary Stirling engine "hich see#s to con%ert po"er rom the Stirling cycle directly into tor*$e! similar to the rotary comb$stion engine. No practical engine has yet been b$ilt b$t a n$mber o concepts! models and patents ha%e been prod$ced or example theK$asit$rbine engine. Another alternati%e is the 3l$idyne engine (3l$idyne heat p$mp)! "hich $se hydra$lic pistons to implement the Stirling cycle. The "or# prod$ced by a 3l$idyne engine goes into p$mping the li*$id. In its simplest orm! the engine contains a "or#ing gas! a li*$id and t"o non-ret$rn %al%es. The Ringbom engine concept p$blished in 167= has no rotary mechanism or lin#age or the displacer. This is instead dri%en by a small a$xiliary piston! $s$ally a thic# displacer rod! "ith the mo%ement limited by stops. The t"o-cylinder stirling "ith Ross yo#e is a t"o-cylinder stirling engine (not positioned at 67I! b$t at 7I) connected "ith a special yo#e. The engine con ig$rationCyo#e set$p "as in%ented by Andy Ross (engineer) press$res and high temperat$res.

;.8 3R22 /ISTON 2N9IN2

1=

A3ree pistonA Stirling engines incl$de those "ith li*$id pistons and those "ith diaphragms as pistons. In a A ree pistonA de%ice! energy may be added or remo%ed by an electrical linear alternator! p$mp or other coaxial de%ice. This a%oids the need or a lin#age! and red$ces the n$mber o mo%ing parts. In some designs! riction and "ear are nearly eliminated by the $se o non-contact gas bearings or %ery precise s$spension thro$gh planar springs. 3o$r basic steps in the cycle o a N3ree pistonO Stirling engine! 1. The po"er piston is p$shed o$t"ards by the expanding gas th$s doing "or#. 9ra%ity plays no role in the cycle. 0. The gas %ol$me in the engine increases and there ore the press$re red$ces! "hich "ill ca$se a press$re di erence across the displacer rod to orce the displacer to"ards the hot end. :hen the displacer mo%es the piston is almost stationary and there ore the gas %ol$me is almost constant. This step res$lts in the constant %ol$me cooling process "hich red$ces the press$re o the gas. ;. The red$ced press$re no" arrests the o$t"ard motion o the piston and it begins to accelerate to"ards the hot end again and by its o"n inertia! compresses the no" cold gas "hich is mainly in the cold space. 5. As the press$re increases! a point is reached "here the press$re di erential across the displacer rod becomes large eno$gh to begin to p$sh the displacer rod (and there ore also the displacer) to"ards the piston and thereby collapsing the cold space and trans erring the cold! compressed gas to"ards the hot side in an almost constant %ol$me process. As the gas arri%es in the hot side the press$re increases and begins to mo%e the piston o$t"ards to initiate the expansion step as explained in (1). In the early 16,7s! :.T. Deale in%ented a ree piston %ersion o the Stirling engine in order to o%ercome the di ic$lty o l$bricating the cran# mechanism. :hile the in%ention o the basic ree piston Stirling engine is generally attrib$ted to Deale! independent in%entions o similar types o engines "ere made by 2... Coo#e<arboro$gh and C. :est at the .ar"ell &aboratories o the UGA2R2. 9.1. Denson also made important early contrib$tions and patented many no%el ree-piston con ig$rations. :hat appears to be the irst mention o a Stirling cycle machine $sing reely mo%ing components is a Dritish patent disclos$re in 1+=,. This machine "as en%isaged as a re rigerator (i.e.! the re%ersed Stirling cycle). The irst cons$mer prod$ct to $tili?e a ree piston Stirling de%ice "as a portable re rigerator man$ act$red by T"inbird Corporation o 4apan and o ered in the US by Coleman in 0775.

1+

5.T.2OR<

The idealised Stirling cycle consists o o$r thermodynamic processes acting on the "or#ing l$id@ The Stirling engine cycle is closed and it contains most commonly a ixed mass o gas called the A"or#ing l$idA (air! hydrogen or heli$m). The principle is that o thermal expansion and contraction o this l$id d$e to a temperat$re di erential. So the ideal Stirling cycle consists o o$r thermodynamics distinct processacting on the "or#ing l$id@ constant-temperat$re processes and t"o constant %ol$me processes. The process lines in the ig$re abo%e re lect the properties o an ideal gas. The main processes! li#e or most heat engines! are cooling! compression! heating and expansion. A Stirling engine operates thro$gh the $se o an external heat so$rce and an external heat sin# ha%ing a s$ iciently large temperat$re di erence bet"een them. Compared to the ideal cycle! the e iciency o a real engine is red$ced by irre%ersibilities! riction! and the loss o short-circ$it cond$cted heat! so that the o%erall e iciency is o ten only abo$t hal o the ideal (Carnot) e iciency. The gasses $sed inside a Stirling engine ne%er lea%e the engine. There are no exha$st %al%es that %ent highpress$re gasses! as in a gasoline or diesel engine! and there are no explosions ta#ing place.

16

3ig$re-8@Stirling cycle 1. /rocess 1-0 Isothermal Compression. The compression space and associated heat exchanger are maintained at a constant lo" temperat$re so the gas $ndergoes near-isothermal compression re>ecting heat to the cold sin#

0. /rocess 0-; Constant-Pol$me (#no"n as iso%ol$metric or isochoric) heat-addition. The gas passes
bac# thro$gh the regenerator "here it reco%ers m$ch o the heat trans erred ! heating $p on its "ay to the expansion space. ;. /rocess ;-5 Isothermal 2xpansion. The expansion-space and associated heat exchanger are maintained at a constant high temperat$re! and the gas $ndergoes near-isothermal expansion absorbing heat rom the hot so$rce. 5. /rocess 5-1 Constant-Pol$me (#no"n as iso%ol$metric or isochoric) heat-remo%al. The gas is passed thro$gh the regenerator! "here it cools trans erring heat to the regenerator or $se in the next cycle.

