AIRCRAFT ENGINE MANUFACTURING

John D. Feldman

The manufacture of aircraft engines, whether piston or jet, involves the conversion of raw materials into extremely reliable precision machines. The highly stressed operating environments associated with air transport require the use of a broad range of high-strength materials. Both conventional and unique manufacturing methods are utilized. Construction Materials ircraft engines are primarily constructed of metallic components, although recent years have seen the introduction of plastic composites for certain parts. !arious aluminium and titanium alloys are used where strength and light weight are of primary importance "structural components, compressor sections, engine frames#. $hromium, nic%el and cobalt alloys are used where resistance to high temperature and corrosion are required "combustor and turbine sections#. &umerous steel alloys are used in intermediate locations. 'ince weight minimization on aircraft is a critical factor in reducing life-cycle costs "maximizing payload, minimizing fuel consumption#, advanced composite materials have recently been introduced as light-weight replacements for aluminium, titanium and some steel alloys in structural parts and ductwor% where high temperatures are not experienced. These composites consist primarily of polyimide, epoxy and other resin systems, reinforced with woven fibreglass or graphite fibres. Manufacturing Operations !irtually every common metalwor%ing and machining operation is used in aircraft engine manufacture. This includes hot forging "airfoils, compressor dis%s#, casting "structural components, engine frames#, grinding, broaching, turning, drilling, milling, shearing, sawing, threading, welding, brazing and others. ssociated processes involve metal finishing "anodizing, chromating and so on#, electroplating, heat treating and thermal "plasma, flame# spraying. The high strength and hardness of the alloys used, combined with their complex shapes and precision tolerances, necessitate more challenging and rigorous machining requirements than other industries. 'ome of the more unique metalwor%ing processes include chemical and electrochemical milling, electrodischarge machining, laser drilling and electron-beam welding. Chemical and electrochemical milling involve the removal of metal from large surfaces in a manner which retains or creates a contour. The parts, depending upon their specific alloy, are placed in a highly concentrated controlled acid, caustic or electrolyte bath. (etal is removed by the chemical or electrochemical action. $hemical milling is often used after forging of airfoils to bring wall thic%nesses into specification while maintaining the contour. Electro-discharge machining and laser drilling are typically used for ma%ing small-diameter holes and intricate contours in hard metals. (any such holes are required in combustor and turbine components for cooling purposes. (etal removal is accomplished by high-frequency thermo-mechanical action of electrospar% discharges. The process is carried out in a dielectric mineral oil bath. The electrode serves as the reverse image of the desired cut. Electron-beam welding is used to join parts where deep weld penetration is required in hard-to-reach geometries. The weld is generated by a focused, accelerated beam of electrons within a vacuum chamber. The %inetic energy of the electrons stri%ing the wor%-piece is transformed into heat for welding.

Composite plastic fabrication involves either )wet* lay-up techniques or the use of pre-impregnated cloths. +ith wet lay-up, the viscous uncured resin mixture is spread over a tooling form or mould by either spraying or brushing. The fibre reinforcement material is manually laid into the resin. dditional resin is applied to

