Struggles of identity in the age of globalisation : Searching for anchors that hold

Elirea Bornman Department of Communication Science University of South Africa

ABSTRACT This article explores the intricate interrelationships between discourses on and stru les of identity and the multiple processes associated with increasin lobalisation in the modern a e! "lobalisation is often exclusively associated with worldwide economic inte ration and the emer ence of a borderless lobal mar#et! $owever% lobalisation also involves sweepin chan es on the social% cultural and political terrains! "lobalisation furthermore entails apparently contradictory processes of% amon others% homo enisation and universilisation on the one hand and localisation and differensiation on the other! &arious analysts point out that the often contradictory processes of lobalisation has led to wideran in chan es in the processes of identity formation that have% in turn% resulted not only in a flourishin of discourses on identity% but also in stru les of identity involvin various minority and mar inalised roups! Apart from explorin various definitions of identity% discourses of and stru les of identity are discussed on five levels% namely the individual% subnational% national% supranational and lobal levels! Attention is furthermore iven to the role of the media and information and communication technolo ies in these stru les and the implications for policy'ma#in within the media and communications sector! The farreachin implications for Africa% and South Africa in particular% are furthermore considered!
1

INTRODUCTION

The openin of a new century has always served as a symbolic turnin point in human history! The ()st century is no exception! A si nificant feature of the present *uncture is the sweepin economic% social% cultural and political chan es often referred to as lobalisation +Tehranian ),,,-! .n eneral% the term / lobalisation/ refers to the transformation of temporal and spatial limitations% that is the shrin#in of distance due to the dramatic reduction in the time needed to brid e spatial differences that has% in turn% resulted in the radual inte ration of political% economic and social space across national borders! Althou h lobalisation is often exclusively associated with the economic sphere% that is with processes of production% distribution and consumption as well as with ever' increasin lobal trade and financial services +0e 1ere 2 0ambrechts ),,,-% economic lobalisation is intrically interwoven with chan es within the social% cultural and political spheres +3eatherstone ),,45 6aters ),,7-! "lobalisation is furthermore an extremely complex and multifaceted phenomenon! 8n the one hand there is the tendency towards homo eneity% synchronisation% inte ration% unity and universalism! 8n the other hand% there is the propensity for localisation% hetero eneity% differentiation% diversity and particularism! These processes are intricately interwoven and represent ' in reality ' two faces of the same coin! Thus the term 9 lobalisations: is sometimes used to indicate that lobalisation is not an ubi;uitous or uniform process% but involves various terrains% manifests differently in various contexts and has different effects for people in different contexts 1The idea for this article ori inated at a multidiscplinary wor#shop attended by various South African scholars involved in the study of lobalisation% identity and democratisation! This wor#shop formed part of a pro*ect funded by the <ohn D and Catherine T =acArthur 3oundation in the USA!

+Braman 2 van Staden (4445 >los#ows#a ),,?5 Tehranian% = 2 Tehranian% >> ),,@5 Servaes% 0ie 2 TerAis (444-! 6ithin this fast lobalisin world with all its contradictions% stru les for identity have emer ed as one of the most stri#in characteristics of the social% cultural and political scene! 8ne of the most important features of the identity discourse is the relative recency of its emer ence and proliferation! .n ),,B the prominent British cultural scientist% Stuart $all% remar#ed: There has been a veritable discursive explosion in recent years around the concept of "identity" +$all ),,Ba:)-! Accordin to the sociolo ist Cy munt Bauman +(44)a:)D4-% this /explosion/ has since ),,B tri ered an avalanche! 3ew other aspects of contemporary life have succeeded in attractin the same amount of attention! .t is not only that /identity studies/ have become a thrivin industry! The concept identity has also become the prism throu h which most other aspects of contemporary life are studied! Even established issues of social analysis are refurbished and reformulated to fit into the identity discourse! Thus discussions on /*ustice/ and /e;uality/ are debated in terms of /reco nition/ +of the ri ht to a separate identity-5 the concept /culture/ is studied in terms of individual% roup andEor cate orical differences and concepts such as /creolisation/ and /hybridity/5 and political discourses often centre around individual or roup ri hts! Discourses on identity is% however% not restricted to the ivory towers of academia! Stru les of identity has also become an inte ral part of intra'individual processes as well as of the social and political scene! As such discourses and stru les of identity have important and farreachin implications for policy'ma#in on all levels! Also% in an attempt to develop lobal% national and local people'centred policies with re ard to the media and information and communication technolo ies% co niAance will have to be ta#en of these discourses and stru les! "iven the prominence and importance of these discourses and stru les and their farreachin implications% . will firstly explore some definitions of identity! . will furthermore ive attention to the intricate relationship between processes associated with lobalisation on various levels and stru les for identity! .n contemplatin identity discourses on various levels% attention will also be iven to the role of international communication ' and especially the role of the media and information and communication technolo ies ' in the processes associated with lobalisation and concomitant identity issues! 0astly% attention will be iven to the implications for South Africa and policy'ma#in with re ard to the media and information and communication technolol ies in South Africa ! 2 T!" DISCOURS" ON ID"NTIT#

The term /identity/ first ained salience throu h the wor# of the psycholo ist Eri#son +),B?-! 6hile Eri#son associates identity as a definition of personhood with sameness or continuity of the self across time and space% other authors also emphasise uni;ueness% that is those characteristics that differentiate a person from

other people or the whole of man#ind +Baumeister ),?B5 Brewer ),,)% ),,F5 Gouse ),,7-! Eri#son furthermore uses the term /identity crisis/ to refer to individuals who have lost a sense of sameness or continuity! 6hile he re ards an identity crisis as a normal and passin sta e in adolescent development% he holds that it should be re arded as patholo ical in adults! $e typifies a healthy state of identity development as an invi oratin sub*ective awareness of sameness and continuity! Althou h Eri#son +),B?- theorises on identity from a psychoanalytic point of view% he also emphasises the role of the environment ' and particularly the social environment ' in the development of identity! $e uses the term /psychosocial identity/ in this re ard! 1sychosocial identity refers to the awareness of who a person is% both as individual and as a member of a family% various societal roups and a particular society! The prominent role of social roups in identity formation has furthermore been emphasised by the social psycholo ist Ta*fel +),?)-! Ta*fel holds that membership of social roups is internalised as part of the self'concept and as such forms an inte ral part of the identity of an individual! Brewer +),,)% ),,F- typifies social identification as a compromise to solve the internal conflict between two contradictory needs! These needs are% on the one hand% the need of an individual to be uni;ue +that is to be differentiated from other people- and% on the other hand% the need for security and assimilation! .dentification with social roups fulfils the need for differentiation by emphasisin the uni;ue characteristics of the own roup as well as the differences between the own roup and other roups! The need for assimilation% on the other hand% is fulfilled by the feelin of solidarity between members of a particular roup! 6hereas the social process of roup identification is emphasised within the social sciences% cultural studies focuses on the ori in% history and culture of roups or communities! The term /cultural identity/ has a twofold interpretation +$all ),,Bb-! .t is firstly associated with a shared culture% a collective /true self/% that is shared amon people with a common history and ancestry! Thus cultural identity reflects common historical experiences and shared cultural codes that serves to unify and to provide stable% continuous and unchan in frames of reference of meanin amidst social and political chan es! This conceptualisation of identity lies at the root of stru les to reveal the true essence of a particular identity% for example the search for the essence of bein British or African! .t is furthermore associated with the exploration of history in order to reveal /hidden continuities/ and /hidden roots/! The second view not only emphasises similarity% but also reco nises points of difference in the course of history in /what we are/ and /what we have become/! Thus the second conceptualisation emphasises cultural identity as an interactive process that involves /becomin / as well as /bein / and belon s to the future as well as the past! Althou h rooted in history% cultural identity under oes constant transformation and is rooted in the present where it provides a framewor# for the different ways in which people are positioned by and position themselves in relation to present realities and narratives of the past +$all ),,Bb-! The chan in nature of identity ' and cultural identity specifically ' is also emphasised by Barth +),B,- who defines identity in terms of boundaries! Boundaries can be psycholo ically% culturally% socially or politically defined and include some people as members of a roup% while others are simultaneously excluded! Accordin