Theoretical thermal e iciency e*$als that o the hypothetical Carnot cycle - i.e. the highest e iciency attainable by any heat engine. .o"e%er! tho$gh it is $se $l or ill$strating general principles! the text boo# cycle is a long "ay rom representing "hat is act$ally going on inside a practical Stirling engine and sho$ld only be regarded as a starting point or analysis. In act it has been arg$ed that its indiscriminate $se in many

07

standard boo#s on engineering thermodynamics has done a disser%ice to the st$dy o Stirling engines in general. Other real-"orld iss$es red$ce the e iciency o act$al engines! d$e to limits o con%ecti%e heat trans er! and %isco$s lo" ( riction). There are also practical mechanical considerations! or instance a simple #inematic lin#age may be a%o$red o%er a more complex mechanism needed to replicate the ideali?ed cycle! and limitations imposed by a%ailable materials s$ch as non-ideal properties o the "or#ing gas! thermal cond$cti%ity! tensile strength! creep! r$pt$re strength! and melting point. A *$estion that o ten arises is "hether the ideal cycle "ith isothermal expansion and compression is in act the correct ideal cycle to apply to the Stirling engine. /ro essor C. 4. Rallis has pointed o$t that it is %ery di ic$lt to imagine any condition "here the expansion and compression spaces may approach isothermal beha%ior and it is ar more realistic to imagine these spaces as adiabatic. An ideal analysis "here the expansion and compression spaces are ta#en to be adiabatic "ith isothermal heat exchangers and per ect regeneration "as analy?ed by Rallis and presented as a better ideal yardstic# or Stirling machinery. .e called this cycle the 'pse$do-Stirling cycle' or 'ideal adiabatic Stirling cycle'. An important conse*$ence o this ideal cycle is that it does not predict Carnot e iciency. A $rther concl$sion o this ideal cycle is that maxim$m e iciencies are o$nd at lo"er compression ratios! a characteristic obser%ed in real machines. In an independent "or#! T. 3in#elstein also ass$med adiabatic expansion and compression spaces in his analysis o Stirling machinery.

8. O/2RATION

Since the Stirling engine is a closed cycle! it contains a ixed mass o gas called the A"or#ing l$idA! most commonly air! hydrogen or heli$m. In normal operation! the engine is sealed and no gas enters or lea%es the engine. No %al%es are re*$ired! $nli#e other types o piston engines. The Stirling engine! li#e most heat engines! cycles thro$gh o$r main processes@ cooling! compression! heating and expansion. This is accomplished by mo%ing the gas bac# and orth bet"een hot and cold heat exchangers! o ten "ith a regenerator bet"een the heater and cooler. The hot heat exchanger is in thermal contact "ith an external heat so$rce! s$ch as a $el b$rner! and the cold heat exchanger being in thermal contact "ith an external heat sin#! s$ch as air ins. A change in gas temperat$re "ill ca$se a corresponding change in gas press$re! "hile the motion o the piston ca$ses the gas to be alternately expanded and compressed.

01

3ig$re-,@ :or#ing o stirling engine The gas ollo"s the beha%io$r described by the gas la"s "hich describe ho" a gas press$re! temperat$re and %ol$me are related. :hen the gas is heated! beca$se it is in a sealed chamber! the press$re rises and this then acts on the po"er piston to prod$ce a po"er stro#e. :hen the gas is cooled the press$re drops and this means that less "or# needs to be done by the piston to compress the gas on the ret$rn stro#e! th$s yielding a net po"er o$tp$t. :hen one side o the piston is open to the atmosphere! the operation is slightly di erent. As the sealed %ol$me o "or#ing gas comes in contact "ith the hot side! it expands! doing "or# on both the piston and on the atmosphere. :hen the "or#ing gas contacts the cold side! its press$re drops belo" atmospheric press$re and the atmosphere p$shes on the piston and does "or# on the gas. To s$mmari?e! the Stirling engine $ses the temperat$re di erence bet"een its hot end and cold end to establish a cycle o a ixed mass o gas! heated and expanded! and cooled and compressed! th$s con%erting

00

thermal energy into mechanical energy. The greater the temperat$re di erence bet"een the hot and cold so$rces! the greater the thermal e iciency. The maxim$m theoretical e iciency is e*$i%alent to the Carnotcycle! ho"e%er the e iciency o real engines is less than this %al$e d$e to riction and other losses.

In a displacer type stirling engine yo$ ha%e one piston and one displacer. A temperat$re di erence is re*$ired bet"een the top and bottom o the large cylinder in order to r$n the engine. In the case o the lo"-temperat$re di erence (&TD) stirling engine! temperat$re di erence bet"een yo$r hand and the s$rro$nding air can be eno$gh to r$n the engine. The po"er piston in the displacer type stirling engine! is tightly sealed and is controlled to mo%e $p and do"n as the gas inside expands. The displacer on the other hand is %ery loosely itted so that air can mo%e reely bet"een the hot and cold sections o the engine as the piston mo%es $p and do"n. The displacer mo%es $p and do"n to control the heating and cooling o the gas in the engine. There are t"o positions! 1) :hen the displacer is near the top o the large cylinder.

Q Inside the engine most o the gas has been heated by the heat so$rce and it expands. This ca$ses the press$re to increase "hich orces the piston $p. 0) :hen the displacer is near the bottom o the large cylinder.

Q 1ost o the gas in the engine has no" cooled and contracts ca$sing the press$re to decrease! "hich in t$rn allo"s the piston to mo%e do"n and compress the gas.

8.1 /R2SSURIHATION
In most high po"er Stirling engines! both the minim$m press$re and mean press$re o the "or#ing l$id are abo%e atmospheric press$re. This initial engine press$ri?ation can be reali?ed by a p$mp! or by illing the engine rom a compressed gas tan#! or e%en >$st by sealing the engine "hen the mean temperat$re is lo"er than the mean operating temperat$re. All o these methods increase the mass o "or#ing l$id in the thermodynamic cycle. All o the heat exchangers m$st be si?ed appropriately to s$pply the necessary heat trans er rates. I the heat exchangers are "ell designed and can s$pply the heat l$x needed or con%ecti%e heat trans er! then the engine "ill in a irst approximation prod$ce po"er in proportion to the mean press$re! as predicted by the :est n$mber! and Deale n$mber. In practice! the maxim$m press$re is also limited to the sa e press$re o the press$re %essel. &i#e most aspects o Stirling engine design!