obtain uniformity and contour with the tooling form. The completed lay-up is then cured in an autoclave under heat and pressure. ,re-impregnated materials consist of semi-rigid, ready-to-use, partially-cured sheets of resin-fibre composites. The material is cut to size, manually moulded to the contours of the tooling form and cured in an autoclave. $ured parts are conventionally machined and assembled into the engine. Inspection and Testing -n order to assure the reliability of aircraft engines, a number of inspection, testing and quality-control procedures are performed during the fabrication and on the final product. $ommon non-destructive inspection methods include radiographic, ultrasonic, magnetic particle and fluorescent penetrant. They are used to detect any crac%s or internal flaws within the parts. ssembled engines are usually tested in instrumented test cells prior to customer delivery. Health and Safet Ha!ards and Their Control Methods .ealth hazards associated with aircraft engine manufacture are primarily related to the toxicity of the materials used and their potential for exposure. luminium, titanium and iron are not considered significantly toxic, while chromium, nic%el and cobalt are more problematic. $ertain compounds and valence states of the latter three metals have indicated carcinogenic properties in humans and animals. Their metallic forms are generally not considered as toxic as their ionic forms, typically found in metal finishing baths and paint pigments. -n conventional machining, most operations are performed using coolants or cutting fluids which minimize the generation of airborne dust and fumes. +ith the exception of dry grinding, the metals usually do not present inhalation hazards, although there is concern about the inhalation of coolant mists. fair amount of grinding is performed, particularly on jet engine parts, to blend contours and bring airfoils into their final dimensions. 'mall, hand-held grinders are typically used. +here such grinding is performed on chromium-, nic%el- or cobalt-based alloys, local ventilation is required. This includes down-draft tables and selfventilating grinders. /ermatitis and noise are additional health hazards associated with conventional machining. 0mployees will have varying degrees of s%in contact with coolants and cutting fluids in the course of fixing, inspecting and removing parts. 1epeated s%in contact may manifest itself in various forms of dermatitis in some employees. 2enerally, protective gloves, barrier creams and proper hygiene will minimize such cases. .igh noise levels are often present when machining thin-walled, high-strength alloys, due to tool chatter and part vibration. This can be controlled to an extent through more rigid tooling, dampening materials, modifying machining parameters and maintaining sharp tools. 3therwise, ,,0 "e.g., ear muffs, plugs# is required. 'afety hazards associated with conventional machining operations mainly involve potential for physical injuries due to the point-of-operation, fixing and power transmission drive movements. $ontrol is accomplished through such methods as fixed guards, interloc%ed access doors, light curtains, pressuresensitive mats and employee training and awareness. 0ye protection should always be used around machining operations for protection from flying chips, particles and splashes of coolants and cleaning solvents. (etal-finishing operations, chemical milling, electrochemical milling and electroplating involve open surface tan% exposures to concentrated acids, bases and electrolytes. (ost of the baths contain high concentrations of dissolved metals. /epending upon bath operating conditions and composition "concentration, temperature, agitation, size#, most will require some form of local ventilation to control airborne levels of gases, vapours and mists. !arious lateral, slot-type hood designs are commonly used for control. !entilation designs and operating guidelines for different types of baths are available through technical organizations such as the merican $onference of 2overnmental -ndustrial .ygienists " $2-.# and the merican &ational 'tandards -nstitute " &'-#. The corrosive nature of these baths dictates the use of eye and s%in protection "splash goggles, face shields, gloves, aprons and so on# when wor%ing around these tan%s. 0mergency eyewashes and showers must also be available for immediate use. 0lectron-beam welding and laser drilling present radiation hazards to wor%ers. 0lectron-beam welding generates secondary x-ray radiation "bremsstrahlung effect#. -n a sense, the welding chamber constitutes an inefficient x-ray tube. -t is critical that the chamber be constructed of material or contain shielding which will attenuate the radiation to the lowest practical levels. 4ead shielding is often used. 1adiation surveys should be periodically performed. 4asers present ocular and s%in "thermal# hazards. lso, there is potential for exposure to the metal fumes produced by the evaporation of the base metal. Beam hazards associated with laser operations should be isolated and contained, where possible, within interloc%ed chambers.

comprehensive programme should be rigorously followed. 4ocal ventilation should be provided where metal fumes are generated. The major hazards related to the fabrication of composite plastic parts involve chemical exposure to unreacted resin components and solvents during wet lay-up operations. 3f particular concern are aromatic amines used as reactants in polyimide resins and hardeners in epoxy resin systems. number of these compounds are confirmed or suspected human carcinogens. They also exhibit other toxic effects. The highly reactive nature of these resin systems, particularly epoxies, gives rise to s%in and respiratory sensitization. $ontrol of hazards during wet lay-up operations should include local ventilation and extensive use of personal protective equipment to prevent s%in contact. 4ay-up operations using pre-impregnated sheets usually do not present airborne exposures, but s%in protection should be used. 5pon curing, these parts are relatively inert. They no longer present the hazards of their constituent reactants. $onventional machining of the parts, though, can produce nuisance dusts of an irritant nature, associated with the composite reinforcement materials "fibreglass, graphite#. 4ocal ventilation of the machining operation is often required. .ealth hazards associated with test operations usually involve radiation "x or gamma rays# from radiographic inspection and noise from final product tests. 1adiographic operations should include a comprehensive radiation safety programme, complete with training, badge monitoring and periodic surveys. 1adiographic inspection chambers should be designed with interloc%ed doors, operating lights, emergency shut-offs and proper shielding. Test areas or cells where assembled products are tested should be acoustically treated, particularly for jet engines. &oise levels at the control consoles should be controlled to below 67 dB . ,rovisions should also be made to prevent any build-up of exhaust gases, fuel vapours or solvents in the test area. -n addition to the aforementioned hazards related to specific operations, there are several others worthy of note. They include exposure to cleaning solvents, paints, lead and welding operations. $leaning solvents are used throughout manufacturing operations. There has been a recent trend away from the use of chlorinated and fluorinated solvents to aqueous, terpine, alcohol and mineral spirit types due to toxicity and ozone depletion effects. lthough the latter group may tend to be more environmentally acceptable, they often present fire hazards. 8uantities of any flammable or combustible solvents should be limited in the wor%place, used only from approved containers and with adequate fire protection in place. 4ead is sometimes used in airfoil forging operations as a die lubricant. -f so, a comprehensive lead control and monitoring programme should be in effect due to lead9s toxicity. (any types of conventional welding are used in manufacturing operations. (etal fumes, ultraviolet radiation and ozone exposures need to be evaluated for such operations. The need for controls will depend upon the specific operating parameters and metals involved.