to this perspective% social or cultural identity cannot be understood in terms of fixed cate ories or unchan in phenotypical or other characteristics andEor cultural practices! Barth perceives identity as a dynamic process in which the characteristics% cultural practices% symbols and traditions of a roup mi ht chan e due to interaction with the physical% social% cultural% economic and political environment! 6hat is important is not the content of a particular identity +characteristics and practices-% but rather the existence of boundaries between the own roup and other roups! $owever% as already mentioned% the discourse on identity is not restricted to academia! 3rom academic circles it has spread to the centre of social and political events where it is increasin ly associated with the social stru les of various dominated or repressed roups such as people of colour% racial% ethnic and reli ious minorities andEor feminist roups +Gouse ),,7-! These pursuits often labelled as /identity politics/ are collective% not merely individual5 and public% not only private! They are stru les% not merely roupin s! The outcomes are partially determined by power% but power relationships are also chan ed by these stru les! The stru les involve not only the pursuit of expression and reco nition% but also of le itimacy and also power! They furthermore call for a response from other people% roups and or aniAations +includin states- +Calhoun% ),,D-! The discourse of identity has thus become the primary medium for not only understandin and explainin the relationship between the personal +sub*ective- and the social% but also for discourses on the relationship between the individual and the roup% the cultural and the political% as well as the roup and the state +Gouse ),,7-! $ %&OBA&ISATION AND STRU%%&"S 'OR ID"NTIT#

Accordin to Bauman +(44)a-% the spectacular rise of the discourse on identity since the last part of the (4th century should be perceived as a reflection of human experience in the a e of lobalisation! $e holds that the obsession with the /identity discourse/ per se reflects more of the current state of human society than all the theorisin and analytical results of /identity studies/ do! 3ran#ly% Bauman +(44)a- states% somethin has one wron with the formation of identity in the +post-modern a e! 6hereas past enerations seemin ly handled identity formation and related problems and issues in a matter'of'fact way% new dimensions have been added to old problems! Circumstances in the current world have not only chan ed the processes of identity formation% but have added new dimensions to both personal and collective identity! 3urthermore% whereas the term /identity/ implies continuity% that is a solid basis in which people anchor themselves% the rapid chan es that characterises the a e of lobalisation% eroded most of the bases on which people used to anchor their identity! The a e old /problem of identity/ has thus chan ed its shape and content! .n a similar way that thin s often o unnoticed until they disappear or stop behavin as monotonously as they did before% Bauman +(44)a- ar uments that the new centrality of the identity discourse is a reflection of the fact that identity issues are not as simple and strai htforward as they used to be! .ndeed% the ac;uirin of identity has become problematic: a tas#% a stru le% a ;uest! These stru les are wa ed on various levels ' from the individual to the local to the lobal! $owever% the

stru les on various levels are closely interconnected and often represents different facets of the various homo enisin and diversifyin processes associated with lobalisation! Some aspects of the interplay between stru les for identity and the processes associated with lobalisation are discussed in the followin sections! $1 The indi(idual le(el Hotwithstandin the fact that lobalisation as well stru les for identity is mostly associated with the economic% political and social spheres% these processes also have far'reachin effects in the lives of individuals! Accordin to Bauman +(44)a-% disruptions in identity formation on the individual level can be ascribed to the combined effects of lobalisation% on the one hand% as well as to the new and extreme forms that liberal ideas on individualism has ac;uired in the modern a e! .n traditional societies individualsI identity was lar ely based on their position within the social hierarchy that% in turn% have mostly been determined by birth! $owever% due to the widespread acceptance of the principle of the e;uality of all people% traditional hierarchies associated with% for example% estate or caste have melted down and lost their si nificance! The individual has thus been emancipated from the ascribed% inherited andEor inborn nature of his or her identity +Bauman (44)a5 Taylor ),,)-! 3urthermore% whereas the emphasis on the individual and individual ri hts can be re arded as one of the most important achievements of modernity% the postmodern a e has iven rise to more extreme forms of individualism +Taylor ),,)-! .n this more self centred form of individualism the emphasis falls almost exclusively on the fulfilment and authenticity of the individual! =oreover% the notion of individual freedom emphasises that all humans are free to self'create% to realise their own authenticity! $owever% individuals not only have the freedom to become whatever they want to5 they also have the responsibility and obli ation to realise their own authenticity and to fulfil their potential% that is to become what they already is! Self' constitution% self'assertion and self'transformation have thus become the slo ans of the time! Thus% accordin to Bauman +(44)a-% the determination of social standin has been replaced by compulsive and obli atory self'determination! .dentity formation can therefore no lon er be re arded as a iven! .t has become a product of self' construction% open to free choice5 a tas#5 an obli ation which the individual has no choice but to fulfil to the best of his or her ability! $owever% modernity has not only melted down the placements in society! The forces of lobalisation have also lead to the meltin down of the places to which individuals may ain access to or where they may wish to settle so that they could hardly serve as so'called /life pro*ects/: It is not just the individuals who are on the move but also the finishing lines of the tracks they run and the running tracks themselves +Bauman (44)a:)DB-! .n the a e of lobalisation few localities for embeddin or anchorin identity are solid

enou h to stand the run of an individualIs life! Disembeddedness has conse;uently become a fre;uent life experience as people are forced to be continuously on the run with little hope of ever reachin their destiny! $owever% as identity theorists such as Eri#son +),B?- and Ta*fel +),?)- points out% identity achievement is not solely an individual venture! .dentification with social roups are% however% also complicated and eroded by the increasin prevalence of ideas that individual identity is seen as a product of self'construction% open to free choice and not simply iven by birth or divine will! $ence roup identification have also become lar ely a matter of individual choice +Calhoun ),,D-! 3urthermore% in an era characterised by what =ax 6eber calls /instrumental rationality/% human relations are perceived to be merely functional to the individualIs strive towards self'actualisation and personal happiness! As freedom of movement is re arded to be a primary or meta'value that stands above all other values% it demands that options should always be #ept open! "ainin or obtainin an identity that offers /sameness/ or /continuity/% usually implies the forfeitin or closin of other options! .dentities are conse;uently sou ht that can be adopted and discarded li#e a costume! Althou h they are freely chosen% these choices seldom imply commitment and the acceptance of responsibility of the conse;uences of an endurin relationship! Thus in many instances lobalisation and modernity has brou ht about the collapse of a sense of community +Bauman (44)a5 Taylor ),,)-! The loss of the safe shelter offered by communal relationships has% in turn% reinforced the fear and anxiety associated with identity achievement! .t has also left the hi hly privatised and isolated individual powerless and defenseless a ainst the powers of the state! 3eelin s of powerlessness are furthermore enhanced by the fact that the powers that shape the conditions under which people have to live and solve their problems% are becomin increasin ly lobal in nature and therefore almost completely beyond the reach of the individual! Social atomism bears little hope of *oinin forces with others a ainst national and lobal powers to chan e the rules of the ame! As individuals cannot chan e what really matters% they turn to thin s that they can chan e% even if these are trivial in nature! Activities such as compulsive shoppin and those associated with self'improvement and the health industry are some examples of substitutes for social and political involvement! This so'called /consumer culture/ has also become more than the consumption of consumer oods! .n the a e of lobalisation consumption and commodities have become important ways in which individuals ac;uire and express their identity! Accordin to $attori +),,@- the spread of the consumer culture have also supplanted human relationships with material relationships! 3urthermore% while lobalisation has increased the options for identification on a personal and collective level% it has also contributed towards the fra mentation of identity +Servaes% 0ie 2 TerAis (444-! The forces associated with identity formation are thus no lon er restricted to the local space% but have their ori in on different levels varyin from the local to the lobal! .ndividualsI identities has conse;uently become a complex mixture of both local and lobal elements! Some of these forces are discussed in the followin sections!