0;

optimi?ation is m$lti%ariate! and o ten has con licting re*$irements. A di ic$lty o press$ri?ation is that "hile it impro%es the po"er! the heat re*$ired increases proportionately to the increased po"er. This heat trans er is made increasingly di ic$lt "ith press$ri?ation since increased press$re also demands increased thic#nesses o the "alls o the engine "hich! in t$rn! increase the resistance to heat trans er.

8.0 3RICTION AND &UDRICATION

At high temperat$res and press$res! the oxygen in air-press$ri?ed cran#cases! or in the "or#ing gas o hot air engines! can combine "ith the engine's l$bricating oil and explode. At least one person has died in s$ch an explosion. &$bricants can also clog heat exchangers! especially the regenerator. 3or these reasons! designers pre er nonl$bricated! lo"-coe icient o riction materials (s$ch as r$lon or graphite)! "ith lo" normal orces on the mo%ing parts! especially or sliding seals. Some designs a%oid sliding s$r aces altogether by $sing diaphragms or sealed pistons. These are some o the actors that allo" Stirling engines to ha%e lo"er maintenance re*$irements and longer li e than internal-comb$stion engines.

,.ANA&<SIS

,.1 Comparison "ith internal comb$stion engines

05

In contrast to internal comb$stion engines! Stirling engines ha%e the potential to $se rene"able heat so$rces more easily! to be *$ieter! and to be more reliable "ith lo"er maintenance. They are pre erred or applications that %al$e these $ni*$e ad%antages! partic$larly i the cost per $nit energy generated (RC#:h) is more important than the capital cost per $nit po"er (RC#:). On this basis! Stirling engines are cost competiti%e $p to abo$t 177 #:. Compared to an internal comb$stion engine o the same po"er rating! Stirling engines c$rrently ha%e a higher capital cost and are $s$ally larger and hea%ier. .o"e%er! they are more e icient than most internal comb$stion engines. Their lo"er maintenance re*$irements ma#e the o%erall energy cost comparable. The thermal e iciency is also comparable ( or small engines)! ranging rom 18S to ;7S. T85U 3or applications s$ch as micro-C./! a Stirling engine is o ten pre erable to an internal comb$stion engine. Other applications incl$de "ater p$mping! astrona$tics! and electrical generation rom plenti $l energy so$rces that are incompatible "ith the internal comb$stion engine! s$ch as solar energy! and biomass s$ch as agric$lt$ral "aste and other "aste s$ch as domestic re $se. Stirlings ha%e also been $sed as a marine engine in S"edish 9otland-class s$bmarines. .o"e%er! Stirling engines are generally not price-competiti%e as an a$tomobile engine! d$e to high cost per $nit po"er! lo" po"er density and high material costs. Dasic analysis is based on the closed- orm Schmidt analysis

,.0 Ad%antages

Stirling engines can r$n directly on any a%ailable heat so$rce! not >$st one prod$ced by comb$stion! so they can r$n on heat rom solar! geothermal! biological! n$clear so$rces or "aste heat rom ind$strial processes. A contin$o$s comb$stion process can be $sed to s$pply heat! so those emissions associated "ith the intermittent comb$stion processes o a reciprocating internal comb$stion engine can be red$ced. 1ost types o Stirling engines ha%e the bearing and seals on the cool side o the engine! and they re*$ire less l$bricant and last longer than other reciprocating engine types. The engine mechanisms are in some "ays simpler than other reciprocating engine types. No %al%es are needed! and the b$rner system can be relati%ely simple. Cr$de Stirling engines can be made $sing common ho$sehold materials.

08

A Stirling engine $ses a single-phase "or#ing l$id "hich maintains an internal press$re close to the design press$re! and th$s or a properly designed system the ris# o explosion is lo". In comparison! a steam engine $ses a t"o-phase gasCli*$id "or#ing l$id! so a a$lty release %al%e can ca$se an explosion. In some cases! lo" operating press$re allo"s the $se o light"eight cylinders. They can be b$ilt to r$n *$ietly and "itho$t an air s$pply! or air-independent prop$lsion $se in s$bmarines. They start easily (albeit slo"ly! a ter "arm$p) and r$n more e iciently in cold "eather! in contrast to the internal comb$stion "hich starts *$ic#ly in "arm "eather! b$t not in cold "eather. A Stirling engine $sed or p$mping "ater can be con ig$red so that the "ater cools the compression space. This is most e ecti%e "hen p$mping cold "ater. They are extremely lexible. They can be $sed as C./ (combined heat and po"er) in the "inter and as coolers in s$mmer. :aste heat is easily har%ested (compared to "aste heat rom an internal comb$stion engine) ma#ing Stirling engines $se $l or d$al-o$tp$t heat and po"er systems.

,.; DISADPANTA92S

Si?e and cost iss$es

Stirling engine designs re*$ire heat exchangers or heat inp$t and or heat o$tp$t! and these m$st contain the press$re o the "or#ing l$id! "here the press$re is proportional to the engine po"er o$tp$t. In addition! the expansion-side heat exchanger is o ten at %ery high temperat$re! so the materials m$st resist the corrosi%e e ects o the heat so$rce! and ha%e lo" creep (de ormation). Typically these material re*$irements s$bstantially increase the cost o the engine. The materials and assembly costs or a high temperat$re heat exchanger typically acco$nts or 57S o the total engine cost. All thermodynamic cycles re*$ire large temperat$re di erentials or e icient operation. In an external comb$stion engine! the heater temperat$re al"ays e*$als or exceeds the expansion temperat$re. This means that the metall$rgical re*$irements or the heater material are %ery demanding. This is similar

0,

to a 9as t$rbine! b$t is in contrast to an Otto engineer Diesel engine! "here the expansion temperat$re can ar exceed the metall$rgical limit o the engine materials! beca$se the inp$t heat so$rce is not cond$cted thro$gh the engine! so engine materials operate closer to the a%erage temperat$re o the "or#ing gas.

