Elec 380 Course Notes

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ELEC 380 A01-A02
Electronic Circuits II
Course Notes
A. Zielinski
Fall 2013
W University
of Victoria
ELEC Jon J\()1 - I\02 : COURSE
NOTES
ELECj30()
BATN
978-0-9002094-7-]
I 1111 90000
Q788900209471 II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Permission to reproduce these copyrighted materials has been obtained from the publishers for:
Adam Zielinski
F13 ELEC 380 A01-A02 Course Notes Fall 2013
(C) 2013 This material has been copied under license from Access Copyright, or with the copyright holders'
permission. Further copying or resale is strictly prohibited.
1 pgs 1-4 unnumbered
F13 Title Page and Course Notes Table of Contents - Elec 380 A01-A02
From UNPUBLISHED COURSE NOTES
2013 Reproduced by permission of Adam Zielinski UNIVERSITY OF VICTORIA. All Rights Reserved
2 pgs 1.1-9.10
F13 Notes for Electronic Circuits II - Elec 380 A01-A02
------------
3 pgs 1-7 unnumbered
F13 Assignments - Elec 380 A01-A02
4 pgs 1 unnumbered, 1.1-7.3{ last page unnumbered)
F13 Tutorial and Simulations for Micro-Cap IV - Elec 380 A01-A02
Notes for Electronic Circuits II
ELEC 380
Adam Zielinski
May 2013
CONTENTS
page
Part 1 - Material Review ............. " .. . .. ... . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
JBT 1.1
Two stage amplifier: design and simulation. 31.3
Exercise 1.1 3 1.11
Part 2 - Large signal amplifiers
Class A operation
ac-load line
maximum compliance
swamped CE amplifier
efficiency
inductively coupled load
transformer coupled load
nonlinear distortion
class-B operation
biasing B-class amp.
transistor power rating
Exercise 2.1
Exercise 2.2
Part 3 - Frequency response of transistor amplifiers
coupling capacitors
swamped CE amplifier at lower frequencies
Bode approximation
Voltage follower at lower frequencies
Millers theorem
JFET amplifiers at higher frequencies
BJT amplifiers at higher frequencies
Design example, neutralization of input capacitance
Exercise 3.1
~ n d a m Zielinski 5: 15,13
2.1
2.1
2.2
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
2.10
2.10
2.14
2.16
2.21
2.25
2.27
3.1
3.1
3.2
3.4
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.12
3.15
3.19
Part 4 - Differential Amplifier. . . . . . . . . . . . ... . ... . .. .. . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . 4.1
differential and common mode gains 4.1
differential and common mode signals 4.2
CMRR 4.2
Transistor diff. amplifier 4.3
current mirror 4.7
active load 4.9
introduction to operational amplifiers 4.11
Part 5 - Ideal and non-ideal op. amp. ................................. 5.1
Ideal op. amp. virhlal ground 5.1
inverting and non-inverting configurations 5.3
instrumentation amplifier 5.7
low frequency parameters (input offset voltage and currents) 5.12
Part 6 - High frequency parameters of op. Amp.
slew rate
frequency response
Exercise 6.1
6.1
6.1
6.4
6.9
Part 7 - Applications of Op. Amp. ..................................... 7.1
Stable ac-coupled amplifier 7.1
operation from single supply 7.3
voltage reference 7.6
Circuits with transistors and diodes; 7.7
- current booster 7.7
- push-pull circuit 7.8
- rectifier 7.9
- peak detector 7.10
Voltage Controlled Current Source (VCCS) 7.11
Nonlinear Applications; 7.12
- comparator 7.12
- Schmitt trigger 7.16
- Astable multivibrator 7.19
Part 8 - Active filters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1
second order LP prototype 8.1
impedance and frequency scaling 8.3
higher order filters 8.6
LP-HP transformation 8.12
Band-pass filter 8.13
state variable filter 8.16
switch capacitor filters 8.17
Exercise 8.1 8.20
''''Adam Zielinski 5i15' 13
Part 9 - Negative feedback. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1
general principle 9.1
sensitivity 9.2
nonlinear distortion 9.4
feedback through power supply 9.8
feedback through stray capacitance 9.9
feedback through ground loops 9.10
(nAdam Zielinski 5'1513
Elec 380 Review ofElec 330 1.1
JBT
1 Review of Elec 330
Vee
Rl
COl
I
VOl
ROl
C
O2
RL2 RL1
- - - - -
-
- - - - -
-
R.'
R.
I 1
rs
R 02 R02
Figure 1.1
a) Swamped CE Amp (for CE Amp. set re = 0 - for a small signal), RL2 = 00
Unloaded gain (R
Ll
= 00)
A = vOl = Rc
V r '+ I
i e e (1.1)
At room temperature:
(1.2)
Input impedance
(1.3)
(1.4)
'CAdam Zielinski 5!J5!13
Elec 380 Review ofElec 330
Output impedance:
b) For Common Collector Amplifier (CC) or voltage follower
Set Rc = 0, r e = 0, C
E
=
Unloaded gain (for RL2 = 00 )
v
I
Input and output impedances:
rs
R '= +r'
02 i3 e
For coupling capacitors to be considered short circuits:
C
> 1 .
i - 21tfR x 0.1 '
C > 1
01 - 21tfR x 0.1'
C > 1
02 - 21tfR x 0.1'
Bypass capacitor:
C
> 1
E - 21tfR x 0.1 '
n Adam Zielinski 5f 15! 13
1.2
(1.5)
(1.6)
(1.7)
(1.8)
(1.9)
(1.10)
(1.11)
(1.12)
lee 380 Review of Elee 330
Lab Session # 1
Design and testing of two stage amplifier.
v
I
JFET
n - channel
2N5486
Figure 1.2
R
V=15V
JBT, P - n - p type
2N3906
02
required: Ril= 4.7 MQ and I AI = Vo =20V/Vforf= 1 kHz
Vi
1.3
This is a two stage amplifier. First stage - source follower - provides high input
impedance. Second stage - Common Emitter (upside down) - provides high gain.
""'Adam Zielinski 5!J 5r13
Elec 380 Review of Elec 330
Figure 1.3
In active region (V DS > V GS - V p > -V p)
(
V GS)2
ID = lDSS I-V
p
I
DSS1
V P - transistor parameters
V GS = - R2 I
D
Convenient value for R2 is:
For which
Vp
R =--
2 IDSS
Solving Equation (1.13) and Equation (1.15) for V GS and I D we have:
V GSO = O.38V P
IDO = O.38I
Dss
(<) Adam Zielinski 5!J5i13
1.4
(1.13)
(1.14)
(1.15)
(1.16)
Elec 380 Review ofElec 330 1.5
unloaded ac - gain is:
(1.17)
where
(1.18)
and
(1.19)
The input resistance (neglecting C,) is:
(1.20)
Output resistance is:
(1.21)
lAdam Zielinski 5f15!13
Elec 380 Review of Elec 330 1.6
The second stage - CE amplifier (redrawn for clarity for n-p-n transistor)
V=15V
R4
l
r
+
R3
Ro2
Ri2
I
- - -
- - -
Figure 1.4
Input resistance; Ri2 = R311 R411 ~ c'
(1.22)
(1.23)
Output Resistance:
(1.24)
Gain
R
R6
A2
C
= -- = --
rc
, ,
rc
(1.25)
The total amplifier can be represented by a generic equivalent of each stage.
'n Adam Zielinski 5'15113
v
1
Design
R.
11
+
Figure 1.5
First stage
1. RiJ = 4.7 MQ => RI = 4.7 MQ
2. Look at spect: (A3 - Lab manual)
2N5486:
Assume
8::;; loss::;; 20 rnA
-6V::;; Vp ::;;-2V
20+ 8
loss = -2- = 14 rnA
V =_2+6
V
=_4V
p 2
3. Select R2 from Equation (1.14)
1
-4
R? = -- = 286Q therefore select R2 = 300Q (5% tolerances)
- 14
From Equation (1.16)
V GSQ = 0.38 V p = -1.52 V
4. Find the gain. From Equation (1.19)
2 loss = 28 = 7 rnA
gmo = -y- 4 V
p
and from Equation (1.18)
g
(
1- VGSQ) = 7(1_1.52) = 434 rnA
gm mo V 4' V
p
5. Gain from Equation (1.17) is
1
A = ---:---
I 1 + 1
R2 gm
1
= -1 -+--1 - = 1 + 0.77 = 0.56
0.3 x 4.34
!';Adam Zielinski 5115/13
1.7
6. Equation (1.21)
ROJ = gIm II R2 = 130Q
Second Stage
It is the upside - down CEo For analysis we can use a familiar circuit.
V=15V
R4
-1
VB
+
C2
R3
I
Figure 1.6
7. Decide on I c -look at (AIO - A14) - Lab manual
Select IcO = I rnA = I EO
mm:
8. Find Rs.
hFE = ~ d = 80
h
fe
= ~ = 150
r I = 26 = 26(Q)
e IE
1.8
A general design rule is not to exceed the voltage drop on Rs (=VE) more than
cO Adam Zielinski SilSilJ
10% of the supply voltage. ~
R5 IE = 1.5 V ~ R5 = 1.5 kQ
9. Biasing Network
For the film bias:
R3 < 0.1 ~ d c x R5 = 0.1 x 80 x 1.5 = 12 kQ, therefore
Select R3 = 10 kQ
Find R4 (neglecting I
B
)
R4 = (V : B ) R3 = ( V: -1) R3 = ~ . ~ - 1) 1 0 = 58 kQ
Select R4 = 56 kQ
Ri2 = R311 R411 ~ r c' = 2.7 kQ
Ro=R6
10. Generic equivalent circuit:
130Q
v
I 4.7MQ
+
Figure 1.7
R6 _ R6
A') = -- ---
- r ' 26
c
(C)Adam Zielinski 5115113
+
A v'
2 2 1
1.9
1
V
, - V .
i2 - i2'
A2 = 36 or 31 dB => R6 = 36 x 26 = 929Q
Select R6= 910Q
11. Coupling capacitors:
Vo
- = 20 = 0.56 X A2 =>
V
1
1.10
Finally we should calculate values for coupling and bypass capacitors at f= 1kHz
Using equation (1.9) we have:
C
> 1
I - 2nfR x 0.1
where R= Rs + R
j
R
j
= 4.7 MQ
1 6 -3
3 6 xl0 J.LF= 0.34xlO J.LF= 0.34nF
2nx 10 x4.7xlO xO.1
Let C
j
= 1 nF.
Similar calculations are for C
2
and C
4
For a bypass capacitor using eq. (l.12)
C > 1
32nfRxO.l
where
"J Adam Zielinski 5115113
(Repetition)
1.
Solution:
Exercise 1.1
l
-=- Vee
rll--t----f-IIII
R.
1
r
5
~
I
Figure 1.1
R' = A(R + r ') "
I I-' E e'
Rj = RtlIR21IR/
oRO! = Rc
ors = RdlR211Rs
-4-R
02
26
r' =-"
C I'
E
r
R R IIR' R' - $+ '
02 = E 02; 02 - j3 r e
(JAdam Zielinski 5!15/13
l
1.11
2.
R R R R
r:TEE
R.
I
Find R
j
Solution
3.
Find R
j
'
vb
Solution; R
j
' = -;-
Ib
Figure 1.2
R.
I
Figure 1.3
R
I
R+RIIRj
=? R
j
= C +2J5)R
-
-
ic= i b
Ib
Vb
I
Ri'
-
-
Figure 1.4
but vb = ~ i b r e
R'
~ i b r e
=?
I
Ib
'{J Adam Zielinski 5i15i13
1.12
... 00
~ r e
Elec 380 Large Signal Amplifiers
2 Large Signal Amplifiers
In order to deliver more power, a large signal is required - power amplifiers.
Basic problems: efficiency, nonlinear distortion, temperature effects.
v -V
de - load line I = CC CE
C RE
J'" (neglecting r' k
'1' , -----, --, --
. a
'" ......... ..- ................... " .... or ..... ...
. ,
t"
Figure 2.2
I()Adam Zielinski 5/1 9! 13
1
tan(a)= -
RE
2.1
Elec 380 Large Signal Amplifiers 2.2
In order to generate a possibly large ac signal we should select the Q point in the
middle that is: V CEQ= V cc/2
For such a selection the output signal has a maximum peak to peak value V cc : \jff
The maximum un distorted peak - to- peak amplitude of the output signal is called
output compliance, PP.
Note:
If RE is the load, it must also accept a dc - component ( V cc - V CEQ) . Such a
load is called a series fed load. For such a load PP max =V cc
Often the load must be capacitively coupled.
For an ac signal, the load now becomes RE ~ r
E
= RE II RL (assuming that
the coupling capacitor acts as a short circuit) and the Q point moves along a differ-
ent load line then before - but it's dc coordinates remain the same.
ae - load line
de - load line
1
tan(p) =-
r
ICQ I ~
Note:
V
CEQ
~
pp
I <r----i>I
ICQ r
E
Figure 2.3
The output compliance is now less then before.
For maximum compliance
V CEQ = V CE(cut/
2
< V cc/2
'Cj Adam Zielinski 5119/13
E
1
tan(a) =-
RE
(2.1)
Elee 380 Large Signal Amplifiers 2.3
In general r E represents all the resistance connected to the emitter or collector
for ac conditions.
This new ac - load line is also called the dynamic load line.
ac - load line is passing through Q point (V CEO' IcO) and has slope lirE
Its equation is:
where
For VCE = 0;
For Ic = 0;
V
I I I +
CEQ
C = C(sat) = CQ --
rE
The compliance is PP = min (2 ICQ r
E
, 2 V CEQ)
The maximum compliance is l-<Jh
ICQrE = V
CEQ
The dc - load line:
V
CC
- V
CEQ
ICQ = RE
Solving for V CEQ we get the "best" V CEQ
V
CEQ
= =
For which
PP = PP max 2V CEQ
Note:
(2.2)
(2.3)
(2.4)
Since RE I RL> 0
2VCC 2Vcc
then PPmax = 2 R IR < -2- = PP series load
+ E L
RE
The smaller R' the larger PP.
L
(lJAdarn Zielinski 5/19<13
Why is PP for a capacitively coupled load always smaller then a series fed load?
r ~ v c c
Figure 2.4
The coupling capacitor is charged to V E . For dc it is like a source which reduces
the supply voltage across the transistor.
Similar derivations approximately apply to swamped CE amplifier - small signal
only. (not valid for very small re ) .
v
I
....-----,-------v cc
RL
Figure 2.5
C() Adam Zielinski 5119/13
ac- load line
( neglecting r )
ICQ .......... .
VCEQ ,,/ VCE
VCE(cut) =
= V
CEQ
+ I CQ (re + r C )
Figure 2.6
Compliance across the transistor is PP
T
= min (2I
CQ
( rc + r
e
), 2 V CEQ)
The PP
T
is maximum when I
CQ
( rc + re) = V CEQ
using dc -load line V cc = ( Rc + re + RE ) ICQ + V CEQ
Solving for V CEQ we get the condition for max. transistor compliance PP T .
For which
PP
T
= 2V CEQ
2.5
(2.5)
(2.6)
In practice the nonlinear distortion will limit the signal amplitude before "clip-
ping" will occur, but equ. (2.5) provides a good operating point.
Relation between transistor compliance PP
T
and the output compliance PP.
Since the emitter is not grounded we will lose some signal on re.
where the gain under the load is:
a"JAdam Zielinski 5;1 9:13
Elee 380 Large Signal Amplifiers
A
Combining these we get v 0
PP
Vee
1 ' =?
I--
A
ForlargeA, pp::::: PP
T
2.6
(2.7)
(2.8)
In all cases the transistor operates all the time in its linear region - we call it A -
class operation
Summary
For maximum output compliance the operating point should be in the center of
the ac - load line. For better accuracy substitute re by re +r
e
' in Eq.(2.S).
Results generally invalid for re=O
Efficiency
.----4--- Vee - supply
Ie
Amplifier
Figure 2.7
Maximum power delivered to the load RL IS:
=
(' Adam Zielinski 5
1
19113
(2.9)
Efficiency:
11 = ac power delivered to the load 100 o/t
power supplied to the amplifier x 0
Example 2.1
1
Vee
<II1II series fed load
- very high
Vee
For max PP, V
eEQ
= -2-
Figure 2.8
Figure 2.9
(<:JAdam Zielinski 5119113
2. 7
(2.10)
pp = PP T (compliance across the transistor)
. (PP/2)2
Maximum ac power to the load P Lmax = J2 / RL
Average power supplied from the power supply (neglecting biasing network) is:
P s = { Vee Ie ( t )} = Vee { Ie ( t )} =
Vee
= Vee' 2 R =
L
Maximum efficiency:
= PLmaxx 100 <x= (Vee
2
/ V
ee
2
JX100<X= 25%1
11 P 0 8R 2R 0
S L L
Inductively - Coupled Load
V
I