These chan es to identity formation on the individual level has important implications for the media! The role of the national media and public broadcasters has lon been perceived to promote nation'buildin and identification with the state and state nation +Baoill JsaK-! $owever% not only has the processes of individualisation and lobalisation alienated the individual from the state and society at lar e% but the individual re;uires from the media to cater for his or her individual needs and preferences! The public sphere is furthermore increasin ly supplanted by privately produced% privately owned and privately administered spheres +Bauman ),,?-! Due to technolo ical development and di italisation% national media now also have to compete with local and lobal media framewor#s for the attention of the individual consumer! Bauman +(44)a- comes to the conclusion that the experience of an identity crisis can no lon er be re arded as a passin phase in adolescent development or a rare mental condition! .t has become a common condition in modern man as man has lar ely lost the rip on the present and the self'confidence to control his or her own destiny! An invi oratin sense of sameness and continuity +Eri#son ),B?- has indeed become a rare experience for modern man! $2 The sub)national le(el

Despite the emphasis on individualism% self'construction and self'assertion as well as the many offers of disposable communities in the modern and fast lobalisin world% secure identity development re;uires a sense of belon in and community that will stand the test of time5 that cannot easily be called redundant and shed5 that involves life'lon commitment and solidarity! =en and women are thus still loo#in for roups they can belon to% certainly and forever% in a world where almost everythin is shiftin and nothin is certain +Bauman (44)a-! The term /community/ conveys warmth% comfort and cosiness +Bauman (44)b-! .t offers a place of relaxation and safety sheltered from a world rife with conflict% dan er and uncertainty! .t implies an understandin shared by all its members ' an understandin that precedes all a reements and disa reements! Such understandin is not a finishin line% but the startin point of all forms of to etherness5 a reciprocal and bindin sentiment! .t is due to this understandin % and this understandin only% that the members of a community remain united in spite of all separatin factors! The Swedish analyst% "Lran Gosenber +in Bauman (44)b-% uses the term /warm circle/ to depict a sense of community! $uman loyalties offered within this warm circle% are not derived from social lo ic or cold cost'benefit analyses! =embership do not need to be /owned/ and within this circle% the members do not need to proof anythin 5 and whatever they do% they can always rec#on on sympathy and help! $owever% in order to offer security as well as distinctiveness% true communities means clear boundaries that si nify a division into insiders and outsiders5 /us/ and /them/ +Barth ),B,-! .t is furthermore crystal clear who are members and who are outsiders5 no co nitive ambi uity or behavioural ambivalence exists! 3urthermore% protectin the unity of a community often implies bloc#in the channels of communication with the rest of the world! $owever% the lobalisin world is characterised by the shrin#in of spatial and temporal limitations and an increase in

international communication due to the development of transport technolo y% the electronic media and information and communication technolo ies! The balance between /inside/ and /outside/ communication ' once heavily s#ewed towards the /inside/ ' has thus been s#ewed% thereby blurrin the distinctions between insiders and outsiders! 3or many communities it has become increasin ly difficult to draw and sustain the boundaries between /insiders/ and /outsiders/! Thus the lobalisin word have seen the /meltin down/ of many traditional communities and society as a whole! =oreover% the emphasis on individualism% self'choice and self'achievement in the modern world% has resulted in the rise of /handpic#ed/ and artificially /produced/ communities where membership is usually based on individual achievement! .nterest roups% professional roups% virtual roups ' these are but a few examples of surro ate communities that characterise our a e! $owever% due to the fact that membership of these communities mostly have to be earned andEor the temporal nature of the roups% the identities they offer remain insecure% fra ile and vulnerable ' forever in need of vi ilation% fortification and defence! .n contrast% ethnic communities ' and ethnic minorities in particular ' represents an important and perhaps the sole exemption to the disinte ration of endurin communities in the lobalisin world +Bauman ),,?-! The stran e thin is that the ascriptive nature of ethnic identities is not a matter of choice and% in fact% oes a ainst the rain of the principle of free decision'ma#in imprinted in the liberal% modern society! $owever% accordin to =ar alit and GaA +),,4- the lure of ethnic communities lies exactly in the fact that the ascriptive nature of their membership does not rest on individual achievement: Identification is more secure, less liable to be threatened, if it does not depend on accomplishment. Although accomplishments play their role in people s sense of their own identity, it would seem that at the most fundamental level our sense of our own identity depends on criteria of belonging rather than on those of accomplishment. !ecure identification at that level is particularly important to one s well"being +=ar alit 2 GaA ),,4:DD,-! 8ther authors li#e >ymlic#a +),,7- and >los#ows#a +),,?- emphasise the role of the ethnic culture that ' despite the universalisation of cultures and an emer ent world culture +see section F!7- ' still provides the framewor# for ma*or% and particularly early human experiences! Althou h lobal and supra'national identities may play an important role% they do not provide a secure basis for the development of identity in a similar way that ethnic roups do! .n the lobal insecurity and constant flux% the blood brother% ethnic cohort% communal #inswoman or tribal clansman has become for many the only remainin source of community% security and stability +0e 1ere 2 0ambrechts ),,,-! The more so as ethnic communities offer lifelon membership that allows no termination'on'demand +Bauman ),,?-! 3urthermore% the erosion of the le itimacy and authority of the nation state has resulted in a wea#enin of the association between the state and ethnicity +see section F!F ' Bauman ),,?5 3eatherstone ),,7-! Ethnic and cultural minorities that have been sub*u ated or absorbed by the state% have thus been /freed/ resultin in