Dissipation o "aste heat is especially complicated beca$se the coolant temperat$re is #ept as lo" as possible to maximi?e thermal e iciency. This increases the si?e o the radiators! "hich can ma#e pac#aging di ic$lt. Along "ith materials cost! this has been one o the actors limiting the adoption o Stirling engines as a$tomoti%e prime mo%ers. 3or other applications s$ch as ship prop$lsion and stationary microgeneration systems $sing combined heat and po"er (C./) high po"er density is not re*$ired.

/o"er and tor*$e iss$es

Stirling engines! especially those that r$n on small temperat$re di erentials! are *$ite large or the amo$nt o po"er that they prod$ce (i.e.! they ha%e lo" speci ic po"er). This is primarily d$e to the heat trans er coe icient o gaseo$s con%ection "hich limits the heat l$x that can be attained in a typical cold heat exchanger to abo$t 877 :C(m0VG)! and in a hot heat exchanger to abo$t 877-8777 :C(m0VG). Compared "ith internal comb$stion engines! this ma#es it more challenging or the engine designer to trans er heat into and o$t o the "or#ing gas. Deca$se o the Thermal e iciency the re*$ired heat trans er gro"s "ith lo"er temperat$re di erence! and the heat exchanger s$r ace (and cost) or 1 #: o$tp$t gro"s "ith second po"er o 1CdeltaT. There ore the speci ic cost o %ery lo" temperat$re di erence engines is %ery high. Increasing the temperat$re di erential andCor press$re allo"s Stirling engines to prod$ce more po"er! ass$ming the heat exchangers are designed or the increased heat load! and can deli%er the con%ected heat l$x necessary. A Stirling engine cannot start instantlyW it literally needs to A"arm $pA. This is tr$e o all external comb$stion engines! b$t the "arm $p time may be longer or Stirlings than or others o this type s$ch as steam engines. Stirling engines are best $sed as constant speed engines. /o"er o$tp$t o a Stirling tends to be constant and to ad>$st it can sometimes re*$ire care $l design and additional mechanisms. Typically! changes in o$tp$t are achie%ed by %arying the displacement o the

0=

engine (o ten thro$gh $se o a s"ashplate cran#sha t arrangement)! or by changing the *$antity o "or#ing l$id! or by altering the pistonCdisplacer phase angle! or in some cases simply by altering the engine load. This property is less o a dra"bac# in hybrid electric prop$lsion or Abase loadA $tility generation "here constant po"er o$tp$t is act$ally desirable.

9as choice iss$es

The $sed gas sho$ld ha%e a lo" heat capacity! so that a gi%en amo$nt o trans erred heat leads to a large increase in press$re. Considering this iss$e! heli$m "o$ld be the best gas beca$se o its %ery lo" heat capacity. Air is a %iable "or#ing l$id! b$t the oxygen in a highly press$ri?ed air engine can ca$se atal accidents ca$sed by l$bricating oil explosions. 3ollo"ing one s$ch accident /hilips pioneered the $se o other gases to a%oid s$ch ris# o explosions.

.ydrogen's lo" %iscosity and high thermal cond$cti%ity ma#e it the most po"er $l "or#ing gas! primarily beca$se the engine can r$n aster than "ith other gases. .o"e%er! d$e to hydrogen absorption! and gi%en the high di $sion rate associated "ith this lo" molec$lar "eight gas! partic$larly at high temperat$res! .0 "ill lea# thro$gh the solid metal o the heater. Di $sion thro$gh carbon steel is too high to be practical! b$t may be acceptably lo" or metals s$ch as al$min$m! or e%en stainless steel. Certain ceramics also greatly red$ce di $sion. .ermetic press$re %essel seals are necessary to maintain press$re inside the engine "itho$t replacement o lost gas. 3or high temperat$re di erential (.TD) engines! a$xiliary systems may need to be added to maintain high press$re "or#ing l$id. These systems can be a gas storage bottle or a gas generator. .ydrogen can be generated by electrolysis o "ater! the action o steam on red hot carbon-based $el! by gasi ication o hydrocarbon $el! or by the reaction o acid on metal. .ydrogen can also ca$se theembrittlement o metals. .ydrogen is a lammable gas! "hich is a sa ety concern i released rom the engine. 1ost technically ad%anced Stirling engines! li#e those de%eloped or United States go%ernment labs! $se heli$m as the "or#ing gas! beca$se it $nctions close to the e iciency and po"er density o hydrogen "ith e"er o the material containment iss$es. .eli$m is inert! "hich remo%es all ris# o lammability! both real and percei%ed. .eli$m is relati%ely expensi%e! and m$st be s$pplied as bottled gas. One test sho"ed hydrogen to be 8S (absol$te) more e icient than heli$m (05S relati%ely) in the 9/U-; Stirling engine. The researcher Allan Organ demonstrated that a "ell-designed air engine is theoretically >$st

0+

as e icient as a heli$m or hydrogen engine! b$t heli$m and hydrogen engines are se%eral times more po"er $l per $nit %ol$me.

Some engines $se air or nitrogen as the "or#ing l$id. These gases ha%e m$ch lo"er po"er density ("hich increases engine costs)! b$t they are more con%enient to $se and they minimi?e the problems o gas containment and s$pply ("hich decreases costs). The $se o compressed air in contact "ith lammable materials or s$bstances s$ch as l$bricating oil! introd$ces an explosion ha?ard! beca$se compressed air contains a high partial press$re o oxygen. .o"e%er! oxygen can be remo%ed rom air thro$gh an oxidation reaction or bottled nitrogen can be $sed! "hich is nearly inert and %ery sa e. Other possible lighter-than-air gases incl$de@ methane! and ammonia.