~ ~ V c c
L
RL
I
Figure 2.10
roL RL ' we can use Equation (2.5) by letting:
J Adam Zielinski 5il9!13
and Equation (2.5) becomes:
V
CEQ
For which PP
T
= PP = 2V CC.
ICQ - - - - - - - -
V
CEQ
Note:
;/
tan(a) = __ 1 __
R
E
+ R '1
COl
de - load line
ae - load line
Figure 2.11
2.9
(2.11)
PP= 2 V cc - twice as for series - fed load. This is due to energy storing proper-
ties of an inductor.
One can show that maximum efficiency is:
11= 50%
t)Adam Zielinski 5119/13
Transformer Coupled Load
Vee

The dynamic load
(primary)
Nl
r
Figure 2.12
(secondary)
N2
ORL
2.10
(2.12)
Similarly to inductive load the maximum PP = 2V cc and therefore maximum the-
oretical efficiency is 50%.
Nonlinear Distortion
..
v
I
Ideal
Amplifier
Figure 2.13
The actual transfer characteristic may be nonlinear.
!O Adam Zielinski 5i19i13
v =Av .
o I
v
o
Figure 2.14
Let f( 0) = 0
V.
I
We can expand f( vi) into Taylor series around vi = O.
Let's consider only two terms:
2
v = Av+Nv
o I I
2. 11
(2.13)
This type of nonlinearity is called - parabolic nonlinearity (N can be negative).
Let vi = vp cos(eot)
2 2
Vo = AVpcos(eot)+ (NVp 12) + (NVp 12)cos (2eot)
V
1
/ /
dc term (can be neglected)
Vo
\
dIstortIOn
V
2
-::::::
Example: if fi 1 kHz, v 0 will contain 1 kHz, 2kHz and dc tenns.
Note:
(2.14)
Parabolic nonlinearity produces a dc term V 0 What is the physical explanation?
{OAdam Zielinski 5/19;13
Figure 2.15
A component twice of the fundamental frequency - a second harmonic distortion.
Amplitude of second harmonic distortion V 2 = V 0 .
Measurements
Measure the gain A for a small signal such that NVj 2 term in Equation (2.14)
can be neglected.
Apply a large signal and measure changes in the dc - operating point ~ V . This
indicates the presence of the second harmonic distortion with peak - to - peak value
2 V
2
= ~ V .
The peak - to - peak value of the fundamental frequency at the output is:
AVi,p_p
Second harmonic distortion is therefore:
~ V
AVj , p-p
(2.15)
If two tones of frequency f\ and f2 > f\ are applied, the output signal will contain
the following tones:
intermodulation
((J Adam Zielinski 5119/13
In general, by taking higher tenns in the Taylor series, a sinusoidal input will pro-
duce many hannonics.
00
L.. V n cos(nrot + <i>n)
n=O
Consistent with Fourier series.
Distortion at n - th harmonic is defined as:
D =
n
Vn
VI
(2.16)
It can be shown that the power dissipated by wavefonn v 0 (rot) in a load RL is
equal to the sum of the power dissipated by each hannonic separately, that is the
total ac - power.
00 V 2
P = L.. (_n ) / RL =
n I J2
(2.17)
where PI - power at the fundamental frequency:
(2.18)
D - distortion factorD = JD/ + D3
2
+ ...
(<:lAdam Zielinski 5!19!1 3
2. 14
Class B - Amplifiers
+ Vee
I B1
o Vdc
yo
1
Push - pull amplifier
+VBE
VO
v
1B2
s RL
-
-
-
-
- Vee
Figure 2.16
WJ Adam Zielinski 5119113
v
I
Figure 2.17
Crossover distortion can be minimized:
Using a current source to drive the amplifier.
2.15
cross - over distortion
Establishing the operating point close to the cut - offvoltage V y' With v s = 0
only a small trickle current flows through the transistors - such an operation is
called AB class.
With identical transistors (matched pair) the distortion to upper and lower half of
the cycle is identical. Based on Fourier series properties this will produce only odd
harmonics (no a de - component).
For fundamental signal fo at the input we get at the output:
f 0' 3 f 0' 5 f 0' ... components.
By contrast an A - class amplifier produces all harmonics.
It can be shown that the maximum efficiency for B - class operation is 78.5%.
(<:)Adam Zielinski 5/19;1 3
A - class A - class B - class
series fed transformer
load
11 25% 50% 78.5%
Figure 2.18
Biasing of B - class Amplifier (single supply)
c
Figure 2.19
Note: C large enough to provide supply voltage for T 2 during negative
half of cycle.
For AB class operation V BE:::: O.6V < V y = O.7V - a very critical condition.
Remember V y decreases aprox. 2mV/oC . Possibility of thermal runaway!
(0 Adam Zielinski 5il9113
2. 16
+
v
Diodes can be used to track the temperature changes:
Figure 2.20
Diodes should match the transistor BE junction. Best solution is to use the same
transistor as a diode.
ForV>V
y
V
BE
=Vy=VCE = 0.7V>VCEmin = 0.3 V
Figure 2.21
The transistor will operate in its linear region.
I = IB + Ie = IB + ~ d c I :::::; Ie
Cf')Adam Zielinski 5/19113
Elee 380 Large Signal Amplifiers 2. 18
v.
10
--I
I
v
Figure 2.22

lOkQ lkQ
l2kQ
Q
3
+20V
Q
1
Q
4
+2.l3V
lOOQ
Q
2
+lOV
+1.43V
GND
Figure 2.23
Complete amplifier including small - signal CE stage, class B driver, and push -
pull output stage.
(e) Adam Zielinski 5119113
Figure 2.24
Darlington pairs increase load power.
{('Adam Zielinski 5/19113
2.19
v
111
----1---11
Figure 2.25
Darlington and Sziklai output stage.
it') Adam Zielinski 5119/13
2.20
Power Dissipation in a Transistor
Ie
Vee
+
VeE
v.
1
vo(t)
~
.i
'Vee
-
-
Push-Pull
Figure 2.26
Ie ac -load Vee Ir.
2 /1,( L
/
tan(p)= ~
RL
/' Q-point
+ - - - - - - ~ ~ - - - I I ...
Vee/2 VeE
Figure 2.27
Output compliance = PP = V cc .
'<)Adam Zielinski 5119113
2.21
(2.19)
Power dissipated in the transistor
It can be shown that:
P
D
: PP=VCC
0.63 PP PP
Figure 2.28
PP 2
P
D
=--
, max 40R
L
Vpp (output voltage,
peak to peak)
Use Equation (2.20) to select a suitable transistor.
Heat Flow
Heat = energy (Joule)
Heat flow rate = Joule/s = Watt = P - power
Heat flow, P
Figure 2.29
Thermodynamic Ohms Law. 8 - thermal resistance [OC/W]
IC) Adam Zielinski 5
1
19113
2.22
(2.20)
air
/
heat sink
case of a power transistor
Figure 2.30
Case Heat sink Air
0
CS
T S 0 SA

Power flow:
P =
0
CA
= 0
CS
+ 0
SA
Figure 2.31
P
D
- power dissipated in the device.
Example 2.2
T = 0-70C
A
2.23
(2.22)
Transistor 2N5877 used with a heat sink with the following thermal resistances:
'lAdam Zielinski 5!l9il3
0
cS
= O.5C/W
0
SA
= 1.5C/W
2.24
Assume that the power dissipated in the transistor PD. = 30W.
Find the maximum temperature of the case.
Using Equation (2.22) we have:
Tc = 70C + 30W(O.5 + 1.5)
There is a maximum power which can be dissipated in the transistor at ambient
temperature of 25C. If temperature is higher, then a derating factor should be
applied.
25
~ p
slope = D = =n [W ICC]
A ~ T
I (Derating Factor)
TAOC
Figure 2.32
Reduction in power rating is:
~ P = D
A
(T
A
-25)
For large transistors operating with a heat sink, derating factor Dc is given for
case temperature T c .
IC) Adam Zielinski 5!19t13
Compliance.
0.2
v
1
Exercise 2.1
.-------4Ij------ Vee = 9 V
r
e
Figure 2.1
R e (given)
1 kQ
RL
1 kQ
(given)
Design the above amplifier for maximum compliance (RE' R
L
, re and Re are
v
given). Find the circuit gain .
vs
Solution:
Use the equation (2.S) for the maximum compliance
RC = 1 kQ r C = SOOQ and RE = 1 kQ
V
CEQ
=2Volt PP=4V
1c:1Adam Zielinski 5/19113
2.25
IE = 3.3mA r' =
26
7.8
=>
e
3.3
Vo re
= 4.6 (6.7dB) A=-=
VS
r '+ r
e e
Biasing:
Capacitors:
C> 1
- 2nfx R x 0.1
[
RS+Ri = Ri =
R = Rc + RL for C
3
reI + re for C
2
where
For the worst case we assume re = 0 and we obtain:
C 1 > 0.16!-lF
C
2
> 8!-lF
C
3
> 0.026!-lF
) Adam Zielinski 5
1
19/13
2.26
1.
10kQ
Cl
2kQ
+
Exercise 2.2
....-----.------ vee = 30V
4.3kQ
Vo
r----; 1---__. b
100kQ
Figure 2.2.1
2.27
The dc - voltmeter measures at point a Va = 25.1 Volts. A nns voltmeter mea-
sures at point b, Vb = 2 Volts.
Assume:
very large P of the transistor
only parabolic non - linearity of the transistor.
Find: Percent of second hannonic distortion.
Solution:
In general
For parabolic non - linearity Ao = A2
For an ideal transistor:
Va = Vc = Vee-IeRe
VB -O.7 I
Ie = R = .1 rnA => Ve = 25V Va
E
The shift in dc is due to Ao = 0.1 V = A
2
.
i,';Adam Zielinski 5!19f13
v -
b -
2.
nns voltmeter measure at point b
+ (iz), AI J
2V
b'
x 100% = x 100% = 3.5% .
J8 -OJ 2 = 2.83volts
/0,1
2
Vee
+ Vee
V
eEQ
= -2-
+
Vs
Figure 2.2.2
2.28
For the circuit assume that the ac - output voltage is maximum. Neglect biasing
network.
a) Derive power taken from supply, P s .
b) Derive power delivered to the load, PL'
c) Derive power dissipated in the transistor, PD'
Note:
As a check P s = P D + P L
'!) Adam Zielinski 5/19/13
Solution:
Load:
Figure 2.2.3
VCC
I =-
CO 2R
L
V
V CE = V CO - V cosin( O)t)
V
- cc
CO - 2
dcpower
')
V
CO
-
PL de = R
' L
ac - power
(
VC
O)2 2 2
_ J2 _ V CO _ V CC
PL,ae - R - 2R -
L L L
total power (ac+dc) - power adds in this case since frequencies are different.
2
3V
cc
P L = P L, de + P L, ac = 8
RL
!("Adam Zielinski 511913
2.29
Elec 380 Large Signal Ainplifiers
Supply:
Transistor:
poet) = Ic(t)V CE(t) = I
CQ
(1 + sinwt) xV CQ( 1 - sinwt) =
ICQ V CQ(1- sin 2wt) = ICQ V CQ( 1 - +
Check:
2
1 Vcc
Po = {poet)} = ICQ V cQ 2 = ""8R
L
V 2 3V 2
P +P = cc
o L 8R 8R
2
4Vcc
8R
L L L
'\J Adam Zielinski 5119113
sin 20., = cos2a)
2.30
Elec 380 Frequency Response of a Transistor Amplifier
3 Frequency Response of a Transistor Amplifier
Low frequency limit - determined by coupling and bypass capacitors.
c
i
I
Amplifier
I
I I
r l
R. R
I
- -
0
Figure 3.1
s - domain
.----ll------.. v.
I
R.
I
Figure 3.2
The gain (transfer function) under the load is:
Vo R
j
Ay(s) = Vs = R + R. + Z.
S I IC
1
Zic = -C
S .
I
RL
R R Z A(s)
0+ L + oc
A(s) - is the unloaded circuit gain, which is in general a function of s.
3. 1
(3.1)
(3.2)
The first two terms in Equation (3.1) represents high pass filters with cut-
off frequencies (corner frequencies) or 3 dB frequencies, given by:
()Adam Zielinski 5/19/13
Elec 380 Frequency Response of a Transistor Amplifier 3.2
f. = 1
I 21t(Rs + R)C
i
(3.3)
(3.4)
A(s) can also have it's own cut - off frequency fE' which depends on the
circuit.
Assuming that the limiting frequency is dominant (far away from others),
the minimum frequency of operation is:
Swamped CE Amplifier
C
I
r
Z.
1
~ Vee
V.
I
Figure 3.3
I
R
o
Z
o
(Note: Zi is different from Zic of Eq. (3.2
(0 Adam Zielinski 5/19/13
v
o
(3.5)
assume that ZE -70 (worst case condition for Zi )
The corner frequency corresponding to the zero is:
1
f
zero
= 2n RE C
E
and to the pole is:
1
f
zero
a=? f
po1e
> f
zero
A(s) has a zero and a pole:
jco
s - plane
Figure 3.4
('Adam Zielinski 5i19i13
3.3
(3.6)
(3.7)
lec 380 Frequency Response of a Transistor Amplifier 3.4
Bode approximation
I
A(jf)1
dB
I (log)
Izera I
po1e
Figure 3.5
Clearly f pole will limit the lower frequency of operation
1
(3.8)
where
(3.9)
For CE set re = 0 and REI Ire' "'" re' and Equation (3.8) becomes:
(3.10)
Bode diagrams can be used to approximate the frequency response at the
lower end.
Example 3.1
if fE > fo > fj
it; Adam Zielinski 51t 9113
3dB
-<CII--- +40 dB / dec
log!
log!.
1
log!
o
log!
E
Figure 3.6
Usually the lower limit frequency range of an amplifier is defined as a fre-
quency f L for which the gain drops by 3dB with respect to the flat portion
of the frequency response.
In the design usually one frequency should be made dominant as a limit
for lower frequency of operation. Typically C
E
capacitor is the largest one
and fE is made dominant low frequency, that is,
(3.11)
If we impose conditions that f E = fo = fj , then in order to have 3 dB low
frequency fu it is necessary that
(3.12)
rOAdam Zielinski 5119113
Voltage Follower
A similar but simpler relationships hold for CC (Common Collector or
voltage follower configuration)
r ~ Vee
C
1
Co
~
R 2 ~
f RE
f
RL
Vs
1 -L -L
- - - -
- - - -
Figure 3.7
Corner frequencies are
f. = 1
I 2nCRs + R)C
j
where
and
where
Rd I R211
R
s
R =R'IIR zR'=r'+ zr'
TH 0 E 0 e p e
Here we have only two cascaded high pass filters. A relation similar to
Equation (3.12) exits for
(0 Adam Zielinski 5il9!13
(3.13)
(3.14)
(3.15)
(3.16)
V.
1
1
where f L is the 3dB lower frequency limit.
Higher Frequency Limits
,
, , , , , ","
.. : ........ ! ........ .
midband
gain
I ..... ..... d .. f
due to coupling ue to capacItIve
and by-pass caps Bf bandwidth effects in transistors
f L f H and connectors (stray)
Miller's Theorem
z
A
-
'--
Vo
A=
V
1
..
Figure 3.8
V
o
V.
1
J
RL
Z1
1
1
-
-
Figure 3.9
(t)Adam Zielinski 5119113
V
A