the worldwide revitalisation of ethnic and cultural loyalties and the mobilisation of ethnic roups both within and across the borders of nation states! .n contrast to the homo enisin effect of lobal identities and the spread of a 6estern consumer culture +see section F!7-% ethnic movements as a form of localisation focuses on the differences between cultures rather than on similarities! $owever% these movements are / lobal/ in the way that they use modern information and communication technolo ies to communicate with fellow ethnics that have mi rated all over the world +Servaes% 0ie 2 TerAis (444-! .t is% however% not only cultural and reli ious identities that have become sites of localised identities! Ge ional and reli ious identities have also become ways in which roups and communities resist the he emony of lobal processes +Tehranian ),,,-! Another factor that plays a role in ethnic identification and the revitalisation of ethnicity in the modern world is the lobe wide mi ration associated with lobalisation! Appadurai +),,F- spea#s in this re ard of /ethnoscapes/% that is the worldwide spread of mobile human roups such as tourists% overnment officials% uest wor#ers% exiles% mi rants% refu ees and asylum see#ers! The conse;uence is that the /local space/ of many ethnic or cultural roups are becomin more and more hetero eneous% while more people than ever before have contact with a culture or cultures different from their own! Accordin to 3eatherstone +),,4- the term 9multicultural: should conse;uently be used instead of 9intercultural: when referrin to the new cultural sphere! 8ne of the conse;uences of multicultural interaction within local spaces is that the enhanced need for sustainin boundaries between the own roup and other roups furthermore fosters ethnic identification and ethnic mobilisation! A further conse;uence is that many cultures are not restricted to the borders of a sin le state anymore +3eatherstone ),,7-! The ethnic diasporas of lobalisation have to deal with identity stru les of their own! They have to incorporate the transnational experience of displacement% disembeddedness% adaptation to and hybridisation with the culture of their host societies in their identities! 3or many mi rants this process of identity formation and reformation is aided to some de ree by the availability of the electronic media and information and communication technolo ies that provide a lin# to their /home/ communities! $owever% their communities of ori in can offer little help in the lived experience of hybridity ' the mi rantIs so'called /double vision/ ' that often leads to feelin s of not belon in to any community or culture and the lon in for the recoverin of the cultural purity that has been lost +Corcoran ),,?-! Bauman +(44)b% ),,?- comes to the conclusion that the contradictory forces of lobalisation and localisation are% in fact% resultin in the pulverisation of society that% in turn% reinforces the processes associated with lobalisation! .t has conse;uently become almost impossible to halt or reverse these processes: lobalisation has become the intractable fate of the world! $$ The national le(el

"lobalisation furthermore has far'reachin implications for the position of the nation state% that is the medium'siAed% territorial% centralised% soverei n type of polity that has become the dominant% if not sole form of political or anisation in the post )@?,

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era! Durin the period of the dominance of the nation state the / lobal scene/ was a theatre of inter'state politics where states ' thou h actions such as armed conflict% bar ainin and ne otiation ' drew and defended the boundaries that set apart the enclosed territory of each stateIs executive and le islative territory! "lobal politics were therefore almost exclusively concerned with sustainin the principle of full and uncontested soverei nty of each state over its territory +Bauman ),,?5 0acarrieu 2 Ga io ),,@5 0e 1ere 2 0ambrechts ),,,5 6aters ),,7-! The executive and le islative soverei nty of the modern state was based on a tripod of military% economic and cultural soverei nties +Bauman ),,?-! The ability to function as an effective order'ma#in entity% rested in the first place on its ability to defend its territory effectively from external as well as internal challen es! .t furthermore had to have the ability to balance the boo#s of the national economy as well as the cultural resources to sustain the stateIs identity and distinctiveness from those of its subsidiaries! The fact that the nation state held territorial soverei nty over a particular area% also implied that pride of place was primarily vested in the state +Bauman ),,?% (44)b-! A shared nationhood% that is a common national identity% played a crucial le itimisin role in the political unification of the state! The invocation of common roots and a common character was furthermore one of the ma*or tools for producin patriotic loyalty and obedience% the main principles for ideolo ical mobilisation! The /state nation/ conse;uently become one of the ma*or sources ' if not the most important source ' in which the citiAens of the state found a sense of community and collective or roup identity! $owever% in the term /nation state/ lies a contradiction! The term /nation/ is derived from the "ree# /natio/ that is associated with ethnicity and a common culture! Accordin to $abermas +),,?- nations were ori inally communities with a shared descent and culture! .n contrast% Ghoodie and 0iebenber +),,D- write that only )4M of the member states of the United Hations in ),,D could be described as homo eneous on the basis of ethnicity! .n most other states there is a lac# of conver ence between the political +the state- and the cultural +the nation-! .n order to comply with the characteristics of a true nation state and to successfully implement their executive and le islative soverei nty% overnance of homo eneous states often also involves the suppression of the ambitions of lesser population +e minority roups- towards cultural and political autonomy! 1radip Thomas writes in this re ard in Baoill +JsaK:D-: The health of a national identity can be measured by the extent to which the various #nations comprising the nation"state willingly subsume their parochial identities to that of a supra"national identity. In real life, however, a consensual example is hard to come by. As the above ;uotation su ests% ethnic andEor cultural roups are often reluctant to succumb their uni;ueness and distinctive identities to become part of an overarchin state nation! A strate y of nation'buildin conse;uently became one of the ma*or tools in the pursuit of the /one state% one nation/ ideal in hetero eneous states +Bauman ),,?-! Thus it is now commonly reco nised that national identities are seldom natural or prepolitical! They are socioculturally constructed identities ' the

11

term 9ima ined communities: or 9ima ined communalities: are often used in this re ard +=cCarthy ),,,-! Hation'buildin often implies the denial of the diversity of the citiAens of a state! 3rom the nation'buildin perspective the differences in lan ua e% culture andEor reli ion found under the stateIs *urisdiction are re arded as undesirable not'yet'fully'extinct relics of the past often also associated with bac#wardness and a lac# of pro ress! /Enli htment/ and /pro ress/ usually means forsa#in diversity and ethnic% cultural and reli ious distinctiveness in favour of a common to all level of citiAenship% community or nationhood! Accordin to Bauman +(44)b-% the practice of nation'buildin can have two faces! The nationalist perspective usually implies that the various means available to the state +e political institutions% national symbols% the educational system as well as the media- are employed to for e an overarchin national identity! .n doin so% the variety of lan ua es are usually replaced by one standard national lan ua e and the traditions and habits of diverse roups by one standard historical narrative and calendar of memory rituals! $owever% when education% persuasion and indoctrination do not wor# or their fruits are slow to come% states often resort to measures of coercion such as the criminilisation of stru les to defend the diversity or autonomy of minority roups! The nationalist plan is therefore to assimilate the variety of cultural forms under the stateIs *urisdiction and to dissolve them in one standard national form by ma#in use of the powers vested in the state! The liberal strate y appears to be the complete opposite to the nationalistic face! .t is primarily based on the liberal ideas that re ards the freedom and autonomy of the individual as the primary political values +>ymlic#a ),,7-! The ideal state is perceived to be a collection of free and unbound individual citiAens! Ethnic and other local communities are re arded as primary sources of intolerance and parochialism and% most importantly% as conservative coercive forces that hold the individual bac# from self'assertion and self'determination! As liberalism believes that true freedom will emer e only if freedom is refused to the enemies of freedom and the enemies of tolerance are no lon er tolerated% ethnic and other sub'national forms of community becomes the tar ets of state action! .t is believed that the annihilation of these enemies to freedom and tolerance will% in the end% result in all citiAens of the state freely choosin the sin ular loyalty and state identity offered to all +Bauman (44)b-! $owever% as the cultural forms and practices of the state often reflect those of the ma*ority of dominant roup% Gex +),,B- warns that the modern state is not necessarily the product of an abstract process of modernisation% but could become the way in which a dominant or ma*ority roup asserts its rule over roups or communities! Bauman +(44)b- holds the opinion that% althou h nationalism and liberalism mi ht follow different strate ies% they share the same purpose! They leave little or no room for forms of community beyond the levels of the state and loyalty to the state! 6hereas nationalism aims to annihilate difference5 the purpose of liberalism is to annihilate the different! .n both cases the /others/ have to be stripped from their /otherness/ in order to become indistin uishable from the rest of the nation! Ethnic and other forms of local identities have thus to be melted down to become part of the sin ular mold of the national identity! $owever% the winds of chan e represented by the forces of lobalisation have '