06

=.A//&ICATION

Applications o the Stirling engine range rom heating and cooling to $nder"ater po"er systems. A Stirling engine can $nction in re%erse as a heat p$mp or heating or cooling. Other $ses incl$de@ combined heat and po"er! solar po"er generation! Stirling cryocoolers! heat p$mp! marine engines! and lo" temperat$re di erence engines The Stirling engine is a heat engine that is %astly di erent rom the internal-comb$stion engine in o$r car. In%ented by Robert Stirling in 1+1,! the Stirling engine has the potential to be m$ch more e icient than a gasoline or diesel engine. D$t today! Stirling engines are $sed only in some %ery speciali?ed applications! li#e in s$bmarines or a$xiliary po"er generators or yachts! "here *$iet operation is important. Altho$gh there hasn't been a s$ccess $l mass-mar#et application or the Stirling engine! some %ery high-po"er in%entors are "or#ing on it. A Stirling engine $ses the Stirling cycle! "hich is $nli#e the cycles $sed in internal-comb$stion engines.

;7

The gasses $sed inside a Stirling engine ne%er lea%e the engine. There are no exha$st %al%es that %ent high-press$re gasses! as in a gasoline or diesel engine! and there are no explosions ta#ing place. Deca$se o this! Stirling engines are %ery *$iet.

The Stirling cycle $ses an external heat so$rce! "hich co$ld be anything rom gasoline to solar energy to the heat prod$ced by decaying plants. No comb$stion ta#es place inside the cylinders o the engine. In detail!

I. Cars
In the ages o 16=7s and 16+7s se%eral a$tomobile companies li#e N9eneral 1otorsO or N3ordO "ere researching abo$t Stirling 2ngine. This de%ice is good or a constant po"er setting! b$t it is a challenge or the stop and go o the a$tomobile. A good car can change the po"er *$ic#ly. One possibility to obtain this important characteristic is design a po"er control mechanism that "ill t$rn $p or do"n the b$rner. This is a slo" method o changing po"er le%els beca$se is not eno$gh to accelerate crossing an intersection. The best sol$tion in spite o these di ic$lties in a$tomobiles is hybrid electric cars "here Stirling 2ngine co$ld gi%e eno$gh po"er to ma#e long trips "here co$ld get b$rn gasoline or diesel! depending on "hich $el "as cheaper. The batteries co$ld gi%e the instant acceleration that dri%ers are $sed to. This in%ention ma#es the car silent and clean r$nning.

II. S$bmarine
NGoc#$msO! a S"edish de ense contractor! prod$ce Stirling 2ngines or the na%y ma#ing the *$ietest s$bmarines in the "orld. This high-technology is named air-independent prop$lsion (AI/). There are o$r s$bmarines e*$ipment "ith Stirling AI/. The models are .1S NXc#en! "hich "as la$nch in 16=+ and a ter ten years 16++ became the irst s$bmarine e*$ipped "ith AI/ system! by
means o a c$t and lengthened by an intersection o a Stirling AI/ section! "hich be ore the installation is e*$ipped by t"o Stirling $nits! li*$id oxygen (&OJ) tan#s and electrical e*$ipment. S$ccess $l demonstration o AI/ system d$ring many ro$tine patrols o .1S NXc#en made that 9otland! another type o s$bmarine! "as the irst s$bmarine designed rom the beginning to operate "ith AI/ system. The other o$r s$bmarines that operates "ith this technology are t"o SYderman class "ere $pgraded by 0775. I the Stirling "as designed to operate at ambient press$re (and had a %al%e system to ens$re s$ch) then it co$ld be enclosed in a small b$bble o gas that "o$ld slo"ly be cr$shed by the press$re o the ocean and increase the internal

;1

"or#ing %ol$me o gas to a le%el that co$ld not be easily achie%ed at sea le%el. :ith s$ch enormo$s internal press$re the po"er o$tp$t "o$ld be h$geZ

III. Aircra ts
In relation abo$t Stirling engines in aircra t! the comm$nities near airports co$ld bene it rom the *$iet engine. Unli#e other types o aircra ts this #ind o aircra ts increases the per ormance climbs to altit$de. &i#e is sho"ed abo%e %ibration is an area that Stirling excel. The sha t tor*$e on o$r cylinders %aries rom 177S negati%e to ;87S positi%e in each re%ol$tion. Only 8S o %ariation characterised the *$iet engine ob%io$sly increasing the com ort o occ$pants as "ell as air rame atig$e is greatly red$ced and isolatorMs materials. &ess %ibration is good ad%antage or the propeller in means o tor*$e! no"adays the propeller is designed considering the p$lse o tor*$e As long as the prop is also the ly"heel it m$st be hea%y and rob$st. Us$ally the irst ail$re is the ignition system! in the Stirling the ignition is necessary at the beginning to start the ire a ter is not needed. Another hamper is eliminated "itho$t %al%es. In the ollo"ing graph it is possible see that the per ormance o the Stirling engine increases "ith altit$de beca$se the system is sealed "itho$t re erence o ambient air density. As the o$tside temperat$re declines! engine po"er increases. This compo$nds the nat$ral ability o the aircra t to ly aster as air density decreases. Stirling allo" the plane to cr$ise abo%e the "eather rather than tro$gh it th$s it is a sa ety aspect beca$se there are many accidents beca$se the "eather. In addiction! the possibility o the pilot to choose the altit$de co$ld bene it the optimi?e $se o the "inds. There are se%eral reasons or the s$perior $el economy. 3irst! the Stirling is a m$ch more e icient po"erplant. An internal comb$stion engine ta#es in ne" air and $el or each stro#e! sa%ing nothing rom the pre%io$s one. D$t the Stirling re-$ses the same heat energy on s$ccessi%e stro#esW the $el is only needed to ma#e $p the losses. The second reason is that the $el is al"ays b$rned $ll lean! at the best airC $el ratio! "hile normal aircra t engines act$ally $se gasoline as a coolant. The Stirling also $ses the exha$st rom the b$rner to preheat the incoming comb$stion air. Since the Stirling exha$st is cool! it is ob%io$s that less energy is being thro"n a"ay.