I
-L
-
-
- -
3. 7
(3.17)
0
RL
-
-
z
z =--
I I-A
Z
Z = ZA =
2 A-I 1
I--
A
*Note: A is the gain under the load Z and R
L
.
1
In the special case where Z= sC' Z I and Z2 represent capacitances
given by
C
1
= C(1-A)
Conclusion
3.8
(3.18)
(3.19)
(3.20)
For a large negative gain (A<O) a small capacitance between the output and
the input appears as a large input capacitance C I . This will limit the gain
at higher frequencies.
JFET Amplifier
The ac - equivalent for properly biased common source amplifier.
Figure 3.10
- load and connection wire
(lpF fIDem)
fG - internal resistance of an equivalent driving source
(including biasing network)
(q Adam Zielinski 5119113
ro - ac - dynamic load resistance
Cgs, Cds' C
gd
- internal capacitances between electrodes
The mid - band gain (neglecting all C's) is
A= -gm ro ; gm = f( loss, Vp,Q-point)
Applying Miller's Theorem
e
Gr
r
D
leo
Vc
- - - - -
- - - - -
\.
..
./ \..
T
"J
LPFI LPF2
Figure 3.11
C -
G-
C
gs
+ C
gd
(1- A)
CO "'"
C
gd
+ Cds + C
L
(forlargel A I)
Corner frequencies for these low - pass filters are;
2nr
G
C
G
f - 1
o - 2nr
o
C
o
The maximum frequency of operation is
f H = min(f G' f 0)
The smallest of f G or f 0 is called the dominant cut off frequency.
(assuming their values are seperated by at least decade)
't)Adam Ziel inski 5119113
3.9
(3.21)
Example 3.2
C
gd
= 3pF
C
gs
= 4pF
1MQ
Gain = (-4x5) = -20 = A
HF equivalent circuit
C
ds
= IpF
gm = 4rnS
1MQ
I
Figure 3.12
3pF
5kQ
Figure 3.13
<() Adam Zielinski 5/19/13
3.10
Applying Miller's Theorem
4pF 63pF 3pF IpF 4pF
I I
5kQ
I I I
Figure 3.14
1
fa = -----_-:-::c
12
Hz= 47.5MHz
2rr(50)67xlO
r = 5 kQ
o '
Co = 3 + 1 + 4 = 8 pF
1
f 0 = _12
Hz
= 3.98MHz fa
2rr x 5000 x 8xl 0
f 0 - is the dominant frequency
In data sheets C's are given indirectly as C
rss
' C
iss
and Cos
s
Use:
C
gd
= Crss
C
gs
= C
iss
- Crss
Cds = Cos
s
- Crss
(c;Adam Zielinski 5/19'13
3. 11
(3.22)
High Frequency BJT Analysis
The precise model is quite complex and involves several parameters
We will use a very simple model- adding only 3 parameters to our low -
frequency model.
v.
1
B
C'
e
E
Figure 3.15
CE Amplifier
Yo
A=-
y.
I
fb' - base bulk resistance (50 - 100Q)
C
r
c
v
o
(not very accurate because it is a difference of similar numbers)
C
e
' - capacitance of emitter diode (21pF)
C
c
' - capacitance of collector diode (4pF)
C
L
-load and connection capacitance.
C
c
' is listed in data sheets as C
c
' C
cb
' Cob' C
obo
For 2N3904 C
c
' = C
obo
= 4pF(max)
C'
c
1
f T - current gain product listed in data sheets.
co Adam Zielinski 5/19/13
(3.23)
(3.24)
Elee 380 Frequency Response of a Transistor Amplifier
Consider a CE amplifier
r ~ v c c
V.
1
Figure 3.16
I
The mid - band gain under the load is:
_ Vo _
A- --
v
I
v
o
3.13
Using HF model for the transistor and applying Miller's Theorem we get
I
V
I
Figure 3.17
(oAdam Zielinski 5f! 9,13
v
o
r
c
v
1
_ R'i /l
V'
0..__-----.1
Av
1
CB=C' e+C' c(1-A)
Figure 3.18
y.
I
is a low-pass filter at the base, with corner frequency:
Similarly
(r + r ') II R.' = (r + r ') II Ar '
G biG b I-'e
C
B
= C '+ C '(I + rc)
e c r '
e
II
is a low - pass filter at the collector with corner frequency:
where
"' Adam Zielinski 5119113
3.14
(3.25)
(3.26)
(3.27)
(3.28)
(3.29)
(3.30)
C = C' + C and
eeL
Example 3.3
r------,-----------V
cc
=9V
Vs
R2
2.3 kQ
C
E
11.2 J.lF
-
- - - -
- - -
Figure 3.19
Assume IE
transistor
1 rnA => re I = 260 at 25C
-
-
v
o
RL
1 kO
C
1
5
bF
-
-
~ = 120
~ e = 80
C
e
'
= 20pF
Ce' = 4pF
r I - 1000
For high frequency analysis
1. Biasing
b -
v
Required gain: ~ = 20 (or 26dB)
Vs
Lower frequency f L = 10kHz
Rs = 500
RL = 10000
V E = 0.1 Vee = 0.9 V let V E = 1 V => RE 1 kO
ItlAdam Zielinski 5i1 9!1 3
3. 15
(3.31)
VB V
E
+0.7 = 1.7 V LetR
I
= lOk,Q=> R2 = 2.3 k,Q
gain
vi < Vs due to Ri ;
Rl - RIll = 10112.311 120 x 0.026 = 1169,Q
1.17 = 0.96
1.17 + 0.05
In order to compensate for this, the overall gain should be:
Vo rc Rc II RL 20
I A I = - = - = = - = 208
Vj re' re' 0.96-'
=> rc = Rc II RL = 542,Q
Let RL = 1 k,Q => Rc = 1183,Q
2. Lower frequency analysis.
fj = fo = fE = 0.51 fL = 5.1kHz
1
C.
1
1
-------F = 0.02!-lF == 20nF
211:(50+ 1169)5.1 X 10
3
_______ = 1 F = 14.3nF
211:( Ro + RL) fo 211:(1182 + 1000)5.1X10
3
3. High frequency analysis.
r = 542,Q'
c '
(using Equation (3.27))
r B = ( r G + r b ') II r e' = [Rs II R I II R2 + r b '] II r e '
= (501110000112300 + 100) 113120 = 142,Q
f
B
C '+ C '(1 = 20 + 4(1 + 20.8) = 107pF
e C r '
e
6
10 MHz= 100 1O.5MHz
211:142 x 107 211: x 1.42 x 1.07
Adam Zielinski 5/19/13
3.16
Using Equation (3.30) and Equation (3.31):
6
f = 10 MHz
c 2rr x 540 x 9
fB is the dominant frequency
Neutralization of the input capacitance
Existence of input capacitance limits the frequency response
+
If v s is a transient
Rs vi
Input of an amplifier,
scope, ect.
................................................
R.
I
Figure 3.20
Figure 3.21
()Adam Zielinski 5/19/13
3. 17
32.7 MHz
Elec 380 Frequency Response of a Transistor Amplifier 3. 18
RS
'Is
Remedy
R
v.
I
C
I
c
R As
I
R.
1
(let R s = 0)
-
-
-
-
- -
Figure 3.22
R
It is easy to show that for c= It C
i
V
H(s)= _I = constant - such arrangement is in a scope probe. Tuning the C
Vs
is called probe compensation.
(<:) Adam Zielinski 5119/13
Elee 380 Frequency Response of a Transistor Amplifier
Vs
Exercise 3.1
Consider the following amplifier:
-
-
Let:
V
I
R2
lOkQ
~
RE
4.
3kn
l
-
-
-
-
Figure 3.1.1
~ = 100 = ~ d c
C
e
' = 4pF
C
e
' = 21pF
rb' = 100Q
I
-
-
Replace the circuit to the right of the dotted line by:
'1:) Adam Zielinski 5i19!13
Vee = lOV
-
-
v
o
RL
2kQ
3.19
Figure 3.1.2
a) Find the values for R
a
, R
b
, Ri and C
i
.
v
b) Find 3dB upper frequency response ..2.
vs
Solution: loo ~
j RcllRL
a) Find the gain A =
r'
26
VB
lOV
-
c
IE
,
2
r '
e
= 26Q
A
1000
-38.5 - ---
26
b) Miller's Theorem:
r'
c
= 5V V
E
=4.3V
10 Adam Zielinski 5119/13
v
1
=> IE
3.20
= ImA
:R 111 R2
:=5kQ
Therefore:
Vs
-
-
+
IOOQ

21 pF I 158 pF I
Figure 3.1.3
5kQ
-
-
rc
C
j
= 179pF
R
j
= 2.6kQ
IOOQ
2.6kQ

fC
v-
I
Figure 3.1.4
(C) Adam Zielinski 5!1 9il 3
,
R = A f f = 2.6 kQ
I I-' e
V.
1
I
-
-
3.21
100Q
5 kQ . 100 Q =:}
200 Q
neglect
Figure 3.1.5
rG = 260011200= 186Q
f = 1
H 2rrCr
G
1
-----_-12--Hz = 4.8MHz.
2rr x 179xlO x 186
in Adam Zielinski 5i19i13
Elec 380 Diferential Amplifier 4.1
4 Differential Amplifier
Often, it is required to monitor the voltage difference between two points
of a network. We can do it using a Differential Amplifier
v
Differential
Amplifier
Figure 4.1
Ideal differential amplifier
Ad - differential gain
v
o
In general, for any linear circuit superposition must apply
v
1
Linear
.. v
Circuit
0
v
2
..
.-L
1
-L
- -
- -
-
-
Figure 4.2
IOAdam Zielinski 5/19/13
(4.1)
(4.2)
where
1
Ad = 2 (A I - A
2
) - differential gain (4.3)
V d = (v 1 - V 2) - di fferential signal (4.4)
Aern = (AI + A
2
) - common mode gain (4.5)
vern = ~ V I + v
2
) - common mode signal (4.6)
For an ideal differential amplifier
AI = - A2 == Ad and Aern = 0
In practice it is impossible to have gains exactly equal, therefore A I :::::: - A2
and Aern:f::. 0
Figure of merit: common - mode - rejection ratio CMRR.
(4.7)
or
CMRR
JB
20Iog(CMRR) (4.8)
(,;l Adam Zielinski 5;19/13
Elec 380 Diferential Amplifier
Transistor Differential Amplifier
Vee
VB IB
T1 T2 VB
IE IE
IB
IT
RE
vI
v
2
- -
-
-VEE
-
Figure 4.3
Let v I = v
2
= O. Assume RB very small.
Neglecting a small drop RB I B ::::: 0 we have VB = 0
4.3
VO
-L
-
-
In order to neglect IB we need RB - firm bias. If this condition is
satisfied IB is independent on RB
"Tail" current
With the same transistors
and
IT
IE = 2
IE