12

probably irreversibly ' chan ed the position and role of the nation state +Bauman ),,?-! The soverei nty% le itimacy and authority of the nation'state have come under constant sie e! The erodin forces are both lobal and local5 transnational as well as subnational5 centrifu al as well as centripetal! Accordin to Bauman +),,?all three le s of the tripod on which the executive and le islative powers of the state rest% have in the process been bro#en beyond repair! 8n a transnational level% states are no lon er able to control the flow of capital and information via the media and information and communication technolo ies across their borders! Due to the un;ualified and unstoppable spread of free trade rules and the free movement of capital and finances% the economy ' and thus the ability to balance the boo#s of the national economy ' is pro ressively exempt from the nation state! Hot only have the borders of states become porous% but lobal forces beyond the reach and control of the nation'state are also imposin their laws and precepts on the planet! .n order to function more effectively in the lobal economy and to retain some de ree of its law'and'order policin ability% the overnments of nation states are increasin ly forced to see# alliances with other states! Thus at least part of the stateIs le itimacy% soverei nty and authority have to be surrendered to lar er power bloc#s! .n doin so% nation states have also iven these power bloc#s to ma#e a claim ' at least partly ' on the collective identity of its citiAens +see section F!D-! The predicament of the nation state is furthermore enhanced by the fact that many of the transnational forces that shape its destiny% are blurred in a mist of mystery! They are lar ely anonymous and therefore difficult to identify% manipulate or control! The loss of the economic and le islative le s of the tripod% ma#es it furthermore extremely difficult for states to control the cultural and ideolo ical mobilisation of its citiAens +Bauman ),,?-! The nation state is no lon er the only or principle viable political context within citiAenship and collective identity are /housed/! The wea#enin of the authority and le itimacy of the state% undermines the emotive and normative commitment to membership of a nation state! The stateIs monopoly over the emotive commitments of its citiAens ' at least on a collective level ' is challen ed by lobal% supranational as well as subnational and localised forces! As discussed in section F!(% the wea#enin of the nation state has 9freed: ethnic andEor cultural roups from the bonds with a national identity! The conse;uence is revitilisation of even those ethnicities that have been believed to have withered away or died lon a o! Thus the soverei nty% le itimacy and authority of the nation state is not only challen ed by lobal forces% but also by localised forces from within! The presence of ethnic diasporas ' due to their permeable% overlappin and shiftin nature ' presents a further challen e to the he emony of the claim of the nation state over the citiAenship% collective identity and loyalty of its inhabitants +S#inner ),,,-! =i rates are lar ely impervious to the nation'buildin strate ies of their host overnments! Enhanced cultural differentiation and hybridisation ' in the /host/ as well as diasporic communities ' have thus become a common feature of society in most nation states +Corcoran (44F-! 3urthermore% the presence of ethnic stran ers in the form of mi rants also have complex cultural effects in their host countries! 6hat is often experienced as /cultural invasion/% tri ers ethnic instincts also in local ma*orities that leads to the re' evaluation of the value of so'called /national/ identities ' a process furthermore

13

stimulated by membership of supra'national power bloc#s! Thus an inflow of mi rants and the issue of membership of the European Union have led to a re' investi ation and re'evaluation of what it means% for example% to be /British/% /.rish/% /3rench/ or /Horwe ian/! The strate ies that follow these instincts are often similar to those of ethnic minorities: separation% self'closure% xenophobic attitudes and strate ies to stren then boundaries and separate and hettoise forei n elements! The confusion related to former certainties and un;uestionable assumptions can furthermore be observed in the ri ht'win political movements in various European countries +Bauman ),,?5 Corcoran ),,?5 Eri#sen ),,B-! The predicament of the nation state has% on the hand% problematised the role of the media ' and especially the national press and public service broadcastin ! The special relationship of the press and public service broadcastin to the national identity and nation'buildin has always been one of its #ey tenets! Accordin to $abermas +(44)-% national consciousness as a modern form of social solidarity ' as opposed to loyalties to communities shaped by descent% lan ua e and history ' could indeed be re arded as a product of the development of new forms of communication and especially mass communication! 6ithin the new international environment% overnments of nation states usually expect the media to continue its role in the protection and continuance of a sense of national identity amidst lobal% supranational and subnational threats! $owever% the hetero eneous nature of their populations as well as the renewed importance attached to ethnicity and other local identities demand not only tolerance for diversity% but also diversication in the contents% control and ownership of the media! 3ailure in caterin for the cultural and identity needs of various roups and communities within the boundaries of the state% could not only alienate certain roups and individuals% but could also results in the national media to become increasin ly irrelevant! The media and information and communication technolo ies in particular are% on the other hand% important role'players in the processes that are contributin to the decline of the nation state +Baoill JsaK-! The borders of nation states have not only become porous due to their inability to control the flow of information via the media and information and communication technolo ies across their borders! .nformation and communication technolo ies have furthermore led to a devolution of power downwards to the people and the liberation of ethnic and other roups from the constraints of the power of the state and the sin ular voice of the national press and public broadcastin media! The development of technolo y has furthermore promoted the development of local media that% in turn% play a vital role in the stren thenin of these identities and maintainin the lin#s between diasporas and their communities of ori in! The conclusion can be drawn that% due to the contradictory forces of lobalisation and localisation% the two'pron ed strate y of nation'buildin has become lar ely unrealistic5 less ea erly sou ht5 re arded as undesirable by si nificant sections of the populations of hetero eneous states5 and unli#ely to succeed! As the existential security offered by the state has been shattered5 the old identity stories that have replenished a sense of belon in ness in the state have lar ely lost their credibility! As the old certainties and loyalties are swept away% people increasin ly see# for new or alternative communities in which they can vest their sense of identity! 8n the other hand% the normative void left open by the state and state re ulation% offers

14

more freedom ' freedom that has been seiAed by both supra'national and lobal power bloc#s as well as by ethnic minorities to claim and reclaim the collective identities of the citiAens of nation states +Bauman ),,?-! $* The su+ra)national le(el

As discussed in section F!F% the emer ence of a lobal mar#et and the reduction of trade tariffs and other factors in the way of a free flow of capital% are increasin ly forcin nation states to become members of lar er re ional power bloc#s in order to be able to be more competitive in the new world economy +Bauman (44)b5 0acarrieu 2 Ga io ),,@-! The most well'#nown of these power bloc#s are without doubt the European Union! 8ther examples of re ional power bloc#s are =ercosur +the unity formed by a number of countries in South America-% the Southern African Development Community +SADC- and the newly formed African Union +AU-! $owever% the influence of these power bloc#s are not restricted to the economy +Schopflin ),,@-! They also create new power relationships% new forms and hierarchies of power% new forms of social #nowled e and information! Apart from the fact that nation states succumb part of their authority and le itimacy to these power bloc#s% they are also in a position to side'step the overnments of nation states and to establish direct connection with sub'national communities and other roups! These power bloc#s are also increasin ly fillin the void left by the witherin away of the authority and le itimacy of the nation state! The identity stru les emer in from these re ional power bloc#s furthermore have the potential to restructure and recast re ional% national and local power structures and identities! .t is almost self'evident that nation states have to share the commitment and loyalty% that is the collective identity% of their citiAens with these units! 3urthermore% many of these power bloc#s actively strive towards the for in of supra'national identities! As the European Union was one of the first supra'national power bloc#s to be formed outside the United States of America% it has always set the tone for supra'national inte ration and its concomitant processes% problems and challen es +Gex ),,B-! The discourses on and stru les for identity associated with European inte ration% are thus most probably exemplary of what is already happenin or could happen in other unions! European inte ration have moved throu h various sta es +Delanty ),,?5 $abermas (44)-! The pro*ect of European inte ration started after the end of the Second 6orld 6ar and was viewed as an attempt to ensure peace on the continent% to solve the "erman problem and to contain the former USSG! At this sta e it was believed that inte ration would enhance the soverei nty of nation states! As the memory of the Second 6orld 6ar faded and the Cold 6ar ended% economic imperatives became paramount within the context of increasin economic lobalisation! .n eneral% the idea was then to rescue the nation state throu h co'operation! A second vision of European identification was the federal vision of unification! Accordin to this view Europe is perceived as a cultural and political unity with common historical roots! This vision of Europe can be perceived as the reproduction on a transnational European level of the pro*ect of nation state buildin where the existin nation states are re arded as subordinate to the lar er unity! Althou h the federalist idea has not been very popular% it has been the first to introduce the debate on culture% cultural