IP. .eat and po"er System

This de%ice replaces traditional boilers in ho$ses. It is an inno%ati%e system de%eloped to pro%ide central heating! "ater heating and electricity. Us$ally this de%ice is called N1icro Combined .eat and /o"er (C./)O and prod$ces m$ch less carbon dioxide than other "ays o pro%iding heat and po"er. In act! i the le%el o C./ "as increased to the 9o%ernment's target o 17!777 1:! the UG co$ld be one third o the "ay to meeting its international commitments to red$ce carbon dioxide emissions. N...:e can combine the b$ilding

;0

o homes "ith b$ilding comm$nities "ith combined heat and po"er...OO The company :hisper 9en has la$nched to the mar#et the mar#et 1#P AC gas ired that consists in o$r cylinders "ith do$ble acting Stirling cycle. It is possible coach heat o$tp$t rom =.8-10G: at 007-057P

Dene its@

V Sa%ings thro$gh the prod$ction o o"n electricity. V Red$ce emissions o CO0 and other emissions. V A%oiding pea#-load costs "hen the net"or# is o%erloaded. V Allo"s or rapid introd$ction o ne" generation capacity. The per ormance is o%er 67S o the $el energy res$lting in a cleaner and more cost e ecti%e alternati%e to traditional electricity generation. 2lectricity generated can be ed bac# into the electricity grid or $sed in the home! red$cing electricity costs e%en $rther. In%ent pro%ides an a%erage ho$sehold "ith a sa%ing o abo$t [187 per year. It also red$ces carbon dioxide emissions by $p to 1.8 tonnes per year! a real contrib$tion to"ards tac#ling the e ects o global "arming. ThatMs 07S less carbon dioxide per ho$sehold.

P. Cryocooler
I It is applied mechanical energy instead o cold and heat so$rces by means o external engine! It is possible reach temperat$res li#e 17 G (-0,;IC) in machines o high technology. The irst Stirling-cycle cryocooler "as de%eloped at /hilips in the 1687s and commerciali?ed in s$ch places as li*$id nitrogen prod$ction plants. This company is still acti%e in the de%elopment and man$ act$ring Stirling cryocoolers and cryogenic cooling systems. A "ide %ariety o smaller si?e Stirling cryocoolers are commercially a%ailable or tas#s s$ch as the cooling o sensors. Thermoaco$stic re rigeration $ses a Stirling cycle in a "or#ing gas "hich is created by high amplit$de so$nd "a%es.

PI. N$clear po"er

Steam t$rbines o a n$clear plan can be replaced by Stirling engine th$s red$ce the radioacti%e by- prod$cts and be more e icient. Steam plants $se li*$id sodi$m as coolant in breeder reactors! "aterCsodi$m exchanger are re*$ired! "hich in some cases that temperat$re increase so m$ch this coolant co$ld reacts %iolently "ith "ater. NASA has de%eloped a Stirling 2ngine #no"n as Stirling Radioisotope (SR9) 9enerator designed to generate electricity in or deep space pro%es in lasting missions. The heat so$rce is a dry solid n$clear $el sl$g and the cold so$rce is space itsel . This de%ice con%erter prod$ces abo$t o$r times more electric po"er rom the pl$toni$m $el than a radioisotope thermoelectric generator. These generators ha%e been extensi%ely

;;

tested b$t ha%e not yet been deployed on act$al missions. Th$s each SR9 "ill $tilise t"o Stirling con%erter $nits "ith abo$t 877 "atts o thermal po"er s$pplied by t"o 9/.S (9eneral /$rpose .eat So$rce) $nits and "ill deli%er 177-107 "atts o electric po"er. 2ach 9/.S contains o$r iridi$m-clad /$-0;+ $el pellets! stands 8 cm tall! 17 cm s*$are and "eighs 1.55 #g. The hot end o the Stirling con%erter reaches ,87IC. The po"er o$tp$t o the generator "ill be greater than 177 : at the beginning o li e! b$t the "ear o$t o pl$toni$m decrease the heat so$rce. .o"e%er control system allo"s long li e.

PII. Solar 2nergy

/laced at the oc$s o a parabolic mirror a Stirling engine can con%ert solar energy to electricity "ith e iciency better than non-concentrated photo%oltaic cells. In 0778 It is created a 1 #: Stirling generator "ith a solar concentrator! this "as a herald o the coming o a re%ol$tionary solar! no"adays It generates electricity m$ch more e iciently and economically than /hoto%oltaic (/P) systems "hit technology called concentrated solar po"er (C/S). No"adays the company In ina Applications has de%elopment a ; #: Solar Stirling /rod$ct. Some companies are glass in the same lo" cost man$ act$ring techni*$es $sed to ma#e cons$mer prod$cts. The e*$ipment is "ell characteri?ed "ith o%e This technology is the "orld\s most e iciency or the con%ersion o solar energy to grid deli%ery electricity! ro$ghly t"ice as e icient o the others alternati%e solar technologies. Dy a mirror to oc$s the s$nMs rays on recei%er end o a Stirling engine. The internal side o the recei%er then heats hydrogen gas! "hich expands. The press$re created by the expanding gas dri%es a piston! cran# sha t! and dri%e sha t assembly m$ch li#e those o$nd in internal comb$stion igniting the gas. The dri%e sha t is connected to a small electricity generator. This solar application is called signi icant potential grid or "ater p$mping or electri ication. In Cali ornia there is a big contract "here the approximately 1.5 percent to 0., percent o la$nching technology $sing steel! cooper! al$mini$m and o%er 08!777 ho$rs o on-s$n time. The engines b$t "itho$t concentration solar po"er (CS/) here electrical o$tp$t represents rom 2disonMs ann$al sales. Next year the Stirling solar dish "ill be able to be in the mar#et! there ore high capacity to prod$ce energy "ith the po"er o s$n helping to red$ce emissions o CO0 gases. It is possible no"adays dream "ith C./ plants "or#ing "ith Stirling 2ngines and it is expected that this technology "ill be commercially a%ailable "ithin the next e" years. NASA $ses an ad%anced system to concentrate the s$nlight. :aste heat is remo%ed thro$gh a heat exchanger and dissipated by radiator panels to space. The po"er and distrib$tion system is based on the closed Drayton cycle. A rec$perati%e heat exchanger bet"een the t$rbine discharge and recei%er inlet is $sed to impro%e cycle e iciency. &ong li e is made possible thro$gh the $se o non-contacting gas bearings! hermetic sealing o the gas circ$it! red$ndant electronic components! and $ltra%ioletCatomic oxygen

;5

protecti%e coatings on all optical s$r aces. Radiation degradation is red$ced relati%e to solar photo%oltaic arrays since semi-cond$cting materials are not $sed on the large exposed s$r aces.