Because transistors are not perfectly identical, there will be a slight differ-
ence between IBI and IB2
(/Adam Zielinski 5il 9i1 3
lio = IBI - IB2 - Input offset current
The input bias current is defined as an average
IBI + IB2
I = ----
B 2
The nominal expected dc - output voltage is
Yo = V c = Vee - Ie Rc; Ie = IE
Most often we select Rc such that V c = 0 .
4.4
(4.9)
In practice V c is not exactly zero and a small input voltage v
io
must
be applied to one input to restore the output to the expected value
v
io
- input offset voltage
Now we will analyze the ac - performance
Vo = A
1
v
l
+A
2
v
2
We will set v I = 0 and find A
2
, and then set v 2 = 0 and find AI'
For vI = 0 we have
+
Figure 4.4
Rc Rc
:::::-- (for R
E
re')
r '+ R Ilr I 2r I
e E e e
(4.10)
{(') Adam Zielinski 5i19/13
lee 380 Diferential Amplifier 4. 5
Now v
2
O.
-
CB Amplifier
vI
Tl
r
Voltage
follower
R I = r I + RB "" r I
o e ~ e
-
!
T2
ie
E
ic
Figure 4.5
Figure 4.6
VI 1 vI
---x "" - . (for R
E
re')
r' r' + R Ilr' 2r"
1 ~ e E e c
RE
V 0 = i e Rc => A I =
Rc
2 r '
e
"'Adam Zielinski 5/19'13
v
o
Vo
(4.11)
Clearly A2 = - A I => Aem = 0 and
Rc
2r'
e
4.6
(4.12)
If we take the exact values in Equation (4.10) and Equation (4.11) it can be
shown that:
and
= _ Rc
Aem 2R
E
RE
CMRR =
r '
e
(4.13)
(4.14)
Clearly for high CMRR RE / re' should be large, but if RE is too large, no
voltage will be left on the transistor - small output compliance.
fe' can be made small by a large IE' but again compliance problem. The
best solution is to use a current source which can produce any IT and
have a very large internal resistance.
r----------.--------- v
cc
v
I---------e 0
Figure 4.7
In Adam Zielinski 5'19'13
Elee 380 Diferential Amplifier
Current Mirrors
IR
R
II 12
I C1
IB2
I Bl +
+
0.7 V
+
0.7 V
0.7 V
Tl
-
-
Figure 4.8
Q I' Q
2
are identical transistors,
because they are identical lSI
Now switch into position 1/2".
Re
I .
e
2
+
0.7 V
T2
-
-
Neglecting the base current we can write that ICI = IR
dently on Rc .
IUAdam Ziel inski 5!19i13
4. 7
Vee
Ic indepen-
(4.15)
Elee 380 Diferential Amplifier
~ ~ ~ V e e
R
I
Figure 4.9
Rc
I-I
- e
This is called current mirror. It is used frequently in integrated circuits.
We can use it for a differential amplifier.
Vee
R
v
0
IR
-L
IE IE
1...-________________ --' __ - VEE
Figure 4.10
., Vee + VEE - V BE
Due to current mIrror action I R = I T = R
This is a typical input stage of an operational amplifier.
rp Adam Zielinski 5119/13
4.8
Active Load
In order to have a large gain Ad I ( Ad = .) Rc must be high. Again
problem with compliance.
A better solution is to replace Rc by a current source with high internal
resistance:
R c - very high internal resistance
Figure 4.11
(f)Adam Zielinski 5/19113
R
Figure 4.12
(0 Adam Zielinski 5/19
1
13
Active Load
(High Rc!!)
8-----_ v
out
- VEE
4. 10
Current mirror Current mirror
Q
14
IT IR
+
v.
In
Q13
IR
R2
voltage
follower
Q
12
R3
C
C
+
active load
I
Q
ll
Q
s
Q
7
Simplified diagram for 741 Operational Amplifier.
Figure 4.13
(tJAdam Zielinski 5119113
4. 11
+ Vee
push-
I pull
Q
9
v
out
QlO
Elec 380 Operational Amplifiers - Low Frequency Models
5 Operational Amplifiers - Low Frequency Models
Ideal operational amplifier
v1_----I
Differential
v
2
_----iAmplifier
+
v = A (vI-v?) = A (v
1
-v
2
)
o d - 0
usually A 0<0
Figure 5.1
5. I
An operational amplifier is a dc - coupled, differential amplifier with large
input impedances, large gain, and a low output impedance.
inverting input
I
+ ----1---.
V.
1
noninverting input
R
j
, very high- MQ
Ro low -ohms
Figure 5.2
I Ao I very high - 10
5
(Ao<O)
v = A v.
o 01
Because of its high gain an operational amplifier is seldom used in open
loop configurations.
((')Adam Ziel inski 5i1 9!l 3
Elee 380 Operational Amplifiers - Low Frequency Models 5.2
Figure 5.3
Vo
vi = - but Ao - very large I Aol= 00 => vi = 0 - for every finite output
Ao
Because vi = 0 I there is no current into the inputs 1_ = 1+ = o.
We say that for an ideal operational amplifier there can be no voltage dif-
ference between input terminals. It is called a virtual short circuit (or less
correctly virtual ground)
The concept of virtual ground is very useful in analyzing circuits with
operational amplifiers
v
s
no current
+
Virtual ground
Ground
Figure 5.4
Because of the virtual ground
1 =
I .
) Adam Zielinski 5119/13
V = 7
o .
Because no current is taken by /I_" (inverting) terminal
Using KVL we can write - i2 R2 Vo but
A
Identical formula holds for impedances Z I and Z2'
H(s)
Such a configuration is called inverting configuration.
The input impedance of the inverting configuration is
Other application
Sumer
V R3
3 ----...J
Figure 5.5
('Adam Zielinski 5/19.'13
v
o
5.3
(5.1)
(5.2)
(5.3)
(5.4)
Integrator
Vo Z2
H(s)=V
s
= ~ = -sRC;
Figure 5.6
t
Vo = -R1CfVs('t)dt
o
5.4
The Sumer and Integrator are the building blocks of analog computers. It is
easy to program differential equations using such blocks.
Current to voltage converter
R
R
v = - iR
o
Figure 5.7
(f') Adam Zielinski 5i19i13
N oninverting Configuration
II
Vs
= 1 =-'
2 Z'
1
H(s)
Figure 5.8
v
o
Vo 12 Z2 + Vs
Vs
=
Z Z2+ Vs
1
Vo Z?
= 1 +-=
Vs Z,
VO R2
H(s)= A= - = 1 +-
Vs R,
This configuration is called non - inverting. configuration.
Special case:
Zl = 00 and Z2 o for which Vo = Vs (voltage follower)
!('!Adam Zielinski 5/19/13
5.5
(5.5)
Negative - Impedance Circuit
Figure 5.9
y R\R
It can be shown that R. = - = ---
I i R2
Voltage Controlled Current Source - VCCS
R
R
Figure 5.10
y.
lL = - independent on RL
(!) Adam Zielinski 5/19!13
v
I
R
5.6
-R
Instrumentation Amplifier
It is a precise dc - coupled differential amplifier with high input imped-
ances, stable differential gain, and high CMRR.
Consider the circuit:
Figure 5.11
R '/R'
2 I
=V21 +
R
'/R'
2 I
v
o
Using the superposition principle for vI and v
2
, we get
If
R'
2
R'
I
and we have the differential amplifier with the desired gain.
"'Adam Ziel inski 5119113
5. 7
(5.6)
(5.7)
Circuit with a variable gain
Figure 5.12
R = aR
3 2
v
o
In order to isolate the input we can add voltage followers at
N
1
-------;
(v2)
Figure 5.13
'" Adam Zielinski 5/19/13
5.8
lec 380 Operational Amplifiers - Low Frequency Models
Typical application of a differential amplifier
v
Figure 5.14
v
R
1+_1
R2
Bridge
0, the bridge is balanced.
5.9
Because of their symmetry, bridges are used extensively in various trans-
ducers - strain bridges, pressure, acceleration etc.
Let
RI = R2 = R4 = R
R3 = R+Li R
it is easy to show that
V 5 where 5 = Li R
41 + R
2
"JAdam Zielinski 5i19113
(5.8)
1
V/2
--------1-- -------------
-21
Figure 5.15
(5 V
For small (5 such that 2: 1, V d """4(5
A different circuit which provides a linear dependance v 0 vs (5 is:
R
Figure 5.16
Vo = V(l =
2 R R 2 R
? Adam Zielinski 5i19/13
v
o
5.10
R +,1 R then
Another Application - Current Sensing
/ small sensing resistor
Power
i R
..
./\ A Load
Supply
+ vV
-
v
vd
....L ....L
- -
Differential
Amplifier
....L
Figure 5.17
Vd . vd
v
o
vern = V - 2 "'" v, SInce 2 v
Vo = Advd + Aemvern
Vel
smce 2 v.
(qAdam Zielinski 5/19/13
5.11
(5.9)
Elec 380 Operational Amplifiers - Low Frequency Models 5. 12
Practical Operation Amplifiers
- All numerical values will be representative to a general purpose opera-
tional amplifier such as 74l.
Input Offset voltage
Ideal Op. Amp.
v =0
o
Figure 5.18
In practice v 0 t: 0 (remember balancing problems?)
In order to adjust v 0 = 0 a small voltage Vio = l mV must be applied at
the input. This voltage is called input offset voltage.
ideal operational amplifier
> ~ _ v o
+
v
2
t ~
Figure 5.19
i(; Adam Zielinski 5119113
Can such a small voltage cause problems?
Consider the standard inverting and non - inverting configuration.
+
+
Figure 5.20
Let vI = v
2
= 0
v 0 = ? R
J
I - Vio = 0
Suppose we want an inverting gain of 1000. ( v 2 = 0)
violOOlmV=+I-lOOlmV=+I-lvolt !!
'ClAdam Zielinski 5i19113
v
o
5.13
Solution
Balancing circuit
t
10k pot ~
- Vee
Figure 5.21
One can also use an external balancing circuit.
Non - Inverting Configuration
50 kn E'-ooIII----_
+
Figure 5.22
v
o
5. 14
It is important that the balancing circuit does not interfere with the gain set
by ~ ~ + 1).
ii? Adam Zielinski 5119/13
Inverting Configuration
50k!::! ~ - J
Figure 5.23
Power Supply rejection Ratio (PSRR)
v
o
Vio will change with the supply voltage Vee and temperature T.
t1V
PSRR = __ 10
t1Vcc
Typical value 20tl V / v.
t1 ViO[JlV ] _ temperature drift
t1 T C
Typical value Itl V / C
(i:>Adarn Zielinski 5i1 9!1 3
5. 15
(5.10)
Elec 380 Operational Amplifiers - Low Frequency Models 5.16
Input Bias Currents
As we know, a differential amplifier requires biasing base currents - these
are delivered by current sources.
Model
Figure 5.24
Consider an inverting I non - inverting configuration.
Figure 5.25
We will investigate the effects of 1
8
_, 18+ on v 0
We will use superposition.
"J Adam Zielinski 5/19/13
v
o
V
TH
Let IB+ = 0, IB_::t
Thevenin equivalent:
=
Figure 5.26
Put it back
+
- -
- -
Figure 5.27
vo IB_R2
=IB_(R
1
II R
2
)P;
R
P = 1 +.2
RI
c()Adam Zielinski 5/19113
5.17
+
R2
Vo = V
TH
(- )
Rl
...L
-
-
Figure 5.28
R2
v=-I R(l+-)
o B+ R
1
v 0 = - IS+ R( 1 + = - Is+ RB
where B = (1 +
Combining both results we get
Vo = Is_ R
2
- Is+RB = Is+BR
5. 18
Clearly if I
s
_' Is+ are known we can find R to have v 0 = 0 1 as it should
be. If Is_, Is+ are not known precisely but Is_ "" Is+ the best choice to
minimize v 0 is:
(5.11)
for which
(5.12)
lio = Is - Is + - input offset current.
To compensate for the effects of Is_' IS+I a resistor R is added to 1/+" terminal.
(0 Adam Zielinski 5/19/13
Usually
1
Is = 2( IS_ + I
S
+) - input bias current
Typical value
Is = 100 nA
I = +10 nA
10 -
I io drifts with temperature - typical drift
~ I
io
0.1 nA
~ 1C
Measurements
IB+
O01I1F
I
R
- -
- -
Figure 5.29
!()Adarn Zielinski 5/19/13
V
0
.-L
-
-
5.19
O01I1F
Figure 5.30
Yo = - IS_ R R= 6-10 MQ
Summary
v
o
+
5.20
Typical parameters of a general purpose monolitic Operational Amplifier
such as 741.
Open loop gain, Ad
Input offset voltage, Y
io
PSRR
Y
jo
drift
Input bias current Is
Input offset current lio
Ijo drift
CMRR
Input differential resistance R
j
Output resistance Ro
50,000 V IV
1mV
20 ~ V I V
1 /l v/oe
100nA
10 nA
0.1 nA/oe
100 dB (at dc)
2 MQ
75 Q
Elec 380 Operational Amplifiers - High Frequency Operation and Instrumentation Amplifiers 6.1
6 Operational Amplifiers - High Frequency Operation
and Instrumentation Amplifiers
Slewing Rate
Inside the operational amplifier there are several stages which are current
limited - they can not deliver more current than a certain Imax'
t>
i
v
t>
v. ....
Ie
v
1 0
I
-
-
Figure 6.1
C - capacitance between stages - stray or added on purpose (in 741, C = 30
pF is added)
'- C dv < I
1- dt - max
1
I - - - - - - - r----------------
max
SL
Figure 6.2
dv
dt
There is a maximum slope (derivative) which the output voltage v 0 can
follow. This maximum slope is called slew rate - SL, V / IlS
@Adam Zielinski 5i 19113
Elec 380 Operational Amplifiers - High Frequency Operation and Instrumentation Amplifiers
Ideal output
/
Figure 6.3
output distored
by finite slew rate.
t
Distortion caused by finite slew rate is nonlinear distortion
it alters the form of the sinusoidal signal.
higher harmonics are generated.
6.2
By contrast, linear distortion changes amplitude and phase of a sinusoidal
signal but no harmonics are generated.
In order to avoid slew rate distortion, max. output signal derivative
I
dVol < SL
dt max
(6.1)
For a sinusoidal signal
Vo = Asin(21tft) (do not confuse amplitude A with the gain)
\
dVo \ = 21tAfand the maximum frequency of the output signal is given
dt max
by
(6.2)
Note that this frequency depends on the amplitude A at the output. If we
drive the maximum output (output compliance) then f
max
given by Equa-
tion (6.2) is referred as power bandwidth of an operational amplifier.
Adam Zielinski 5119113
Elec 3.80 Operational Amplifiers - High Frequency Operation and Instrumentation Amplifiers
Measurements
Done by using a pulse in a non - inverting configuration of gain 1.
Vo
=
v
s
.L
-
-
Figure 6.4
v (1 + R2) =
Vs(l+g)=
s R
1
I L1V
--"11----
L1t
Figure 6.5
SL= L1 V [ ~
L1 t Jls
vo
-L
-
-
Vs
- Voltage follower.
t
Typical value 0.5 - 3V / /1S, but there are operational amplifiers with SL =
6000 V / /1S.
@Adam Zielinski 5/19113
6.3
Elee 380 Operational Amplifiers - High Frequency Operation and Instrumentation Amplifiers 6.4
Frequency Response of the Operational Amplifier
The open loop gain of the operational amplifier is very high, but only for
low frequencies. For stability consideration a capacitor is added to limit the
open loop frequency response to a few Hz. This is called internal compensa-
tion.
Figure 6.6
The open loop transfer function of a general purpose op. amp. can be mod-
elled by:
A(s)
Ao - open loop gain Ao > 0
1 +_s_
21tfo
fo - open loop corner frequency
ffio - open loop corner frequency (rad/ s)
IA() I dB
log! 0
Figure 6.7
- 20 dB/ dec
(or-6dB/oct)
Adam Zielinski 5!19i13
(6.3)
log!
What good is this for?
Consider the non - inverting configuration.
R2
V
0
-L
+ -
v -
0
-L
V
f
= v Rl
-
- -
-
(b)
Figure 6.8
~ = v
f
= R\ = 1
Vo R
j
+ R2 1 +R
2
/R
1
The transfer function of a closed loop non - inverting configuration is
_ A (s)
Af ( s) - 1 + A (s)
Using Equation (6.3) we get
Ao (00
Af ( S ) = -----,--
S + (00 (l + Ao )
The dc - gain -L.
A R ~ f-
A (0)
0 - 1 + _2. A A 1
f = 1 + Ao - R I SInce I-' 0
in agreement with Equation (5.1)
The comer frequency (bandwidth) of Af ( s) is
Therefore
For Af(O) = 1
Adam Zielinski 5il9/l 3
6.5
(6.4)
Vo
V
s
-.L ~
- -
- -
Figure 6.9
B = funity = Ao fo - parameter of an operational amplifier
funity - unity gain bandwidth.
Example 6.1
Figure 6.10
funity = 1 MHz required gain Af (0)
But from Equation (6.4)
R
1 +_2
RI
1 MHz
Af (0) B= funity => B= u n i ~
Af( )
1000kHz
10
= 100 kHz
Adam Zielinski 5/19113
6.6
9
We must not forget the frequency limitation imposed by the slew rate as
given byEquation (6.2). The frequency limitation will be given by the
smaller one
Example 6.2
6. 7
Continuing the previous example, assume that the output signal is PP = 10
V p _P' UsingEquation (6.2) we have
B = SL Let SL = 1 V/lJ.s
SL (PP)
2n: -
2
1000
BSL = 2n: x 5 kHz= 31.8 kHz
Therefore in this case Bmax = 31.8 kHz as determined by the slew rate and
not by the frequency response.
Inverting Configuration
+
A(s)=
Figure 6.11
Ao
1 + _s_
COo
using Miller's Theorem we can show that
Adam Zielinski 5/19
/
13
v
o
(6.5)
a=
Substituting A(s) as given by Eq.(6.3) we get
For dc gain
The bandwidth of Ar{s) is given by it's corner frequency
B= fo (l + Ao)
The gain - bandwidth product is
aAo
Ar{O)B = 1 + Ao x fo (I + Ao) = a Ao fo but
(J.,=
R/R
J
Ar(O)
= 1 + R
2
/R
J
1- Ar(O) and Ao fo =
From which we obtain
B[ 1 - Ar(O)] = funity Ar{O) < 0
6.8
(6.6)
(6.7)
(6.8)
(6.9)
funity
(6.10)
Comparing Equation (6.10) with Equation (6.4) we see that for a given gain
IAf{O)1 we get more bandwidth with the non - inverting configuration
compare to the inverting configuration.
Adam Zielinski 5119
1
13
Elec 380 Operational Amplifiers - High Frequency Operation and Instrumentation Amplifiers 6.9
Exercise 6.1
1.
lOOmVp-p
Figure 6.1
The amplifier above should operate at frequency 100 kHz with the output voltage
of 1 V p-p.
a) Find its gain.
b) Find the value for R\.
c) What should be R to minimize the effect of input bias currents?
d) SpecifY the minimum required funity for the operational amplifier.
e) SpecifY the minimum required slew rate, SL for the operational amplifier.
Solution:
a) Gain = _10_0_0_m_V __ p:-.--..:;..p = 10 V
100mVp-p V
b) R2 = 10 - 1 = 9 R \ = 19
0
= 1.1 kQ .
R\
c) R = Rd IR2 = 0.99kQ.
d) Af(O)B = funity funtiy = 10 x 100kHz = 1 MHz.
) f
< SL . 05V
e rnax-2rcA' A = .
sV
SL > 2rcAf
rnax
= 2rc x 0.5xlO -
s
Adam Zielinski 5!19i13
= 0.3 V
Jls
Elec 380 Applications of Operational Amplifiers
7 Applications of Operational Amplifiers
Stable ac - coupled amplifier
1
where: (00
Figure 7.1
IH(ro I
dB
v
o
do not forget the
freqency response
of the operational
amplifier
o I
20 log _R_2_ ....................... )-. ---:::::::======-:
R]
Figure 7.2
Adam Zielinski 5119, 13
ro
(log)
7. 1
(7.1)
ac - voltage follower with boot strapping.
V
C}
s

V
0
r
0.01 /-iF
lOOknJ
s
R}
-L
-
-
R.
1
C
2
2/-i F
R2 100kQ
-
-
Figure 7.3
C j - short circuit for ac such that v 0 = Af v s "'" V s
With the switch open R
j
= R
j
+ R2 = 200 kQ
7.2
In order to increase it ( R j + R
2
) / - but there is a problem with volt-
age drop due to bias current.
Close the switch and assume C
2
is the short circuit for ac that is
1
-- Rill R
2