15

and symbolic inte ration and the nature of an European identity in an otherwise culturally deficit pro*ect! A third vision of European inte ration has evolved since the ),?4s! This vision represents% accordin to $abermas +(44)-% a new political form that lies somewhere between the federalist model and the model of co'operation! This model ' the product of the increasin ly lobal world order ' sees a united Europe not merely as the co'operation of nation states% but more as a re ulatory order! The Union is perceived as a functional entity that ta#es over the dysfunctional aspects of national overnance and compensates for the wea#nesses of the nation state within the new lobal environment! $owever% the uncertainty of the re ulatory model has brou ht the need for a de ree of social inte ration and cultural cohesion ' that is of a supra' national European identity ' a ain to the fore! The failure of European inte ration on certain fronts is furthermore ascribed to issues of social inte ration and identity! The process of institution'buildin has furthermore transformed the transnational polity into a social% political and cultural framewor# that have led to the re'emer ence of old ;uestions traditionally associated with the nation state and nation'buildin : $ow is social order possibleN 6hat is the collective representation of EuropeN 6ho are Europeans and who are notN 6hat is the basis of social inte rationN 6hat constitutes a European identity andEor a European nationN $ow can social inte ration and a supra'national identity be constitutedN Althou h the need for a cultural dimension for the pro*ect of unitin Europe has been voiced% Delanty +),,?- voices the opinion that Europe lac#s the #ey elements that usually support national identities: a common lan ua e% a shared history and reli ion% an educational system and a press or media! .n his view the only substantial sense of an emer in European identity is emer in around boundaries for the inclusion of Europeans and the exclusion of non'Europeans! The uncertainty re ardin internal commonalities% the political vacuum in the institutions of the emer in polity and the lac# of a true sense of community are resultin in Europeans inventin an identity based almost exclusively on exclusion! $owever% an European identity based on contrast with non'Europeans faces the dan er of resistance from the complex nationalisms and ethnicities that form the population of Europe +Gex ),,B-! The position of minority roups ' and especially immi rant minorities ' are becomin particularly precarious! An identity of exclusion usually implies differentiation in terms of race and reli ion! Europeans are defined as 6hite Christian nations! Hon'white and non'Christian minorities have been rouped as gastarbeiters in an or anisation called the =i rant 3orum! =ost of these minorities en*oy full political citiAenship in the nation states in which they are livin and mi ht use the forum to ne otiate more effectively with their nation states! $owever% if there were a European identity and citiAenship% they will not be part of it! Accordin to Gex +),,B- the problems with re ard to these minorities are far from bein resolved and will probably haunt the European Union for years to come! &arious alternatives have been su ested to overcome these dilemmas! 8ne of the most prominent is the vision of $abermas +(44)- that a European identity should be for ed in a similar way that national consciousness and solidarity has been created in the traditional nation state! Such an identity should be based on democratic citiAenship rather than on features associated with ethnic communities such as common descent or a common culture! Communication plays a central role in this

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theory of European inte ration! Accordin to $abermas% a European'wide public sphere has to be created that is embedded in the context of a freedom'valuin political culture supported by the liberal associational structure of a civil society! This view involves public communication that transcends the boundaries of the various nation states! $owever% $abermas does not foresee the creation of a European public broadcaster! $e holds the opinion that a European public sphere should rather emer e from existin national universes openin to one another% yieldin to the interpenetration of mutually translated national communications! A first step would be for national media to cover the substance of relevant controversies in the other countries so that the various national public opinions conver e on the same set of issues! Such a communicative democracy or identity% or 9discursive democracy: as $abermas prefers% is not located in the state or an ethnic or cultural community% but in the discursive spaces of civil society! Another su estion by Castells +),,?- is based on the idea of the networ# society! The networ# society does not have a centre% but consists of nodes that may be of different siAes and can be lin#ed by asymmetrical relationships in the networ#! A networ# is furthermore an open structure that expands in different directions! .t is not a functionally inte rated body with a central principle of or anisation! The distinctive feature is that it is formin throu h the lobal diffusion of information! The networ# society is thus an information society! Unfortunately Castells does not explain how European inte ration mi ht be conceived as a networ# society apart from visualisin European polity as multi'levels of power! $owever% Delanty +),,?- holds the opinion that the nttion of the 9#nowled e society: mi ht be a more appropriate model for social inte ration in Europe as #nowled e has also become a medium for social and cultural experience! $e uses the concept 9#nowled e: to refer to the wider co nitive capacity of a society to interpret itself and to ima ine alternatives! The ;uestion that arises is whether there is an ima inary dimension to European inte ration! Delanty furthermore as#s the ;uestion% seein that Europe lac#s the characteristics of a political or cultural community% whether it should not become a virtual society! A virtual society is not constituted as a system of values but as a discursive framewor#! Similar to the position of mi rates% the position of ethnic roups is also a point of contention within views of European inte ration! Accordin to Schopflin +),,@- there are already si ns that ethnic actors en a e directly with supranational overnments! .n this way they are side'steppin the overnments of nation states and obtain direct access to the resources held by the re ional powers! The emer ence of power bloc#s therefore brin s a new fluidity to re ional and local societies that will% in the end% not only reshape the nature of political or anisation in these re ions% but have the potential of recastin the nature of collective identities! The notion of Europe as a union of ethnicities or so'called /ethno'states/ ' rather than a union of nation states ' is also mentioned in this re ard +EuropeN 6hich EuropeN 6hich future EuropeN !!! JsaK-! The scope and intensity of the discourses on a European identity serves as a clear indication that supranational unions are fast becomin much more than economic% political andEor re ulatory superstructures! They have indeed become sites of identity stru les! The emer in issues such as inclusion andEor exclusion% the position of mi rants and ethnic minorities% transnational public spheres% the role of the media and informational and communication technolo ies are not only relevant for the European Union% but also for the populations of other unions such as the African