+.CONSTRUCTION

In order to ma#e a home made can stirling engine the gi%en parts are re*$ired. ; Al$min$m tin cans! hard sponge! small ]Op%c elbo"! small balloon! 0Oor longer straight pin! "ooden stand and gl$e. The parts o stirling engine can be named as press$re %essel bottom! press$re %essel top! displacer!

;8

cran# sha t! connecting rod and cran# sha t s$pport. These all are sho"n in the diagram belo". /ress$re %essels and the cran# sha t s$pport is made by c$tting al$min$m in s$itable proportion "ith the help o scissors. Cran# sha t is made rom the straight long pin by bending it "ith paler in appropriate angle. The "hole parts are assembled and ixed on a "ooden stand in order to a%oid >er#ing and or the ease o gi%ing external heat s$pply $sing a candle. Dy obser%ing the ig$re the parts o the stirling engine can be easily $nstood.

Cd( ly "heel) Cran# sha t Cran# sha t s$pport Connecting rod

Dalloon /PC elbo" /ress$re %essel top Displacer /ress$re %essel bottom

:ooden board

3ig$re-=@/arts o can stirling engine

;,

Ring Stand
Tape the right and le t sides o this template together to ma#e a template or a ring stand that has three legs. The dotted line represents theo%erlap position. Use the top part o a diet sha#e can or the ring stand. C$t o the top and bottom o the can "ith a can opener. The tapered top "ill it $nder the press$re %essel. The legs can be bent to ad>$st the height o the press$re %essel o%er a candle lame. <o$ can also drill holes in the legs to attach it to a "ooden base.

/ress$re Pessel Top Tape the right and le t sides o this template together to ma#e a template or the press$re %essel top. The dotted line represents the o%erlap position. Use the bottom o a so t drin# can or this part that is 1O high. The tapered bottom o this can "ill it into the press$re %essel bottom. This part can hold ice to ma#e the engine r$n aster.

Displacer
The displacer sho$ld ha%e a total height o 1^O. There sho$ld be no air lea#s into the displacer. The displacer sho$ld be smooth and it inside the press$re %essel "ith abo$t 0 millimeter clearance "hen centered inside the can. 1ethod 1@ This can be the bottom o a tall 10 o? that has a circ$m erence that is abo$t 17mm less than a so t drin# can. Geep the bottom. The bottom o a so t drin# can is trimmed to >$st it inside the top o the displacer dish side in. Do not gl$e $ntil a 0O straight pin is inserted thro$gh the displacer top. 1ethod 0@ This part can also be made $sing the "all o so t drin# can "ith the top and bottom c$t o . The can is c$t %ertically and gl$ed ("ith hi-temp epoxy) together to orm a 1-1C5A high cylinder "ith a diameter o abo$t 68S o its original diameter. :hen the can is gl$ed to orm a cylinder! the o%erlap "ill be abo$t 17 millimeters (ass$ming a ,8 mm diameter can). The bottoms o 0 al$min$m drin# cans are trimmed to >$st it

;=

inside the displacer and "ill be gl$ed into place (one end dish side in! the other end dish side o$t). Do not gl$e $ntil a 0O straight pin is inserted thro$gh the displacer top.

/ress$re Pessel Dottom

Use the bottom o a diet sha#e can or this part that is 0]O high. The ^O hole sho$ld be drilled abo$t ]O rom the top to allo" air to enter into the /PC elbo". The candle lame "ill be in contact "ith the bottom o this can.

Cran# Sha t S$pports

Use a %ertical strip o a diet sha#e can or this part. <o$ "ill need t"o o these cran# sha t s$pports that are 10cm high and ;.5cm "ide. The hole or the cran# sha t sho$ld be drilled abo$t ]O rom the top. Drill a ^O hole that is 1 inch rom the bottom o one s$pport. This "ill line $p "ith the hole in the press$re %essel.

Cran#sha t
1a#e s$re there is a 67 degree angle bet"een the displacer and po"er diaphragm connections. That is! the displacer is 67 degrees o$t o phase. All the abo%e parts are assembled in proper manner and "hen an external heat is gi%en the displacer starts reciprocating and cran# sha t starts rotating in abo$t 1,7 rpm.

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6.ADPANC2D STIR&IN9 2N9IN2

Dy recent de%elopments and research in stirling engine scientists made an ad%anced stirling engine "ith better e iciency and po"er. A team o scientists de%eloped ad%anced stirling engine named AS2 1OD II. The 1od II Stirling engine $tili?es a o$r-cylinder! P-bloc# design "ith a single cran#sha t and an ann$lar heater head. The 1od II S2S is designed to achie%e a maxim$m po"er o ,0.; #: (+;.8 hp) and has a maxim$m speed o 5777 rpm at a heater t$be temperat$re o +07IC and a mean press$re o 18 1/a at 87IC cooling "ater inlet temperat$re. The DS2 consists o three systems@ external heat system! hot engine system! and cold engineCdri%e system. In the 1od II! the external heat system con%erts energy in the $el to heat l$x thro$gh the heater t$be "alls. Next! the hot engine system! "hich contains the hot "or#ing gas in a closed %ol$me! trans orms this heat l$x to a press$re "a%e that acts on the pistons! prod$cing motion. The cold engineCdri%e system trans ers piston motion to the connecting rods! and the reciprocating rod motion is con%erted to rotary motion thro$gh a cran#sha t. The controls and a$xiliaries pro%ide the $el and air s$pply and po"er control necessary or a$tomoti%e operation.