(J) C
2
<D Adam Zielinski 5!19!13
ac - equivalent circuit
+
v
s
R.
I
R
1
7.3
Figure 7.4
VS R
J
1 = 1 _ Af where A
f
:::::: 1 but < 1
(7.2)
For values indicated and with the operational amplifier LMI02 we have:
f=lOOHz R =12MQ
I
f = 1 kHz R
j
= 100 MQ
There are operational amplifiers with JFET inputs - very high input resis-
tances, and practically no biasing currents.
Operation from a single supply
Normally Operational Amplifiers require two supplies.
v
Figure 7.5
@Adam Zielinski 5/19;1 3
Elec 380 Applications of Operational Amplifiers 7.4
They need not be symmetric, but the total V + - V_must be within certain
limits. For 741
min ( V + - V_) = 10 V
max ( V + - V_) = 36 V
Because polarity is relative, a single supply operation is possible for unipo-
lar signals.
Consider:
v
o
Vs
Figure 7.6
.................................... ,,....._--
t
1.5 to 2 V
Figure 7.7
v
s
Noninverting ac - amplifier
15 flF
R2
99kQ
-Lr-----tll----.A V'-...----.J
+20V
220kQ
+ 20V -----.A
R
R 220 kQ
Figure 7.8
+ 10V dc
/
R)
ac gain R + 1 = 100 (assuming capacitors are short circuited)
\
Inverting ac - amp
C
1
Rl
Vs --l1---.... . A f \ . . . L . . ~
R2
ac - gain A= --
R\
Figure 7.9
Adam Zielinski 5i19
1
13
7.5
Example 7.1
Single supply voltage reference with variable value.
+ 15V
R
V
z
= 6.2 V
I
z
= 7 rnA
Figure 7.10
Will this circuit work? For Vs = 0 ~ v 0 = 0
vo= 10.0V
required
7.6
This is a positive - feedback circuit. Any random Vs will be amplified by
( 1 + ~ ~ gain and feedback until v s = V z . Assume therefore that:
v z = 6.2 V at I
z
= 7 rnA
10 - 6.2 = 543Q
7
(
1+ R2)v = 1 0 ~ R2 = Vo -1 = 0.613
R, z R, V
z
Question: Why not supply the diode directly from Vee?
Current Booster
741 is limited to maximum of 25 mA of output current.
Current booster:
t
v
s
slope A 0
(open loop gain)
- VEE
V'
o
V
o
f t ~ ~ ~
Figure 7.11
R
slope = ( 1 + _2 )
Rl
V
s
For Large
Ao
Figure 7.12
@AdamZielinski 5119/13
- VEE
V'
o
V
o
V
s
7. 7
Elee 380 Applications of Operational Amplifiers
Watch for reverse polarity V BE - for 2N3904 I V BEl max
6 v.
Can operate from single supply for Vs > 1.5 V
Note: In simulations of circuits with nonlinearities and with high fre-
quency effects use higher accuracy.
For bipolar signals
- VEE
Figure 7.13
Crossover distortion is practically eliminated.
v
o
7.8
Precision Rectifiers
v
s
R
Figure 7.14
For small signals, such a rectifier will not work.
Figure 7.15
v
o
1
Figure 7.16
v
s
7.9
(load must be connected
to make a path for IB _)
v
s
For V s < 0 diode is off, but Vo' < - V H ' and operational amplifier is satu-
rated. It will take time to recover from saturation.
By adding a second diode we can prevent the operational amplifier from
saturation.
R
v
o
Figure 7.17
Peak Detector
v
s Rectifier
v
1
Figure 7.18
R
R -large
v
o
Figure 7.19
Voltage Controlled Current Source
v
s
v
s
Figure 7.20
Vcc-v
s
R
Adam Zielinski Sfl9/13
t
7.11
v
s
(7.3)
EIec 380 Applications of Operational Amplifiers
v
s
v
s
R
v
. s
1 =-
E R
i = 1
L "C
Figure 7.21
Current sources are used to telemeter measurements over long cables.
Nonlinear Applications
Comparator
v
s
{
V
H
for Vs >
VO
V
L
for Vs <
Comparator
v
0
-L
-
-
Figure 7.22
V
T
V
T
Adam Zielinski 5il9l13
7. 12
(7.4)
Elec 380 Applications of Operational Amplifiers 7. 13
V H' V L - certain voltage levels
V T - threshold voltage (trip point)
Comparator can be built using an operational amplifier in an open loop
configuration.
+
V.
I
Figure 7.23
Note: virtual ground concept does not apply.
V ceCor -V EE)
VT = R R R2
1 + 2
C - used to suppress high frequency noise
Vo
= { V H; vi > 0 or Vs > vT
V L; Vi < 0 or v s < v
T
Can operate from a single supply for v
T
> 1.5 - 2 V
V H' V L depends on supplies typically
V H = Vee - 1 volt
V L = - VEE + 1 volt
For V T = 0 we have zero - crossing detector.
Adam Zielinski 5/191\3
v
o
Figure 7.24
slope is determined by
slew rate.
7. 14
A specially designed operational amplifier without internal compensating
capacitor and high slew rate functions as monolithic Ie comparator.
Example 7.2
LM311 - data provided in the Lab Manual.
This device (and others) has a so called open - collector output stage and an
external resistor (pull - up resistor) is required.
Adam Zielinski 5119il3
+
LM311
Figure 7.25
For driving TTL logic, Vee = 5V .
Typical R = lkQ for Vo ::::: 0 V or 5V.
@Adam Zielinski 5; 19/13
7.15
R
Schmitt Trigger
Consider an comparator with an input signal which is close to the thresh-
old voltage V T .
j
...
t
Figure 7.26
A noise present can cause erratic operation of the comparator. This can
cause serious problems in many applications - for instance temperature
control.
Solution is to introduce a hysteresis
v
o
.... ..
hysteresis
Consider a circuit
Note:
v
s
..
v
s
Figure 7.27
Figure 7.28
Schmitt trigger
This is a positive feedback - unstable configuration.
Assume v s 0 => v 0 = V H
v 0 will change to - V H when Vi = 0 at a certain Vs = V T
V
H
R] Vs R2
o = + =>
R] + R2 R] + R2
7. 17
- V
/'
T
v
o
V
/H
-
....
...
-
...
\
Figure 7.29
Similar circuit for the inverting input
Vee
v
s
v. V
I 0
+
-Vee
Figure 7.30
V=
T
...
V
s
J
v
o
J
...
7. 18
(7.5)
V
T
/
...

v
5
(7.6)
Astable Multivibrator
(relaxation oscillator)
v c ...------,..-------;
+
v
s
v.
1
+
Figure 7.31
R
V r = ~ V H
~ = ~ /(R 1+ R 2)
Assume V c 0 say V c = V H (can not be higher in this circuit)
=> Vo = - V
H
The capacitor will try to charge to this voltage but when V c reaches
- V T then v 0 -7 + V H and the cycle repeats itself.
Adam Zielinski 5119:13
7. 19
-v
H
One can show that
T
I ~
T
Figure 7.32
2RCInC ~ ~
7.20
t
~ I
(7.7)
Elec 380 Active Filters 8. 1
8 Active Filters
Second order low - pass filter general form:
(8.1)
K - dc gain
t;, - damping ratio
COo - natural frequency
jco
s-plane
cos (1= t;,
Figure 8.1
Adam Zielinski 5/19//3
Elec 380 Active Filters
Active realization using ideal voltage amplifier (VCVS)
Prototype circuit:
v
s
R R
K
1Q 1Q
C IF
IIF
-
-
-
-
Figure 8.2
where:
Rl
K
Figure 8.3
For the prototype:
where
Vo K
R(s) = - = -----
Vs s2+(3-K)s+1
K = 3 - d; d = 3 - K
roo = 1 rad/s
d = ~
Adam Zielinski 511 9113
8.2
v
0
R2
(8.2)
(8.3)
lee 380 Active Filters
LH(jco) = -tan I( dco 2)
1- co
small d
1
Figure 8.4
For maximum flat (no peaks) IH(jco)1 select:
d= ~ = J2 = 1.41
to obtain second order, Butterworth low pass filter.
The 3dB bandwidth is COo = 1 rad/ SOl' fo = 2
1
re Hz.
~ = g = ; = ~ = 0.707
-Iy
a = cos ".:l = 45
Circuit Scalling
8.3
(8.4)
(8.5)
The values used in the prototype are not practical, but they can be scaled.
Impedance Scalling
The transfer function will not change if we multiply all R's by a factor k
j
and divide all C's by k
j

Adam Zielinski 5119'13
Elec 380 Active Filters 8.4
R
Rk-
1
_. ---'VVV'--I--
c
---
I
-
.;w
I
c
T
k-
1
-

Figure 8.5
Both circuits have the same H(s) with corner frequency:
1 1
(00 = ---- =
C RC
kj R x k.
I
Frequency Scaling
The frequency can be scaled by k
f
(brought up) if all C's are divided by

k
f

(00 - existing frequency - usually (00 = 1 rad / s in the
prototype.
(00' - desired frequency in the final circuit.
Example 8.1
R
R
NY'
Ie
NY'
I

c
I I
k
f

Figure 8.6
1
k
f
= (00 k
f
(00
RC
(00' = RC
Adam Zielinski 5119!J3
Summary
Rs -7 Rsxk
i
C
Cs -7 kik
f
Example 8.2
8.5
(8.6)
Design a second order Butterworth low - pass filter with 3 dB bandwidth
fo = 588 Hz using R = 10 kO.
(See prototyP<t1 (1 r:-l'g ,3 . 2)
k.
I
to convert 10 -7 10 kO, k. = 10
4
I
to scale from 00
0
= 1 rad/ s to (00' = 2n: x 588 we need
(0'
k
f
= _0 = 2n:x588
(00
Applying both impedance and frequency scaling on the prototype we
obtain
Rnew = R X k
i
= 10 kO
C IF
C
new
= -k k = 4 = 0.027!1
F
i f 2n: x 588xlO
The required gain
R
K= 3 - d= 3 - J2= 1.58= 1 + _2 =>
R]
Final Circuit
10kQ
10kQ
0.027 ~ I 0.027
Figure 8.7
Source internal impedance must be included in the 10kQ resistor.
To minimize the effect of the input bias currents:
Rdl R2 = 20 kQ.
Higher Order Low - Pass Butterworth Filter
General frequency response
where
IH(jco)1 = RlfK
(
(0 )2n
1+ -
COo
n - filter order
K - total dc gain
(00 - 3 dB bandwidth (in rad / s)
8.6
(8.7)
o - - - - . . . . I - - - ~
t
log (J)
o
log (J)
Figure 8.8
Pole Locations
a=4S0
First Order Second Order Third Order Forth Order
Figure 8.9
In general
~ ~ ~ ~
n - filter order
- .
- -'-,
2n
a ~ { ~
for n - even
(8.8)
for n - odd
n - th order filter can be implemented by cascading one first order section
(for n - odd) and several second order sections.
@Adarn Zielinski 5119113
For n - odd
Section 1 Section 2 Last Section
Figure 8.10
Coefficient d
m
and therefore gain Km is different for each second order sec-
tion:
Section 1
d
m
= 2cos(ma,)
K = 3-d
m m
n-l
m = 1,2, ""-2-
a,=
2n
For n - even
Section 2
Figure 8.11
S
. n
ectlOn -
2
n
dm=2cos(a,+2a,(m-l)); m = 1,2""'2
360
0
a, =--
4n
K = 3-d
m m
(8.9)
(8.10)
The total dc gain in both cases is
K = K I K
2
.. . - product of gains
of each section.
Note:
Since the gain is related to d, it is fixed for each section. Only the first
order section can have arbitrary gain.
K
H(s) = 1 + s
Example 8.3
IF
I First order section
Figure 8.12
R
K= 1 +-2
Rl
roo = 1 rad/s
n=4
Section 1 Section 2
Figure 8.13
o
(X = 360 = 22.5
0
4x4
v
o
8.9
m= 1;
m= 2;
Design
d, = 2eosa= 2eos 22.5= 1.85
d
2
= 2eos( a + 2a)= 0.765
Required a filter with the following characteristic:
1H1dB

M=-S
B = 10 kHz f =30 kHz
Figure 8.14
/ Yl1 l Vl im u f0
H
8.10
Required att:9tiation at f = f H = 30 kHz should be more than M = -8 dB.
STEPS: Find the-fe"quired order of the filter.
In general
IHUf)I= __ K __
Jl+ut
In our case K = 10
20log1 HI= 2010g
10
10-lOlo
g
[1 +(
at f= f
H
.
f 2n
IHldB = 20-1010
g
[1 +( J:::; M=>
20-M
IOg[ lO-,o- - I L
n> f - 2.9
21og;
therefore n = 3.
(8.11)
- 2.5 kQ
lOkQ
10kQ
lOkQ
10kQ 10kQ
+
C
1.59 nF
C
11.59 nF
Section 1
(Second order)
Section One
d
1
= 2eos(ma)
Figure 8.15
a= 360 = 600
2x3
d
j
= 2eos 60= 1 => K\ = 3 - d = 2 =>
R2
- = 1 Let R2 = R
j
= 10k
R,
Section Two
10kQ
C I 1.59nF
Section 2
(First Order)
m= 1
Total gain required is (R2/ R
j
+ 1) x 2= 10 =>
R2 R2 = 10 kQ
- = 4 Let
Rj R\ = 2.5 kQ
Scalling - Sections 1 and 2
Let lQ --710 kQ => k
i
= 10
4
k - 21tB = 21tx10
4
f - 1 rad/s
8. II
v
o
1
----::-8 = 1. 59 nF
21tXlO
Transistor realization of the second order section.
v
lQ lQ
s __
2 d
d
12
Figure 8.16
v
o
VCVS
K=1
Yields transfer function as given by Eg. (8.4) and Eg. (8.5) for K=l
Low - Pass => High - Pass Transformation
To obtain HP prototype from LP prototype replace:
1
~ c=-
R
1
c ~ R=-
C
This replacement causes a transformation co ~ .!.
co
8.12
v
s
LP
/
/
COo = 1 rad/s
Figure 8.17
The HP prototype is
1F 1F
..... -----111----,----11---.---4
K
1Q 1Q -
Figure 8.18
HP
v
o
Proceed with impedance and frequency scalling as for LP filter that is
Rk
I
C C/ k
j
k
f
Second order band - pass filter
COo
-s
H(s) =
2 COo 2
S +Q"S+CO
o
COo - resonant frequency
K - at the resonant frequency
Q - Q factor
8. 13
(8.12)
fo
(for high Q) Q = 13
Assume 0)0 = 1.
IH(jO)1 = -;=:==1==
K 2 2
1 + Q2[0) ; 1J
B - bandwidth
2
LH(
' -I (0) -1)
JO) = -tan Q---ro-
K
3dB
i
f 0
f
9 0 0 ~ __
f
Figure 8.19
8.14
(8.13)
Prototype
(00 = 1 rad/s
Design Example
IF
2Q
Figure 8.20
2
K=-2Q Good for 2 ::; Q ::; 10
Design BPF with fo = 1kHz and a bandwidth B
. 1000
RequIred Q= 13
Select impedance scaling k
j
= 10
4
frequency scaling
2n:
f
o 3
k f = 1 rad/s = 21t x 10
Rs ~ Rs' k
j
= RsxlOk
C's ~ k ~ ~ = 0.016JlF
Adam Zielinski 5119i13
v
o
8. 15
10kQ
2Q
Gain = K = -2 Q2
Note:
0.016/.1F
10kQx2Q
Figure 8.21
v
o
8.16
Remember that the bandwidth limitation of the operational amplifier in
inverting configuration is:
B
op
(1-K) = f
unity
?
Suppose Q = 10 => K = -2Q- = -200
funity = 1 MHz(for 741)
1000
Bop= 1 + 200 = 5kHz => fo::; 500Hz
For higher Q we need a better operational amplifier.
LM318 has f
unity
= 15 MHz.
For high Q (25 ::; Q::; 500) use state variable or biquad structures.
Switched Capacitor Filters.
Consider a capacitor switched at a frequency fc between two sources Vl
and V2. We will call such a capacitor - Switched Capacitor (SC).
Figure 8.22
During each cycle a charge Q is transferred from the left to the right
Q = C(V
1
- V
2
)
Average current associated with this transfer is
I = C(V 1 - V 2) x fc
If signal Vl(t) is slow varying, that is its bandwidth W fc, then such a SC
can be considerd as an equivalent resistor with value:
1
R=-
Cfc
SC can be implemented using MOS FET transistors
Figure 8.23
Silion area required to implement integrated capacitor decreses with value
of the equivalent resistor it represents. For fc=100kHz and R = 10MQ,
C=lpF. It will ocupy ~ 0 0 1 m m 2 of silion area. Integrated resistor of this
value will require at least 100 times large area.
Low-Pass SC Filter
Conventional filter
~
c
Figure 8.24
1
coD = -
RC
SC filter
>
+
Figure 8.25
Corner frequency for this filter:
C
1
coD = f c . C for f c COD
2
Note:
8. 18
C
* corner radian frequency COD - C I -- this ratio will be implimented with
2
great accuracy and stability using MOS technology.
* COD - fc -- easy to change bandwidth by simply changing fc
Differential Integrater
Conventional
--j 1-----------1
, I
L
OPAMP
Figure 8.26
SC
+
OPAMP
v;,
Figure 8.27
Adam Zielinski 5,,19/13
Exercise 8.1
1. Design a 3rd order Butterworth filter with gain k = 10 and B = 10 kHz.
Solution:
- lOkQ 40kQ
10kQ
10kQ
10kQ
10kQ 10kQ
1.59 nF .r-.59 nF
I1.
59nF
Figure 8.1
Elec 380 Negative Feedback
input
Xs
9 Negative Feedback
+
X
i
+
-
X = P X
f 0
(feedback
signal)
.. Base Amplifier
A
Feedback Network
....
P
Figure 9.1
X
s
, Xi' Xo - signals - can be voltage or current.
X
A = ~ - gain of the base amplifier or open loop gain.
I
P -portion of the output fed back to the input.
AP -loop gain.
Gain of the amplifier with feedback
lAd> IA I -positive feedback
If
IAfl < IA I -negative feedback
Adam Zielinski 5119!13
output
X
o
9. 1
(9.1)
Elec 380 Negative Feedback 9.2
Negative feedback is often used in spite of the gain reduction.
The main reason:
Negative feedback stabilizes the gain Af against variations in A caused by
time (aging), temperature, frequency, element replacement, finite toler-
ances, ect.
In the limiting case where I I, Equ. (9.1) reduces to
Af = 1 + "" independent of A!
For a finite A, we want to express how changes in gain A affects Af
Using Eq. (9.1) we write
dA = A )dA = (l + ) - x dA =
f dA 1 + PA (l + )2
1 x A dA = A. 1 dA =? dAf
f A Af
1 IdAI
11 + I A
or sensitivity of Af to changes in A is
s
(9.2)
Example 9.1
If 1 + ~ A = 0.1 then 10% variation in A results in only 1% variation in
A
f