17

Union! $, The global le(el

&arious analysts point out that the lobalisation of capital and labour mar#ets% production and consumption% communication% information% technolo ical and cultural flows are posin problems that cannot be resolved within the borders of individual nation states or by means of interstate treaties ! 6hereas partisans of lobalisation advocate unconditional subordination of the state and other power bloc#s to the imperatives of the lobal mar#et% the sociolo ist Gichard =Onch +in $abermas ),,,points out that there are ood reasons to fear that the world can be faced by the depletion of non'renewable resources% cultural alienation on a mass scale% and social explosions unless we succeed in implementin some form of political control over lobal mar#et forces! These problems are furthermore a ravated by the decline in the powers of the nation state and the stru le of supranational units li#e the European Union in findin appropriate forms for political and cultural inte ration! The possibility of one or other form of lobal political unit andEor cosmopolitan overnment are conse;uently su ested more and more as a possible solutions for the problems associated with lobalisation +Bauman ),,?5 $abermas ),,,5 =cCarthy ),,,-! $owever% $abermas +),,,- voices the opinion that ' similar to supranational units ' a lobal political inte ration re;uires a political culture shared by all world citiAens in order to act effectively in the new lobal environment! An important ;uestion is conse;uently whether lobal nationhood or a world identity is at all possible +=cCarthy ),,,-! There are many reasons to predict that the notions of a common world identity and lobe wide cultural inte ration are not at all farfetched! The forces associated with lobalisation ' amon others the lobal production and mar#etin of consumption oods5 international information flows disseminated throu h liberalised media and telecommunication networ#s5 the spread of / lobal En lish/ ' have already resulted in far'reachin lobal chan es within the social% cultural and political spheres! The social sphere is characterised by the emer ence of a lobal society ' the so' called / lobal villa e/ +=c0uhan ),BD- ' characterised by place'less% distance'less and border'less interactions that unfold in the world as a sin le space! The conse;uence is that both individuals and societies conceptualise themselves to a lar e extent as part of a world system or a world community! "lobalisation is conse;uently more than mere cosmopolitanism as it implies a capacity for lobal self'reflection and thus for identification with world citiAenship andEor total man#ind +3rederic# ),,F5 6aters ),,7-! The cultural terrain% on the other hand% is characterised by homo enisation% that is cultural conver ence! The rowth of consumer capitalism has brou ht about a conver ence in cultural habits and the spread of he emonic ideas% lifestyles% popular symbols and other mass cultural products which are mar#eted by means of superior technolo y% thus creatin a demand for them across the lobe! Terms such as 9cultural imperialism:% 9Americanisation: andEor 9Coca'Colanisation: are used to refer

18

to the spread of a he emonic American'6estern consumer culture that is believed by many to radually supplant and even obliterate local cultures +Tehranian ),,,-! $owever% 3u#uyama +in Economic lobaliAation and culture !!!!JsaK- challen es the view that the cultural flows of lobalisation are leadin to cultural homo eneity! $e holds that the cultural chan es associated with lobalisation is mostly superfluous! Conclusions about increasin cultural homo enisation is often made on the worldwide appeal of particular consumer oods that 3u#uyama re ards as a superficial aspect of culture! The deeper cultural levels of cultural and ethnic identities such as lan ua e% reli ion and race are much more important and chan e at a much slower rate! .n fact% these elements of culture are not easily abandoned! 8ther analysts point out that lobal influences do not follow the /hypodermic needle/ model! Gather than supressin local cultures from the top down% they ive rise to a complex and on oin interaction between forei n and local cultural elements in which forei n oods mi ht be ta#en over in toto% but mi ht also be translated into the local idiom +a process typified as localisation-% mutate% or mix with local elements +also called hybridisation or creolisation- +Tehranian ),,,-! "iddens +),,)- spea#s in this re ard of a lobal'local dialectic% while the term /interpenetrated lobalisation/ is used by Braman +),,B-! 8n the other hand% 3u#uyama +in Economic lobaliAation and culture !!!!JsaK- a rees that people are becomin more homo eneous in terms of lar e economic and political institutions and value systems! Tehranian +),,,- also mentions that lobalisation has led to world'scale conver ence of le al and ethical principles% the universalisation of the discourse on human ri hts and the spread of democracy as a dominant form of political or anisation! The emer ence of a lobal civil society in the form of various roups that mobilise on the basis of so'called / lobal issues/ such as nature conservation +e the "reenpeace movement-% human ri hts% feminism and consumer issues! "lobal mobilisation with the aid of technolo y are based on the belief that these issues concern all inhabitants of the world and should thus be addressed on a lobal level! Urry +(444- furthermore mentions that% similar to the role that national media and public broadcasters have played in the for in of the /ima ined/ communities of nations states% the lobal media flow ' and especially lobal television ' are also propa atin lobalism! The si ns are conse;uently everywhere that the principles of a world society and a lobal identity could already have ta#en root! .n contrast to these lobalisin trends% the worldwide spread of information and communication technolo ies appears to stren then ethnic% cultural and other local identities! .t has already been mentioned that these technolo ies are empowerin local communities and ethnic roups in mobilisin a ainst the constraints of the overnments of nation states! The revitilisation of ethnic and other local identities is illustrated by emer in tendencies in the contents of the very symbol of lobal media% the .nternet! A ainst eneral expectations% the contents of the .nternet is becomin more and more diverse! Althou h En lish lan ua e contents still dominates the web% this is rapidly chan in ! $unter +(444- ;uotes predictions that by (44F non'En lish material will account for more that half of the contents of the web! .t is furthermore believed that users based in the USA will account for less than one third of the wordwide population of internet users in (44F! .n fact% the web is on its

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way to become the most lin ually diverse medium in history! Technolo y% and particularly the .nternet% has furthermore opened various other alternatives for identity formation +Suler ),,,% (444-! 8n the individual level% cyberspace becomes for many individuals a type of a lobal extension of their intra psychic world and a transitional space between themselves and others! This space opens the door for all #inds of fantasies! 1eople can use this space for the exploration of their own identities! They can furthermore assume a variety of identities by chan in their a e% history% personality% physical appearance and even their ender! The .nternet also offers individuals the opportunity to *oin virtual communities that transcend time and spatial constraints and enables both individuals and roups to interact and mobilise worldwide on the basis of common interests and life experiences +Suler (444-! =ost virtual collectivities furthermore fulfil the re;uirements for personal freedom of liberal individualism +Bauman (44)a-! .ndividuals can #eep their options open! They have a choice about how much% if any% personal information they want to reveal! Sometimes roups encoura e or even re;uire that members assume an ima inary persona! There are normally no strin s attached to these roups! 1eople can *oin and leave at will! =embership is mostly completely subordinate to the whims and needs of the individual! $owever% the instrumental nature of virtual communities does not allow for continuity and secure identity development! &irtual identities could% in the end% hei hten the fear and anxiety of individuals in an ever'chan in world! The lobalisin world has also iven rise to a new type of individual identity% namely that of the 9cosmopolitan: +Bauman (44)b-! Cosmopolitans are usually members of the business and professional elite that travel extensively all over the world in the course of their wor#! They are truely world citiAens% often with no permanent address except for the e'mail and the mobile telephone number! They are not defined by any locality5 they are fully exterritorial! Hational boundaries and societal ties are increasin ly becomin irrelevant to them! 6herever their travels lead them% they prefer to interact with other lobalisers! They live in a socio'cultural bubble which insulates them from the harsher realities of the communities in the countries where they reside! Their lifestyle celebrates one of the distin uishin features of lobalisation% namely the irrelevance of place! The conclusion can be drawn that identity stru les on the lobal level is lar ely a reflection of and complexly interrelated with those on the other levels! As lobalisation chan e the power relationships on various levels% it also has farreachin conse;uences for identity formation on both individual and collective levels! * %&OBA&ISATION- ISSU"S O' ID"NTIT# AND SOUT! A'RICA

6ith the advent of a new political dispensation in ),,D ' the most important political development of the ),,4s ' South Africa was once a ain accepted into world society and thus became part of the lobalisin world mar#ed by the paradoxical tendencies and impulses discussed in the previous sections! 8n the one hand% the country stands before the challen e to deal with the demands