17.CONC&USION
Stirling engines *$ali y or N ree energyO designation "hen they allo" $s to tap pre%io$sly inaccessible so$rces o nat$rally occ$rring energy. Stirling cycle engines are %ery e icient or a gi%en temperat$re di erence bet"een the heat so$rce and the heat sin#. Act$ally! steam engines (the Ran#ine cycle) all into this category! too. D$t depending $pon "hat #ind o hard"are and its maintenance yo$ pre er! one or the other "ill be pre erred. Steamers ha%e e"er parts and higher po"er density. Other l$ids! s$ch as a %ariety o re rigerants! can be $sed instead o "ater. Stirlings a%oid l$id containment problems! as they can r$n "ith air as the "or#ing l$id! and "ill ha%e less maintenance iss$es. Stirling 2ngines are %ery lexible. There are a lot o di erent types o engines. They can be %ery small and r$n "ith only a small temperat$re di erence! they are %ery *$iet! or example to $se them in s$bmarines or they can be $sed as a C./ plant. Another good point is that they can be constr$cted in a "ay that they prod$ce no emissions. That means! in combination "ith solar or geothermal heat! they can be $sed as a rene"able energy so$rce to prod$ce electricity.

;6

As is sho"ed abo%e! the Stirling engine has strong economic practicality. Abo%e all! the original cost is *$ite lo"er than or any other engines. 2%en a e" calories can dri%e it and #eep it r$nning. The next point is that the a$xiliary costs are lo"! beca$se the Stirling engine costs little on en%ironment protection. The $els it $ses can be clean! so it costs little to handle "ith poll$tion go%ernance. :hat is more! the pro it o the Stirling engine is ar beyond the cost. And the high e iciency can bring the maxim$m $tili?ation. And last b$t not least! the Stirling engine is consistent "ith the re*$irements o s$stainable de%elopment. It is the main de%elopment "ay in the $t$re! so the Stirling engine does not only meet the economic needs at present time! b$t also in the $t$re. The Stirling engine is an interesting de%ice li#e it is sho"ed in this doc$ment "ith %ario$s applications and high de%elopment. Its ad%antages are really bene icial or the en%ironment beca$se it is possible prod$ce electricity "ith the po"er o s$n "ith high e iciency (theoretically li#e the Carnot Cycle). It is a h$ge ad%antage to the economy beca$se is possible to b$rn the cheapest $el and it is "or#ing instead o the more expensi%e one. And this engine is com ortable or the people beca$se is *$iet and not noisy li#e an internal comb$stion engine. The real rene"able energy is the solar application or this de%ice beca$se the other "ays to prod$ce the heat so$rce are b$rning something. It is possible to decrease the emissions o CO0 or other toxic gases b$t not eliminate completely this problem or the earth and there ore or h$mans. This application co$ld be one o the di erent "ays to sol%e the problem o greenho$se gas emissions and to contin$e and also to de%elop o$r com ort. In all applications that "as sho"ed in this presentation the per ormance the de%ices are better! ob%io$sly increase the e iciency is good Depend o "hich #ind o $el is getting b$rn in process. The Stirling 2ngine is a machine o external comb$stion th$s i it is b$rned $el the emissions o CO0 is not sol%ed. It is sho"ed that the per ormance is better b$t in the point o %ie" o en%ironment the real problem contin$es existing. 3ind a heat so$rce to ma#e it "or#s! this is the case o biomass $els in connection "ith a Stirling engine are concentrated on trans erring the heat rom the comb$stion o the $el into the "or#ing gas and in the same "ay the solar application. Deca$se! as companies loo# increasingly to alternati%e po"er $nits! it is entirely possible that the Stirling engine "ill ind its o"n niche in the mar#etplace! perhaps as part o a hybrid po"er plant! or thro$gh $rther de%elopment and optimi?ation. No high-tech materials are needed. This competes "ith solar cells. Ta#ing one "ith another! Stirling engine bring a tremendo$s re%ol$tion to h$man being. :e thin# there is also a lot o potential in this area beca$se modern ind$striali?ation sho$ld be s$stained by regenerate po"er system. It is not a dead end b$t a ne" start.

57

11.Re erences
""".s$npo"er.com """.cre$sot.netCarchi%esCideeCstirlingCimgCstirling.gi http@CCmac,.ma.ps$.ed$CstirlingCideal_stirling_cycleCindex.html t". 15.yahoo s.comCmyperC;+.g*_93.RT.<"2"_5<9D8KS/ACblogCap_077,7+0=71;616=71.>pg` TT_+#N.D1D=gh<o7 http@CC""".ent.ohio$.ed$Ca$rieliCstirlingCenginesCengines.htm http@CC""".mote$rstirling.comCalpha.htm http@CC""".ent.ohio$.ed$Ca$rieliCstirlingCenginesCbeta.html http@CCen."i#ipedia.orgC"i#iCStirling_engine http@CC""".mote$rstirling.comCbeta.htm http@CC""".ent.ohio$.ed$Ca$rieliCstirlingCenginesCgamma.html http@CC""".mote$rstirling.comCgamma.htm http@CC""".diracdelta.co.$#CscienceCso$rceCsCtCstirlingS07engineCso$rce.html http@CCblog.steamshi t.comC0778C78C http@CCtech reep.comCcategoryCenergyC http@CC""".#oc#$ms.seCNe"sCphotostoc#Cphoto.html http@CC""".sensi.orgCas%oCstirlingC http@CCenergytech.atC(en)C#"#Cportrait_#apitel-0_,.html >i$ci ang.blog.bo#ee.netCbloggermod$leCblog_%ie"blog.do`idb6,10+8 """.a$tobloggreen.comCtagC ordC """.#oc#$ms.seCS$bmarinesCaipcon%ersion.html """.#oc#$ms.seCS$bmarinesCaipcon%ersion.html

51

:illiam D. 2rnst and Richard G. Shaltens A$tomoti%e Stirling 2ngine De%elopment /ro>ect /repared or NATIONA& A2RONAUTICS AND S/AC2 AD1INISTRATION &e"is Research Center Under Contract D2N;-;0