This applies also to the variations in the frequency response
A(jf)
Ao ' . ~ ..
~ ''''''' .... 1
30% drop
B f
much less, say 3% drop
~ / .
O ) 1"------;.---_ 30% drop
f
Figure 9.2
Conclusion
Negative feedback increases bandwidth.
Adam Zielinski 5/19i13
9.3
Reduction of Nonlinear Distortion
Base amplifier may have a nonlinear characteristic.
x
o
Figure 9.3
For large PA, Af = - no distortion at all.
For finite PA the distortion is reduced.
output distorted by
second harmonic
x.
1
distortion of the
base amplifier, B 2
A
Figure 9.4
Adam Zielinski 5119/1 3
9.4
distortion by B 2
larger signal to compensate
for gain reduction
rvv
A
+
Figure 9.5
Imagine that only distortion is applied to the input:
+
A
Figure 9.6
For switch open v 0
For switch closed v 0 = B
2f
;

B
-?
2 - .
v
o
9.5
(9.3)
Elec 380 Negative Feedback 9.6
+
We expect reduction of the nonlinear distortion by a factor of 1 + BA .
A familiar circuit which can be analyzed using a feedback concept is non-
inverting configuration of Op. Amp ..
Figure 9.7
v
s
+
In more general terms, consider a voltage - series feedback.
r
+
+
v
1
Base Amplifier
+
R.
1
-
......................................................
......................................................
. .
. .
. .
l
. ~ . ~
Feedback Network
Figure 9.8
Adam Zielinski 5/19i13
v
o
We will neglect the loading by feedback network. The open loop
(v
f
= 0 or R\ = 0) gain of the amplifier is:
VO RA
A = --- = ~
Y v R + R
SIS
9. 7
If loading of the feedback network can not be neglected, it should be incor-
porated in Ay .
The gain with p::j: 0 (with feedback) is
(9.4)
One can also show that
(9.5)
(9.6)
This is a result of stabilizing action of the negative feedback.
Feedback through Power Supply
decoupling
capacitors
I
0.47 {JF
I r O l ~
I
Figure 9.9
(source internal impedance
and connecting wire)
z
9.8
The fluctuating current from V cc due to changes in v 0 will cause ripples
on Vee' These ripples ~ Vee will be feedback to the first stage through
the divider R
j
and R
2
. If there is a positive feedback the circuit might
oscillate.
Fixes:
short wire to power supply
good power supply
decoupling capacitors
Adam Zielinski 51\ 9/13
Feedback Through Stray Capacitance
..........................
.' ...................... .
Figure 9.10
Coupling can also be magnetic
Figure 9.11
Two wires in proximity act as a transformer.
Fix - U clean" layout (input - output separated)
Figure 9.12
- orthogonal wire crossing. +
- shielding of each stage.
9.9
Feedback through ground loops.
r ~ ~ ~ v c c
v.
1
Stage1 Stage2
resistance of ground wire
Figure 9.13
Fix
r . ~ v c c
single ground
Figure 9.14
For digital and analog electronics use separate grounding points.
THE END
v
o
9.10
ASSIGNMENTS
ELEC 380
Assignment #1
(Due: one week after assigned)
Note: Each assigment will require a computer simulation. You can use any
simulation program but specify it with your submission.
Consider amplifier shown in Figure 1.
11 IRI
Vcc =12V
... ., Ic
Q
=1000mA
Cl
i3Dc = 100
C2
II I .vo
=8Q
I
f=10 kHz
Load RL = 8 ohm represents a speaker.
Assume: ICQ = 1000 rnA and fioc= fi= 100
...L
This is rather large current but justified because of a very low load resistance (you may check
that assumption ICQ = 100 rnA will not "work"):
a) Design the circuit for maximum output compliance (i.e. find R
E
, R, and R
2
).
b) Find maximum power delivered to R
L

c) Find current taken from supply Vee.
d) Find power taken from supply Vee.
e) Find power dissipated in the transistor.
f) Verify point (a) by simulation
ELEC 380
Assignment #2
(Due: one week after assignment date)
Consider two stage amplifier shown in Figure 1.
First stage is CE amplifier, the second stage is push-pull amplifier.
Assume input signal vi = 200m V p - p (peak -to-peak) at f = 100Hz.
r ~ ~ ~ Vee
-Vee
Figure 1
a) Design the amplifier for minimum Vo = 2V p_p'
b) Simulate your circuit to show that it is working.
ELEC 380
Assignment #3
Due to finite input impedance Ri and input capacitance C
i
, any amplifier has limited high fre-
quency response.
__ vo
Figure 1
a) Derive the transfer function for circuit shown in Fig.1 and determine its comer fre-
quency.
I
b) Modify the circuit shown in Figl by adding external Rand C elements (set Rs =0)
vs

vo
- -
- -
Figure 2
Find transfer function H(s)=Vo(s)N s(s).
c) Find condition for which frequency response of the circuit in Fig.2 is frequency inde-
pendent.
d) Assume Ri=1MQ and C
i
=50pF. Find R and C to satisfy condition c).
e) By simulation, confirm point d).
1-)Adam Zielinski 713103
ELEC 380
Assignment #4
1. Consider a current mirror circuit shown in Fig.I.
r--------,--'' Vee = 15V
Figure 1
V -V
It is expected that IEQ "" IR = CC R BE. But this circuit will not work! Why?
2. Modify the circuit by replacing grounds at the emitters by supply -Vee = -I5Y.
a) Find R to obtain IEQ = ImA.
b) Verify correct biasing by simulation assuming Rc = 10k.
c) Will this circuit w0
7
rk
i
for Rc = ~ ? if no!, why?
....JOk
FT c: ~ (()f)
1.
ELEC 380
Assignment #5
R'
1
~
Figure 1 Instrumentation Amplifier
v
o
Using circuit of Figure 1, design an Instrumentation Amplifier with the nominal differential
gain of Ad = 100. Use ideal Op. Amp.
2. Determine precision in which differential gain can be specified (in percentage) if resistors
used have tolerances of 1 %.
3. Determine minimum CMRR (in dB) your design can guarantee with 1 %-resistors used
assuming ideal Op. Amp.
4. By simulation find common mode gain Acm using AC analysis in 1 Hz to 1000 Hz fre-
quency band using 1 % tolerance resistors and confirm point 3.
Note:
On how to simulate finite precision resistors see Tutorial and Simulations for ELEC 380
ELEC 380
Assignment
Use simulation to verify the equations (6.4) and (6.10).
Solution:
From library for 741; Ao = 200,000; fo = 3Hz
f
unity
= 200x3kHz=600kHz
a) Inv. configuration
10K
b) Noninv. configuration
8K
Gain = -5 = At<O)
Eq.(6.10)
B[I-At<O)] = funity =>
B = (600/6)k = lOOkHz <- Confirm by simulation
Eq.(6.4)
At<O)B = f
unity
; At<O) = 5
B = (600/5)kHz = 120kHz <- Confirm by simulation
'Adam Zielinski 7/3103
ELEC 380
Assignment #7
1) Design a switch with hysteresis as shown.
15 V -'-
...
....
------f-------+------..-------.p Vi (Volts)
VI V2
-15 V --
2) Confirm your design by simulation
..
...
V
1
= 3 Volts
V2=4 Volts
Note: In the library of Op. Amp., select max. output voltage + 15 volts.
ELEC 380 Electronic Circuits II
Tutorial and Simulations for Micro-Cap IV
By
Adam Zielinski
(posted at: http://wwwece.uvic.caJ-adru;nD
Version: August 22, 2002
ELEC 380 Electronic Circuits II - Tutorial 1-1
TUTORIAL
This manual is written for Micro-Cap IV - Electronic Circuit Analysis Program
for Macintosh computers. The PC Version of the program is available at:
www.spectrum-soft.com.Prior to proceeding please familiarize yourself with
the Simulation Tutorial for ELEC 330 posted at:
http://www.ece.uvic.ca/-adam/. In this Tutorial we will explore other
interesting features of the Micro-Cap IV that are relevant to the material covered
in the class. The simulations #1 to #6 are part of preparation to the laboratory
sessions and must be completed before the laboratory and obtained presented to
the laboratory instructor.
1. AC Analysis
The AC analysis allows us to see a frequency response or AC transfer function
H(jm) of a linear circuit. You can imagine that a sinusoidal voltage source with
amplitude 1 volt is applied to a specified node of a circuit (input) and that
voltage and relative phase is measured at a different specified node (output) of
the same circuit. The voltage ratio or voltage gain and relative phase shift
between these two voltages depend on frequency applied. The gain (often
expressed in decibels or dBs) and phase are plotted vs. frequency over the
specified frequency range. Frequency often is displayed in logarithmic scale. In
such scale distance between two frequencies, one 10 times larger than the other is
constant irrespective of absolute frequency and is called a decade. Similarly,
distance between two frequencies - one twice the other is constant irrespectively
of absolute frequency and is called an octave. Such plots are called frequency
responses (amplitude and phase) of a linear circuit.
In electronic circuits we frequently encounter nonlinear elements such as
transistors. For frequency response analysis (AC analysis) such elements are
linearized prior to AC analysis. Any nonlinear circuit can be approximated by a
linear circuit if the signal applied is sufficiently small.
As an illustration let us consider a simple RC circuit shown in Figure Tl.
El
.MODEL E1 SIN (F=32 A=1 DC=O PH=O RS=1 M RP=O TAU=O FS=O)
Figure Ti. RC Circuit
The voltage source should be added but will not playa role in AC analysis. The
output voltage phasor V(2) at node 2 is equivalent to H(jm), which is a complex
quantity. To get the amplitude response, we need to plot magnitude of H{jm) or
mag(V(2 which is most frequently expressed in dB. This is reflected in the
dialog box shown in Figure T2 that also includes phase response PH(V(@. The
ELEC 380 Tutorial and Simulations
Adam Zielinski August 2002
frequency range set is from 100 kHz to 1 Hz (if you think that this is a strange
order, I agree)
Frequency Range
Number of Points
Temperature
: Maximum Otange
0E3.o.l Noise Input Source Inone

500 Noise OUtput Node(s) L:;:ln.::;.on:,::..e__ ...J
27
5

!vi N X Y P X Expression Y Expression X Range Y Range

Q GJGJ9 2 F PH(V(2 0.-90
Figure T2. Dialog Box
The resulting plot in logarithmic frequency axis is shown in Figure T3 with the
cursor.
-16.00
-24.00
-32.00
F
:::
........ *l ............... .
10 100 ]I( J.(J<
m[V{2ll
F
Exoressioo Left Rid1t: OOta Sla:e
F 0.032K lil.OOOK 9. 96lJ['; 1
20"].D;IUr.>g(If (2) ) l -3.032 -49.9B -46.911 -4:10fm
Figure T3. The frequency response; amplitude and phase
We can observe that the amplitude frequency response represents a low-pass
filter that attenuates signal at higher frequencies. At a certain frequency the
response reaches linear asymptote with slope of -20dB / decade. We also can see
that a -3dB-point occurs at 32 Hz. This is consistent with so-called 3dB or comer
frequency for RC circuit fc = 1/21tRC. This result can be verified in time domain
by performing transient analysis for signal frequency at fc=32 Hz with set up as
shown in dialog box in Figure T4.
Time Range

MaxImum Time Step 0-0001
Number of Points 10000
Temperature 27

U MN X Y P X Expression Y Expression X Range YRange
G @I ElIiJIiJII IT IV(I) lo.l,fl 1
1
1
,-1.1
r
g <? !!!!!!! 1 T
v(2) O.I,fl 1.1,-1.1
Figure T4 Dialog Box
The results are shown in Figure T5 with cursor activated. We can see that the
output waveform - v(2) has reduced amplitude to 0.707 volts, which corresponds
to 3 dB attenuation as expected. Note also a phase shift between waveforms.
1.00
0.60
0.20
-0.20
-0.60
v(l) "V (2)
E>qlre:;sim
T
v(l)
v(2)
Left
42.9S4m
0.705
0.705
2. Spectral Analysis
lOO.COOn
0.951
0.31B
I:elt:a
57.01Ein
0.246
-0.387
T
Slere
1
4.31B
-6.7B3
" .. EiiTi <> ............ " .................................. '9:hi .... , ..
Figure T5 Time domain responses
. ........................... -." ..
lOOn
Spectral analysis of a periodic waveform can be performed on time domain data
x(t) using Fast Fourier Transform FFT(x) algorithm. You can think of FFT as a
Fourier Series of an infinite duration periodic waveform made of infinite
repetitions of the time domain waveform of duration T. The fundamental
frequency of Fourier Series of such constructed waveform is equal to liT. This
will determine the frequency resolution of spectral analysis based on FFT, that is
In order to obtain valid results using FFT it is important to place
complete number of cycles of the waveform within the observation window T.
ELEC 380 Electronic Circuits II - Tutorial
FFf calculates complex numbers and often only its magnitude is of interest.
Function MAG(FFf(x calculates the magnitude.
1-4
Let's illustrate these points using two sinusoidal waveforms f1=lOOOHz with
amplitude 1 and another at f2=2000Hz with amplitude 0.5 as shown in Figure T6
Vl 10k V2 10k
.MODEL V1 SIN (F=1000 A=1 DC=O PH=O RS=1M RP=O TAU=O FS=O)
.MODEL V2 SIN (F=2000 A=O.5 DC=O PH=O RS=1M RP=O TAU=O FS=O)
Figure T6 Two sinusoidal waveforms
The dialog box in Figure T71eads to the results shown in Figure 8
Number of Points
Temperature
U M N X Y P X Expression Y Expression X Range Y Range Fmt