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of increasin lobalisation and to compete within the lobal capitalistic system +0e 1ere 2 0ambrects ),,,-! The new overnment is conse;uently forced to form new modes of alle iance to and identification with the abstracted international community and to ne otiate its national identity in the li ht of its international relations! .n order to be able to compete effectively in the lobal economy and with other international power bloc#s% Southern African and African countries are also forced to form power bloc#s such as the Southern African Development Community +SADC- and the African Union +AU-! .n doin so% the South African overnment is also succumbin at least part of its authority and le itimacy ' as well as the commitment of its citiAens ' to these power bloc#s! The fact that a Blac# overnment came into power and the formation of the SADC and African Union has furthermore reaffirmed political% social and psycholo ical ties with Africa! Thus many South Africans are increasin ly perceivin themselves as an inte ral part of the African continent and hence see Africanism andEor 1an'Africanism as an important component of their identity! .dentification with Africa has also iven rise to the notion of an African Genaissance that envisions the social% political and economic reformation of Africa on the basis of African values and culture +=be#i ),,@-! .niatives of the South African overnment and the South African Broadcastin Company +SABC- with radio stations such as Channel Africa and Africa'('Africa and the television channel SABC Africa that broadcast to Africa can also be re arded as attempts to create an African'wide public andEor discursive sphere! $owever% as in the case of the European Union the the nature of an African identity is still a contested terrain and many ;uestions remain: 6ho are Africans and who are notN 6hat are the #ey elements of an African cultureN Can 6hites of European descent also be re arded as AfricansN And what about roups such as .ndians% Coloureds and mi rants from other parts of the worldN 6itnin the borders of the newly constituted nation state% new ima es are bein advanced that emphasise the mar#et% democracy% individual ri hts and liberties% technocratic rationality in public policy and universal values! $owever% South Africa is also a deeply divided and hetero eneous society characterised by wideran in racial% lin uistic% cultural% reli ious and socio'economic differences +De la Gey ),,)5 $orowitA ),,)5 &an den Ber he ),,4-! Colonialisation and apartheid has furthermore left South Africa even more divided than inherent differences as it accentuated racial% ethnic and class differences and set roups a ainst other roups5 not only Blac# a ainst 6hite% but also Blac# a ainst Blac#% Coloured a ainst .ndian% and so forth +CoetAee 2 6ood ),,F-! The introduction of a new political dispensation has brou ht the ne otiation and reconciliation of hetero eneity and citiAenship ' that is loyalty to the state versus loyalty to ethnic% cultural and reli ious roups ' to a head resultin in the invention of the /new South Africa/ +0e 1ere 2 0ambrects ),,,-! 3urthermore% nation'buildin has become a overnmental preoccupation! Hot only are a common South Africanness propa ated in new national symbols and the notion of the /rainbow nation/! Hation'buildin has also become a #ey principle in policy'ma#in on all levels and thus also in policies concernin the media and information and communication technolo ies! $owever% in becomin part of the international world% South Africa is also exposed to the world'wide centripetal tendencies associated with the revival of ethnic and other local identities! =oreover% on a rass'roots level these roups probably continue in fulfillin in important emotional and social needs of their members! .n the new non' hierarchical society% people may even experience a reater need to identify

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themselves by contrast% to emphasise social borders and to confirm their ethnic andEor racial identity +$orowitA ),,)-! .ndeed% the results of research since the early ),,4s indicates that ' despite the overnmentIs emphasis on unity ' ethnic% cultural% lan ua e% reli ious roups have remained important components of the identity structures of most South Africans +Bornman),,75 Bornman 2 8livier (44)5 =attes% ),,D% ),,@-! .t appears that lan ua e in particular remains one of the most important denominators of sub'national identities in South Africa! .dentity formation is furthermore complicated by the establishment of new forms of provincial and local overnment that create new opportunities for sub'national identification! Class or wor#er identities as those represented by Cosatu and Solidariteit are also ma#in a claim on the identities of South Africans! 6hat is of particular si nificance is the way that these subnational roups ma#e use of the .nternet to foster identification and to mobilise roups! Thus% similarly to other nation states in the current a e% the new South African state have also become the site of stru les of identity on various levels! These stru les will without ;uestion also have a wide'ran in influence on all media and information and communication technolo ies! Hation'buildin is already a priority in policies within the communication sector! $owever% if co nisance is not also iven to impact of the multiple processes of lobalisation and the concomitant identity stru les and the identity needs of all sectors of the South African public% the South African media and communication sector run the ris# of failin the communication needs of their clientele! , CONC&USION

The contemplation of stru les for identity within the a e of lobalisation brin s Bauman +(44)a- to the conclusion that the term /identity/ should be replaced by /identification/! .dentification implies a never'endin % open'ended activity that are always incomplete and never finished! =anIs frantic search for identity in the current a e cannot be re arded as a residue of pre'modern and pre lobalisation times! .t is a side'effect and by'product of the combination of lobalisin % localisin and individualisin forces themselves and their concomitant tensions! They are le itimate offsprin s and natural companions of the multiple and often contradictory processes associated with lobalisation! They are in reality the oil that lubricates the wheels of lobalisation! South Africa and the South African media and communications sector cannot escape either the effects of lobalisation or the stru les of identity associated with these effects! .n the years to come the identity needs of South Africans will have to be seriously considered if the South African the institutions associated with the media and communications are serious about developin people'centred policies that address the needs of the people in addition to those of the ovenrment of the day! BIB&IO%RA.!# Appadurai% A! ),,F! Dis*uncture and difference in the lobal cultural economy% in The phantom public sphere% edited by B Gobbins! =inneapolis: University of =innesota 1ress!

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Ghoodie% H 2 0iebenber % .! ),,D! 1reface% in 0emocratic nation "building in !outh Africa% edited by H Ghoodie 2 . 0iebenber ! 1retoria: $SGC: )'7! Servaes% <% 0ie% G 2 TerAis% "! (444! Introduction$ international communication$ from media imperialism to cultural globalisation ! Study uide for 1aper ) of the =asters De ree of Arts in .nternational Communication! 1retoria: Department of Communication% University of South Africa! Gouse% G ),,7! Ruestions of identity: 1ersonhood and collectivity in transnational mi ration to the United States! )riti(ue of Anthropology )7+D-:F7)'F?4! Schopflin% "! ),,@! )ivil society, ethnicity and the state$ a threefold relationship ! J8K! Available: http:EEwww!ssees!ac!u#E s)!htm Accessed on )DE4@E(44F S#inner% <! ),,,! Geview article: "lobaliAation and the a e of mi ration! The %ditorial -oard of The !ociological 9eview: B4F'B4?! Suler% <! ),,,! )yberspace as psychological space! J8K! Available: http:EEwww!rider!eduESsulerEpsycyberEpsychspace!html Accessed on (44FE47E4@ Suler% <! (444! Identity management in cyberspace! J8K! Available: http:EEwww!rider!eduESsulerEpsycyberEidentitymana e!html Accessed on (44FE47E4@ Ta*fel% $! ),?)! <uman groups and social categories! Cambrid e: Cambrid e University 1ress! Taylor% C! ),,)! The ethics of authenticity! Cambrid e% =A: $arvard University 1ress Tehranian% =! ),,,! 'lobal communications and world politics$ domination, development and discourse! Boulder: 0ynne Giener! Tehranian% = 2 Tehranian% >>! ),,@! Tamin modernity: towards a new paradi m% in International communication and globali&ation % edited by A =ohammadi! 0ondon: Sa e:)), ')B@! Urry% <! (444! The global media and cosmopolitanism. J8K! Available: http:EEwww!comp!lancs!ac!u#Esociolo yEsoc47B*u!html Accessed on (44FE4DE)@ &an den Ber he% 10! ),,4! South Africa after thirty years! !ocial 0ynamics ,=+(-: )B' F@! 6aters% =! ),,7! 'lobali&ation! 0ondon: Goutled e!