Packaging Technology PDF

PACKAGING
TECHNOLOGY

Preface
This note on Food Packaging Technology is based on the syllabus of B. Tech.
(Food) 4
th
year. I have tried my best to collect and put together information as
precise as possible and there may be some mistakes as well. This note is for
educational purpose and there is no restriction in its use and distribution.
All the views and comments about this note are most welcomed and are
requested to address at amicablesp@gmail.com or amicable_sp@yahoo.com

Sandesh Paudel
Central Campus of Technology
Hattisar, Dharan
Co n t e n t s Co n t e n t s Co n t e n t s Co n t e n t s

INTRODUCTION TO PACK INTRODUCTION TO PACK INTRODUCTION TO PACK INTRODUCTION TO PACKAGING AGING AGING AGING ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................................................ ................................ ................................ ......................................................... ......................... ......................... ......................... 1 11 1
PRINCIPLES OF PACKAG PRINCIPLES OF PACKAG PRINCIPLES OF PACKAG PRINCIPLES OF PACKAGING ING ING ING ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................................................ ................................ ................................ ............................................................... ............................... ............................... ............................... 6 66 6
PACKAGING MATERIALS PACKAGING MATERIALS PACKAGING MATERIALS PACKAGING MATERIALS ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................................................ ................................ ................................ ................................................................ ................................ ................................ ................................... ... ... ... 10 10 10 10
METAL METAL METAL METAL PACKAGING PACKAGING PACKAGING PACKAGING ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................................................ ................................ ................................ ................................................................ ................................ ................................ ............................................ ............ ............ ............ 12 12 12 12
PLASTICS PACKAGING PLASTICS PACKAGING PLASTICS PACKAGING PLASTICS PACKAGING ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................................................ ................................ ................................ ................................................................ ................................ ................................ ....................................... ....... ....... ....... 28 28 28 28
GLASS PACKAGING GLASS PACKAGING GLASS PACKAGING GLASS PACKAGING ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................................................ ................................ ................................ ................................................................ ................................ ................................ ........................................... ........... ........... ........... 64 64 64 64
PAPER AND PAPERBOARD PAPER AND PAPERBOARD PAPER AND PAPERBOARD PAPER AND PAPERBOARD PACKAGING PACKAGING PACKAGING PACKAGING ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................................................ ................................ ................................ ......................................... ......... ......... ......... 74 74 74 74
WOOD AND SHIPPING CO WOOD AND SHIPPING CO WOOD AND SHIPPING CO WOOD AND SHIPPING CONTA NTA NTA NTAINERS INERS INERS INERS ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................................................ ................................ ................................ ............................................... ............... ............... ...............87 87 87 87
SPECIAL PACKAGING TE SPECIAL PACKAGING TE SPECIAL PACKAGING TE SPECIAL PACKAGING TECHNIQUES CHNIQUES CHNIQUES CHNIQUES ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................................................ ................................ ................................ ................................................ ................ ................ ................ 92 92 92 92
PACKAGING NEEDS OF F PACKAGING NEEDS OF F PACKAGING NEEDS OF F PACKAGING NEEDS OF FOODS OODS OODS OODS ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................................................ ................................ ................................ ....................................................... ....................... ....................... ....................... 100 100 100 100
SHELF LIFE OF PACKAG SHELF LIFE OF PACKAG SHELF LIFE OF PACKAG SHELF LIFE OF PACKAGED FOODS ED FOODS ED FOODS ED FOODS ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................................................ ................................ ................................ ................................................ ................ ................ ................ 106 106 106 106
EVALUATION OF PACKAG EVALUATION OF PACKAG EVALUATION OF PACKAG EVALUATION OF PACKAGING MATERIALS ING MATERIALS ING MATERIALS ING MATERIALS ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................................................ ................................ ................................ .................................. .. .. .. 112 112 112 112
SPECIFICATIONS AND Q SPECIFICATIONS AND Q SPECIFICATIONS AND Q SPECIFICATIONS AND QUALITY CONTROL UALITY CONTROL UALITY CONTROL UALITY CONTROL ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................................................ ................................ ................................ .................................. .. .. .. 129 129 129 129
SAFETY AND LEGISLATI SAFETY AND LEGISLATI SAFETY AND LEGISLATI SAFETY AND LEGISLATIVE ASPECTS OF PACKAG VE ASPECTS OF PACKAG VE ASPECTS OF PACKAG VE ASPECTS OF PACKAGING ING ING ING ................................ ................................ ................................ .............................................. .............. .............. ..............134 134 134 134
ECONOMICS OF PACKAGI ECONOMICS OF PACKAGI ECONOMICS OF PACKAGI ECONOMICS OF PACKAGING NG NG NG ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................................................ ................................ ................................ ........................................................... ........................... ........................... ........................... 136 136 136 136
THE MARKETING ROLE O THE MARKETING ROLE O THE MARKETING ROLE O THE MARKETING ROLE OF PACKAGING F PACKAGING F PACKAGING F PACKAGING ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................................................ ................................ ................................ ....................................... ....... ....... ....... 138 138 138 138
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Compiled by: Sandesh Paudel
INTRODUCTION TO PACKAGING
Introduction
Packaging is an important part of all food processing operation. The food industry is a major user
of packaging. Packaging is a means of ensuring safe delivery of product, in sound condition to the
final user at the minimum overall cost (in terms of protective role).
In terms of business, packaging is defined as a techno economic function for optimizing the cost
of delivering goods to maximize sells and profit.
Packaging has been defined in a number of ways, some of which are:
- The art, science and technology of preparing goods for transport and sale.
- The art of and the operations involved in the preparation of articles or commodities for
carriage, storage and delivering to the consumer.
- Packaging is a technical operation in the preparation of a package that must protect what it
sells and sell what it protects by making the product look attractive and encourage the
consumer to buy it.
Packaging is as defined above the overall concept, a coordinated system of preparation of goods
for shipment, distribution, storage, protection and marketing at optimum cost, compatible with the
requirement of the product. The word packaging is also used to describe the materials used, i.e.
the glass, plastic or paper packaging material.
Development of Packaging
Over the years several developments have taken in packaging technology. These have included
composition, form, presentation, properties, and the packaging machines themselves.
Composition of packaging materials relates to hazard/safety in its use. Form includes size and
shape of the package. Presentational aspects deal with the appeal, and it encourages sale.
Properties include a range of features of packaging material and the package itself. This includes
ease of handling, reusability, biodegradability, edibility, strength, preservative properties, and so
forth. These have all been made possible by developments in food science and technology,
packaging materials and machine technology.
Packaging machines have also been developed, mainly with respect to speed, automation,
cleaning and sterilization. The manual packaging that were the forerunners have been replaced
with semi-manual and fully automatic machines in newer industries. Automation has led to use of
robots and robotics thereby increasing the production rate, minimizing the manpower requirement
and enhanced safety and quality. Some of the packaging techniques developed in the recent years
are aseptic packaging, modified atmosphere packaging and active packaging.
The driving force behind these developments can be summarized as:
1. Social factors: convenience, quality, safety
2. Legislation
3. Economy
4. Competition
5. As a support to newer methods of non-thermal food preservation, e.g., pressure
preservation, pulsed electric field processing
6. Better protection against faulty practice