Q Q 0 IiJIiJ I T v(2)
q q F w'G(ffT(V(I)+v(2))).woo.soo 550,0
Figure T7 Dialog Box
:,peetrOt NnOtUSIS tUtorlOl lell eratu
558.8e i ; , iii ' ! ;
------t---t---t------- t-----+- --------r---------l-------+-----j-----------t---------
+18.ee ----r1=-r-T----t---t-----:--------- -----i-----1----
338.00 1---1---- __ ..
, . I ! I: !
229.ee : . '-: I ' i
116.0e
r----- r'-- - -, :---T i I i--
e. ae ! I . V \ I j, ,
0.S8K 1.20K 1.98K 2.6BK 3.38K
MAG(FFT(v(1 )'v(2 j
<
Figure T8 Spectral representation of two harmonic signals
The frequency points are separated by M< = 100Hz as expected. Each frequency
component is represented by only one point in the spectrum (triangular shape is
due to the way the points are joined by lines) and two waveforms are fully
resolved. The absolute amplitude of spectral components is related to sampling
frequency of the time-domain waveforms - the higher the sampling rate, the
larger the spectral amplitude. The relative amplitudes and frequency positions of
the two spectral components are as expected.
3. Tolerances
Value of parameters of any physical electronic component is given within certain
limits defined by tolerances. For instance, set of resistors with tolerances 10% (or
10 % lot) means that an actual individual resistor will have a random value
between + / - 10% of its nominal value. Simulation allows us to investigate finite
tolerances effect on overall performance of circuit built using real components.
Several simulations are to be performed and a random value of a component
within specified tolerances is assigned at each run. This is so called Monte Carlo
method (guess where the name came from?). -For Worst Case option the
parameter is assigned randomly but only at limits of its tolerances. For N
parameters this gives 2AN possible combinations. To establish good confidence
level, the number of simulations n > 2AN.
As an illustration let's go back to the simple circuit from Figure T1 but assume
that the resistor is from 10% lot. With this modification the circuit becomes as
shown in Figure T9.
10kLOT=10%
El
rO.
SU
-=- .MODEL E1 SIN (F=32 A=1 DC=O PH=O RS=1 M RP=O TAU=O FS=O)
Figure T9 RC Circuit with uncertain resistor value
We will proceed to investigate its frequency response as in Figure T3.
The dialog box for Monte Carlo analysis is shown in Figure T10 and the results
are shown in Figure T11.
Number of Runs I(
Independent Variable lower limits: lE+6
Independent Variable Upper limits: 0
Dependent Variable lower limits 0
DependentVarfable Upper limits 0
Distribution to Use Worst Case ",
Figure TIO Dialog Box for Random Simulation n=lO
-'HI." \-, --'-----'.--'--'--'-'--',;;---'---'--'-..:....l.-'-'-.:,.!;, .. "..-----'--'-'--'-L-'-+.---'-"'-"'--"'--'--"--';i;;!'6<
.. liJ'''1}(a-og!v(2)i)
.
Figure Tll Amplitude frequency response for n=lO simulations
1-6
4. Temperature effects
All real electronic elements change their parameters with temperature changes.
This applies to passive elements like resistors as well as to active ones like
transistors or Operational Amplifier. Simulation is an ideal and simple method to
determine the effect of temperature on a circuit. Consider a simple voltage
divider shown in Figure T12.
Rl
2
.Define R1 100K TC=O.001
.Define R2 100K
Figure T12 Voltage divider circuit
Here we use symbols for resistors that need to be defined. Nominal value for
both resistors is 100 kohms but resistor Rl changes its value with temperature as
determined by its temperature coefficient TC= 0.001. This coefficient specifies
how much the resistance will change from its nominal value at nominal
temperature for a one degree Centigrade of the difference between the nominal
temperature (27 degrees) and the actual one. We will illustrate this by running a
transient analysis with printout. The dialog box is shown in Figure T13.
27,-27;1.7

U M N X Y P X Expression Y Expression X Range Y Range

Figure T13 Dialog box for temperature variation
1-8
The simulation is run from temperatures -27 degrees to 27 degrees in steps of 27.
The numerical results obtained are shown in Figure T14
Micro-Cap IV
T
(uSec)
0.000
0.200
00400
0.600
0.800
1.000
T
(uSec)
0.000
0.200
00400
0.600
0.800
1.000
T
(uSec)
0.000
0.200
00400
0.600
0.800
1.000
Transient Analysis Limits of Temperature
Date 8/8/02 Time 10:21 PM
Temperature= -27 Case= 1
v(2)
(V)
5.139
5.139
5.139
5.139
5.139
5.139
Temperature= 0 Case= 1
v(2)
(V)
5.068
5.068
5.068
5.068
5.068
5.068
Temperature= 27 Case= 1
v(2)
(V)
5.000
5.000
5.000
5.000
5.000
5.000
Figure T 14 The temperature effects
We can see that the divider functions properly only for the nominal temperature
of 27 degrees but the voltage is higher for other temperatures. This is due to a
lower resistance of R2 at lower temperatures.
ELEC 380 Electronic Circuits II - Simulation #1
SIMULATION #1
Small Signal Amplifiers
This simulation is part of preparation to the Laboratory Session #1.
2-1
1. Design the CE amplifier shown in Figure 1-1 for biasing current IE=lmA and
gain of 36 (31.1dB) at frequency 1kHz. Note that components values shown in
Figure 1-1 are not unique .
. M()DEL. 2N3904 NPN U3F",,318.5 BR",,2 is= i 5.8478P CJ(>d.62441 P C.1E=4.35493P
RC=!.OO::i39U V/\F",l Ol.a 11 TF" .. G66.:i64P TR=I73.1 ')4i'J VJC",'?IOA77tvl
MJE .. A03.042M VJE .. 1 NF .. ! .34506 ISEd:) L 14G8? is(A).OO! 55473F !l<F: 5M
!KH .. 35.709 NE2.02174 HE U 0494 VTF .. 1 0 !TF .. 'J.19838M XTF.A99.979M
Figure 1-1 CE Amplifier
2. Select the proper values for the ac source (lOmVp-p, f=lkHz) and transistor
(beta= BF= 150).
3. Set the proper parameters for transient analysis (see dialog
box shown in Figure 1-2) and confirm the dc and ac conditions by
simulation.
Time Rallge 11=5M====l
Maximum Time Step 12011
i=======l
Number of Points 1=1
5
=1 =====l
Temperature ..... 1 21 ___ .....J

U M N X Y P X Expressioll Y Expressioll X Range Y Range

IVa 10.005,0 11 14.25,13.85
Figure 1-2 Dialog Box
AO>lm 7i ... lin"ki A 1J 011 "t ?()()?
ELEC 380 Electronic Circuits II - Simulation #1 2-2
Note that under the Transient - Option menu the option of calculating the
operating dc-point was selected. This allows us to see the waveforms in steady
state. Shown in Figure 1-3 is a result:
5.
3.
l.
-l.
-3.
-5.
14.25
14.17
14.09
14.01
13.93
13.85

Figure 1-3 Transient Analysis
After running transient analysis select the "state variables" under Transient
Analysis Menu. You can read numerical values of de for all nodes: In this
particular case we got:
1 Vee
2 Vi
3 Vo
4 Vs
5 Ve
State Variables
Node
Voltages
+ 1.50000e +01
+ 2.1124ge +00
+1.40603e+Ol
-1.4095ge-l0
+1.54706e+OO
Figure 1-4 State Variables
Inductor
Currents
This feature is very convenient to verify the dc-analysis. Alternatively, you can
select Node voltages and Node numbers as shown in Figure 1-5
Arlllm (C) A ?O()?
2-3
Figure 1-5 Node Voltages and Node Numbers
You may observe that a waveform at node 3 (output waveform) do not oscillate
exactly around 14V, as we would expect. Can you explain it?
3. To see the gain vs. frequency we should run an ac analysis. Let us select
the following parameters shown in Figure 1-6
Frequency Range
Number of Points
Temperature
Maximum Change
!=11=E5=,loo===1 Noise Input Source
151 I Noise OUtput Node(s) 12

15 I
1
M N X Y P X Expression Y Expression X Range Y Range

Figure 1-6 Dialog Box
Arhm 7iplin<:ki Anul1<:t ?()()?
The result is shown in Figure 1-7
30.00 , .............................. ; .................. : ............ : .......... : ....... : ...... , ..... : ..... : .... , ............................................................... : .......... : ....... : ...... : ...... : .... , ... , ............................... ; ................................ ; ......... : ........ ; ...... : ..... ; ..... : .... ,
29.00
28.00
27.00
26.00
25. 00 ................................................................................................. :.:.; .................................................................................................. ",;; ............................................................................................
{18(Vo/vi)
Figure 1-7 Frequency response
You can see from the graph the gain becomes independent of frequency from
approximately lkHz.The lower freq. of operation is frequently defined as
frequency when the gain drops by 3dB compare to the flat portion of the
frequency response. In this case we have the lower frequency of operation at 150
Hz.
5. Investigate the effects of temperature on the gain by ac analysis and
temperature variation from a to 100 degrees in 50 degree steps. What
parameters in the circuit is temperature dependent? The results are shown in
Figure 1-8
Arbm ?OO?
ELEC 380 Electronic Circuits II - Simulation # 1
30.00 ; .....
29.00
28.00
15.00
100
ciB(Vo/'>iO
F

left Right

l? .3'::;5
"IK 1ak '
ooltG
Figure 1-8 Frequency response with a realistic component
Ari:lm 7i"1in,,ki A IHm<:t 7007
2-5
ELEC 380 Electronic Circuits II -Simulation #2
SIMULA TION #2
Large Signal Amplifiers
This simulation replaces the Procedures part of the Laboratory Session #3 and
should be done prior to the lab. We will introduce here the Fourier Analysis
(FFf) in Micro-Cap IV
1. Consider the same circuit as in Simulation #1 and shown in Figure 2-1
Rl
+
R2
Vs 'V f=10kHz
vee
I
.DEFINE RL 1 K
.DEFINE RC 5K
.DEFINE RE 1 K
.DEFINE VCC 9
RL
.MODEL 2N3904 NPN (BF=378.5 BR=2 IS=15.8478P CJC=3.62441P CJE=4.35493P
RC=1.00539U VAF=101.811 TF=666.564P TR=173.154N MJC=300M VJC=770.477M
MJE=403.042M VJE=1 NF=1.34506 ISE=61.1468P ISC=O.00155473F IKF=14.2815M
IKR=35.709 NE=2.02174 RE=1.10494 VTF=10 ITF=9.79838M XTF=499.979M
)
.MODEL Vs SIN (F=10K A=15M DC=O PH=O RS=1M RP=O TAU=O FS=O)
Figure 2-1 Large Signal Amplifier
3-1
Design the amplifier shown in Figure 2-1 for the maximum output compliance.
Note: the analytic results in this case will not be accurate because of large
distortion present for a large signal applied to CE amplifier. Assume: RL=lk,
RC=5k, RE=lk and frequency of operation f=10kHz. In this simulation the values
of some resistors and capacitors are not given and must be found to obtain:
Voltage gain: 42.2 or 32.2dB
Output compliance: PP=2.2V
2. Simulate the circuit you have designed. Investigate the gain of the amplifier
and all dc-voltages in the circuit.
First we check the frequency response of the circuit using ac analysis. Result is
shown in Figure 2-2.
ELEC 380 Electronic Circuits II -Simulation #2 3-2
t .. .... ~ ~ .. ~ ~ .. ~ ~ ~ ~ t ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . ~ ~ ..
20.00 I :: :: : : : 1 :::: : : : : ~ :::: : :
100 lK 1(l{ lOOK
~ dB(\\:>Ni)
F
dB(\\:>/Vil
left
O.lOOK
3.085
lOO.OOOK
28.874
Delta
99.90OK
25.790
F
1
2S8.15SU
Figure 2-2 Frequency Response of the Amplifier
As we can see the amplifier has the gain is 29 dB, which is less than expected.
Investigate and comment of this discrepancy possibly caused by an error in the
software.
2. Now perform the transient analysis.
3.
The maximum calculated input signal to avoid output clipping is 55 m V p-p but
we will drive the input with signal 30m Vp-p. In simulation select the dc-point
calculation in order to avoid transients due to capacitances in the circuit.
The result are shown in Figure 2-3
ELEC 380 Electronic Circuits II ----Simulation #2 3-3
-3.
'-3OO..l
.. i----........ -........ -.............. /.-........... -....... -.--;.---- .. -;--\--+f
-----/--;--.. - ..---.-+---.---.+----.-.-\c
-ls.ronL-...J. __ .. ___ i_ ."'-_ ...c_---'-_. __ .......,.,.l,--___
OJ 60.1
"\S1
T
T
Figure 2-3 Input and output signals
Note that the output waveform is quite distorted. This is due to nonlinear
characteristic of the transistor that shows up for large signal operation. The peak-
to-peak output in this case is 0.8 Vp-p.
4. Spectral (Fourier) Analysis
5.
The Fourier analysis performs Fourier series expansion of the analyzed signal
using FFT algorithm as discussed in Tutorial. As noted it is important that you
select a complete number of cycles to assure smooth boundary between
repetitions. If the boundary contains discontinuity, higher order harmonics will
be computed which are not present in the actual waveform.
Perform the transient analysis and select the following parameters as shown in
Figure 2-4. The display will show magnitude of FFT vs. selected range of
frequencies.
Range 19.3m I
: Maximum TIme Step GU
. Number of Points 51
. 25
Figure 2-4 Parameters for FFT
ELEC 380 Electronic Circuits II -Simulation #2 3-4
The result is shown in Figure 2-5
700.00 I i I I I
.--.-.. -.-!. .. ---- .--.-.--.-.--t-.-.---t .. -.-.--.--.L----... --.. ---- ---'--'-
! I i I
Iii I
560.00 11- I -+-----,
\
I
----L---r------t--+--- --- - --_.-.. _.---
420.00 \
I I I I
200.00 1--\---+'---+----+1---..+---+1---+---+---\----+--.......;
I I
F
Figure 2-5 The Results of FFT
We can see a dc-component is present at zero frequency; fundamental frequency
component is present at 10kHz and higher harmonics at multiple of 10 kHz. We
can access the numerical values by selecting the "N" option in "Transient
Analysis Limits" and the results are shown in Figure 2-6
F mag{(fFT(
(KHz)
0.000 616.439
3.333 0.103
6.667 0.202
10.000 52.487
13.333 0.165
16.667 0.079
. 20.000 4.281
23.333 0.039
26.667 0.026
30.000 0.175
33.333 0.015
36.667 0.012
40.000 0.010
Figure 2-6 The numerical Results of FFT
You can see that the second harmonic distortion in this case is (4.281/52.49) x
100% = 8%. Would you by a stereo with such distortion? What is the acceptable
value?
SIMULATION #3
Frequency Response
This simulation is part of preparation to the laboratory Session #4.
4-1
1. Consider the circuit similar to that used in Simulation #2 and shown in Figure
3-1:
VCCl
lK
)
.MODEL Vs SIN (F=10K A=15MV DC=O PH=O RS=50 RP=O TAU=O FS=O)
Figure 3-1 Amplifier
The input is Vs1 and the output is Yo. The resistor Rs=50 represents the internal
resistance of the driving source.
2. Design the amplifier for 3dB lower frequency fL=10 kHz and midband
gain Vo/Vs of 20 (or 26dB). Assume and set the following parameters for
the transistor.
3. Confirm you design by simulation.
Simulations ..
Run the ac analysis. Figure 3-2 shows what you might obtain
30.00 .... ;---LJ

t ................. .... '" .. ...... ..... :- _._;.. : .. !.,:" .... -., ...... '" ......... ! -"" ..... .... : ... .. : !,'t _._ ....... _ .. ; ... -... ---;- ..... : .. -.. :-.- ..
00
"00
10.00 ! .. : . . . . .
En>resSicn
F
dl(VoNiI
0.00111
-2.735
1.f)()(M
23.182
1tK
D>lta

25.917
F
1

Figure 3-2 Frequency Response of the amplifier
1M
4. Assume the transistor parameters as given in the model and predict the
upper frequency of operation of your amplifier. Compare it with the result
obtained by simulation and shown in Figure 3-3:

.... : .. : .... : .. : . . . ! ....
22.00 >l +H-'-T +++-++++1--- : -+-++f++
.ro
: :::: : : : : ::::: :: !
10.00 L.i
II<
<i){\tINiI
""",SSicn
F
<i){\tINil
F
left Rig;1: D>lta Sla::e
looo.00r'" 999.801>1 1
23.rm B.lll6 -14.991 -14.994n
Figure 3-3 Lower and upper frequency of operation
4-2
SIMULATION #4
Differential Amplifiers
This simulation is part of preparation to the laboratory Session #5.
5-1
Consider the differential amplifier that will be used in the laboratory and shown
in Figure 4-1:
l.5K
2N3904 2N3904
lOMV
-
15
1
.MODEL 10MV SIN (F=1 K A=10MV DC=O PH=O RS=1 M RP=O TAU=O FS=O)
)
Figure 4-1 Differential amplifier
1. Perform the transient and frequency analysis using Vi as the input Vo as the
output. The results are shown in Figure 4-2 and Figure 4-3
l O ~ r ~ : ........ , .\ ................ i ................... ! .............. F ........ \ ........ ; ................... , ................... !./
6.c.o.J
~ ........... .
Figure 4-2 Transient analysis
30.00 r - - - ' ~ ' - - : - : :::-:. -:':':' : :-::: ...--.--'---c-':.--c'--:-.:c'c..,----......... :-.-'c ..-'-:,-:-, .... :-:".-.... - .. : .... , .. :.'-~ .... ' .-".:-.:.c.....,.- .. - ~ - .. c .. c ...--:--:.'C",""
: :: ::.:i
10.00 \;;-",---,-----,--,,---,-,-,: :-'-i"l-;;;----,--,---,--,'-'--'-'ilOCl<';;;;--'---'--' .:....':...:..' .-'--'.. -'i;-1<----''----'-:''':''': -,-,: :..:.:: :+,;1..--:........:..--'--'---''--'#;!llXl<
"cI:l-iolW,IU
Figure 4-3 AC Analysis
2. Modify the circuit as shown in Figure 4-4 and repeat the measurements:
1.SK
151
-151
.MODEL 10MV SIN (F=1K A=10MV DC=O PH=O RS=1M RP=O TAU=O FS=O)
.MODEL 2N3904 NPN (BF=378.5 SR=2 IS=15.8478P CJC=3.62441P CJE=4.35493P
RC=1.00539U VAF=101.811 TF=666.564P TR=173.154N MJC=300M VJC=770.4771
MJE=403.042M VJE=1 NF=1.34506 ISE=61.1468P ISC=O.00155473F IKF=14.2815
IKR=35.709 NE==2.02174 RE=1.10494 VTF=10 ITF=9.79838M XTF=499.979M
)
Figure 4-4 Modified Circuit
5-2
26,00
18.00
14.00
10.00 .w_::::::.,"' ....... : ........ : ...... : .... : ... : .. .. ...: ........ :...... C::::::
i
!;._: ...... : ....... : .... : ... : ... :,:;i;:}
Left
a.ootH
21.8)4
100 .C()(M
16.436
Delta
9S.'-
-5.395
1

Figure 4-6 AC analysis
3. Modify the circuit as shown in Figure 4-7 and perform the time and the frequency
analysis (note that we have to increase amplitude of the input signal).
5-3
t.5K
2N3904 2N3904
-151
l000MV
.MODEL 1000MV SIN (F=1K A=1000MV DC=O PH=O RS=1M RP=O TAU=O FS=O)
MJE=403.042M VJE=1 NF=1.34506 ISE=61.1468P IKF=14.2815M
)
Figure 4-7 Modified Circuit
::: .. ..... -..... -.. -... ;r- ..... =-- .......... I
0. 20 1/-......
'\ " ,\
\ ........................ ,.,LI ....................... :\\ ............. + ............... ,
-<l.20 I ... ; ................. \.\, ... ; .................. f /. .... , ............... \ , ......... , ................... +- \\ ...................... .... ..... ,1 ... .
............. ...... , ..................... \-.................. ,1 ..... ... \ i 1 ... .\ L ..
.:;;: .. _ .... , _ ....0;. ... .."'-j<.. ../ .... " ...................... " 1. . .............. , ...... \.-., .... ...
10.44
10.30 t+/
10.04
9.91 \,--.---'''--''
T
5-4

: : ! : : : : : : t : : : : : :
: "" I

; , .. l
-4.00
; j
.. . -............. ......... -, ...... .. ... ... .. f" _ .... 0._ 0_' .......... u ,- r .. .. , .. ,- ... ... .... -, ... ... .. ..
; i .
.... ... ;.-;..+.----... -.---...:---.--. .:---.-;..--. ..... . . ..;.--..:.... . ...:.-. ..:-..:....:.
-8.00
: : : : : : l : : : : : : 1 .: : : : :
. . ..... ; .... . . . .. ... .... .
, - ........... : .. _ ..... u i .... -.; ..... .... ; ... : .... : ... : .. i .. ..... u ....... : .... i .. ... .. f "'" ... , ...... .......... ; ....... ; ..... : ..... : .... :. i .. ..
. . : : : : : ..:: : : : : ! . . . . . . .
: c
..... : : : --:-
.. .. .. .. ---.. .. .. -;.--.. i,-----.. -----i.------f. ..
: : : : : : t : : : : : :
-12.00
.. ...... .. .... .... : .... T .. rTTTTr ...... .. .... ! .... .... ! .... ; .. .. !" .. f"f .. .. j'r ................ : ...... -.. : ...... : .... T .. .. rrr
. ! . . ! .. ..... .
.... ---..... -----r-n .. .. :-
: : : : : : . : : : : : ! : : : : :
-16.00
................. i ......... +.-.... ; ..... i .... ; ... ... .. ................ i .......... : ....... ; ..... i .... i ... ; ... .. ............... i .......... i ....... ... :- .. :-i .. i; ..
: : f ,
__ --------__ __ __ --____ ----____ ____ ---.--. __ . __
1M lK 1<1< 100<
dBMlr,fi1
F
l'><pressioo Left Ri<tt: Mta Slq)e
F O.OOlM 1.00(M 0.9-. 1
<'lB{\tl/Vi) -9.612 -9.(;)2 0.010 10.1660
Figure 4-9 AC analysis
4. Interpret all the results obtained and compare them with calculations
5-5
SIMULATION #5
Instrumentation Amplifier using Ope Amp
This simulation is part of preparation to the Laboratory Session #7. We will
investigate the effects of finite tolerances on the circuit performance.
6-1
The basic data for a general purpose Op. Amp like LM 741 and for comparison
for a better performance LM 107 are given in Figure 5-1
LM741 Product Folder
Operational AmplifIer
See Abo: LX 107 - Jess BOise a !letter acc1lD.Cy
Parametric Table
[cli8iineiS(cJialUieiS5---.. -----------... -------1
r
.----.--------
iInput Olrtput Type Not R8il \:) R8il
fBml.v!d.th, typ (MHz) 1
;
Datasheet
LM107 Product Folder
Operational AmpIiirer
Parametric Table Parametric Table
... .. ..

(YO-lt)----:10-------------j dovn j
-------- !
Special Features !- )
.. , .., ........ ""'....... , ................... ...... "'.............. <..... . ...... , ..... L .................... _J
Figure 5-1 LM741 and LM 107 Data Sheets
Task:
An instrumentation amplifier with differential gain of 10 is required to operate in
the frequency band from 1kHz to 10kHz. Design such an amplifier using 1%
resistors and 741 Op. Amp with finite tolerances of its parameters.
Confirm is operation and specify the tolerance of the differential gain and the
minimum CMRR your amplifier can provide within the specified band.
1. We will start by designing a simple instrumentation amplifier and check its
differential gain using the circuit below. The first stage serves only as an
inverter to generate inverted signal needed to drive the amplifier with the
differential signal only. You might check that it does not introduce any error
in the frequency band of interest.
v
lK 10K
10K

18
lM301A
-=
18
1
.MODEL LM741 OPA (LEVEL=2 ROUTAC=50 ROUTDC=7510FF=20N IBIAS=80N
VEE=-18 VCC=18 VPS=16 VNS=-16 CMRR=31.6228K)
.MODEL LM301 A OPA (LEVEL=2 TYPE=3 A=160K ROUTAC=50 ROUTDC=75
VOFF=2M IOFF=3N IBIAS=70N VEE:::-18 VCC=18 VPS:::14 VNS=-14)
.MODEL V SIN (F::::1 MEG A=1 DC=O PH=O RS=1 M RP=O TAU=O FS=O)
Figure 5-2 Instrumentation Amplifier
Its frequency response is shown in Figure 5-3.

n ... _ . _n,,' ........ ..
22.00
............................
. . . .
18.00 1--------------------------------------------,---------------.. --.--,,-------------------,------------.-.. ----.... -----.---.---.---.---,---j-----------.-------.----------.-------.-----,----,,----.---.---,--,
10.00 .. -------------------.. .. --------,,);;-----------------------------------.-.------- - ....
Ob(",,,,,1
F
Figure 5-3 Frequency Response
2. Proceed by allowing finite tolerance in the components used to built the
amplifier.
6-3
This is done by specifying the value of a component (resistors in our case) from a
5% LOT
Proceed with the simulation. If only one run is selected, the nominal values for
components are assumed. For M runs tolerance limits are randomly selected. For
N parameters this gives 2J\N possible combinations. To establish a good
confidence level M2J\N.
The result obtained for 30 runs is shown in Figure 5-4.
30.00 ! :::: : : : : ! :::: : : : : I :::: : : : :
I .... .... , .. .... , , I "" .. , .
I--------------.chi-----------------d---------------H-"c-
26.00
...... :
: : : : : : l
18.00 ... H_ .. .. --i-,- ......... _ .......... __ .. , ............... _ .................... _ ... _ ........ __ ....... __ ....... -_ ....... , ........ __... _._ ...... _ .... _._ ................ _ ........ .
: : : : : : I
: : : : : : i
-_ .. _--..,....,.-_.,---_ . ..:.._---:._ .. _.:.._.:.... . .:.......:.....:-!---_. __ .. __. __ ..-._._._--:"--... -=-' -.-=. .. .....:-.. :.....:.. . ..:.-.:.-:...
. . ..... ; ,... . . . . ... .... .
. . ..... : .... . . . . . ., ... .
: : : : : : : : i :::: : : : : : :: : : : :
: " t

100 lK llJ( lOOK
Ill(VeNs)
F
Figure 5-4 Frequency response with random parameters
3. Modify the circuit as shown in Figure 5-5 to drive it with common mode
signal only and perform the ac analysis:
v
1K 10K
10K

LM741
LM301A
+
-=
-=
18
1
-
-
-
-
.MODEL LM301A OPA (LEVEL=2 TYPE=3 A=160K ROUTAC=50 ROUTDC=75
VOFF=2M IOFF=3N IBIAS=70N VEE=-18 VCC=18 VPS=14 VNS=-14)
.MODEL V SIN (F=1MEG A=1 DC=O PH=O RS=1M RP=O TAU=O FS=O)
Figure 5-5 Common Mode Signal
The Common Mode AC response is shown in Figure 5-6.
-35.00
: : : :!
::::, /to
-50.00 , ......................... , ....... _ ..... , ................. " ...... , ........... " ..' ... , ........................................ , .......... , .............. : ..... :'" 'i"" :'" I'.... / ...................... ; .. _ .. :/", ................. , ............ , .... , .... , ... :
: :0
-65.00 , .......................... , .............. , .......... ; ........ , ......; ...... ; .... ; .... , .' ... , ......................... / ............... :' .......... ':7' 4:' .... ;.. ... , ...., ... , ..+ ........................ , ................................. ; ...... , ..... , .... , ........ j
::::/:
....................... ......... ......... .. .... ,: ... .. .. .. .. :" ...... .... .. .. , .... , .. : .. , .. ...... .. .... .. .... .. .. , .. : .. ..
::/::
'/::.::.'
-95.00 V . . . . . : . :
.... i
. . . . .!
: : : :
: : : :'
. " . ,
Figure 5-6 Common Mode response
4. From your plots deduce all the required parameters of the mst. amp and
comment on the results obtained.
6-5
SIMULA TION #6
Design of a low - pass filter
This simulation replaces Laboratory Session #10.
Tasks:
7-1
1. Design the 3
rd
order LP Butterworth filter with 3dB bandwidth of 10kHz and
gain of 10
2. Check your design by simulation with the exact component values.
3. Select components with 5% tolerances and check the envelope of the frequency
response for 50 runs.
4. Apply square waveform of 8kHz to your filter and observe the output.
Shown in Figure 6-1 is a sample circuit:
10K 40K
v
- 10K
18

lM741
lM741
+
18
1
l.59NF 1.59NF-=-
18
1
1s9NF -=-
.MODEL V SIN (F=l MEG A=1 DC=O PH=O RS=l M RP=O TAU=O FS=O)
Figure 6-1 Low-pass filter
The frequency response for the exact components' values is presented in
Figure 6-2.
18.00
14.00 \
j ................................... , ................. ,,,>_1\
10.00 \
6.00 iL .................................................. , .... ,._ . "., .. " ... , . ,.; . , "., . ,,, ...... \ . \ ... ,, , ... , .... , ...... , .. ,.,." "., .. ".,"" .. , , . ,., .. , . \
\:
! .......... ,.,." .. "., .... "., ..... , ...... , ...., . " .......... , ..., ............. , .., .................. \ ...... , ................. , .............. " ........ !
2.00 !;;;- __.......................... ... _ .._ ._ c __ ........ :.-.... -. ..:.... -.... :-.-... : .. . ~ ..... ".-;i;; 1 ................... _ ........ \ .. .1::.. ,._... _ ........ _.:.. _ ... _ ... :_ .. _ ..... 0 ........ :_._._:._ :- .i.vJ
~ lK l1l< lOCI'
F
Figure 6-2 Frequency response of the filter
Filter response with the 5% components and 50 runs with randomly varying
parameters is shown in Figure 6-3
22.00 .------------.,..---------------,
." '."'. ."""""'---;-
..
. . .
, , _ _ _ ...... . ~ . _ < _._" _l ~ .... _ ..... ,
14.00 I .. .. , .................................. _ .... _ .................. : ...... -'&
10.00 .. ,
6.00 ..... .
F
Figure 6-3 Frequency response with finite tolerances
7-2
Elimination of Crossover distortion using Op. Amp
10K
.---------,In,ll\ ..l .. ~ - - - - - - - - _ _ .
-5.00
5.00
3.00
1.00
10K
..............
'-
2N2904
/
2N3906
0.80m
.. .. , .. coo;; ..

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