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A reliable way to better packaging consists of:

Selection of suitable packaging materials
This is a very delicate job in that it warrants considerable knowledge about both the properties of
both packaging material and food. Some of the points to be considered in the selection of a
packaging material are:
a. Pre-requisite knowledge about the products
b. Knowledge about the packaging material
c. Product-package compatibility
d. Chemical nature (chemical composition and reaction nature)
e. Physical aspects (powder, crystal, solid, liquid, hygroscopic, hydrosensitive)
f. Physical properties (strength, barrier to water vapor, oxygen, light, CO
2
, etc)
g. Behavior in aqueous and fat medium
h. Availability and economy of packaging material.
Needs to produce successful packaging
- Facts about the products
- Facts about the hazards
- Facts about the market
- Facts about the packaging materials, forms, machinery and labour cost.
Facts about the product
- How can the product be damaged or deteriorated?
- Nature of the product and raw materials (how they deteriorate).
- Interaction with packaging material.
- Size and shape.
- Weight and density.
- Its weakness breakable, scratchable, bendable, volatile, etc
- Effect of moisture and temperature change, pH and oxygen.
- Effect of light, which may cause fading or oxidation.
Facts about the hazards
- Types of transport air, ship, road, train, etc.
- The degree of control over the transport (private or public transport).
- The form of transport: passenger train, freight train, etc.
- The mechanical condition of the transport.
- Duration of transport and storage.
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Facts about the market
- Consumer need.
- Competition with other products.
- Environmental pollution.
- Reuse/recycle.
- Price.
Facts about the packaging materials
- Barrier properties - GTR (gas transmission rate) & WVTR (water vapour transmission rate).
- Mechanical properties.
- Optical properties.
- Availability and economy.
- Machineability.
- Seal properties (heat sealable) and so on.
Functions of packaging
There are various functions of packaging. However, good packaging serves two main purposes.
They are essentially technical and presentational.
Technical changes in packaging aim to extend the shelf-life of the product and to preserve its
quality by better protecting the food from all the hazards it will meet in storage, distribution and
use. Presentational aspects of packaging do not actually do anything to make the food keep longer
or in better condition. Such packaging increases sales by creating a brand image that the buyer
instantly recognizes. It also aims to appeal to the customer in terms of shape, size, color,
convenience, etc.
The ultimate aim of good packaging is increased sales against any competition and thus improved
income for the producer.
Packaging can be divided into two main classes: primary and secondary. Primary packaging refers
to the retail pack, the one that encloses the product, as sold in the retail outlet. Secondary
packaging refers to the transit or outer packaging, sometimes called the shipping container, used
to protect the primary packages in their journey from the factory to the retailer. Primary,
secondary and tertiary functions are divided into the following sub-functions:
Primary functions: Protective function, Storage function & Loading & transport function
Secondary functions: Sales function, Promotional function, Service function and
Guarantee function
Tertiary functions: Additional function
Packaging is a means of providing the correct environmental conditions for food during the length
of time it is stored and/or distributed to the consumer. A good package has to perform the
following functions:
1. Protection
Protection applies to both primary and secondary packaging. The protective function of packaging
essentially involves protecting the contents from the environment and vice versa. The product
must be protected from the influences that will cause its quality to deteriorate. These include
micro-organisms, oxygen, moisture, dust, light, odours, insects, rodents, etc. The secondary
package protects the primary package from theft, dust, climate, breakage or damage in transit due
to compression, vibration, drops, etc.
A suitable packaging must keep the product clean and provide a barrier against dirt and other
contaminants. It should prevent losses. Its design should provide protection and convenience in
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handling, during transport, distribution and marketing. In particular, the size, shape and weight of
the packages must be considered.
2. Preservation
It refers to the prevention or inhibition of chemical changes, biochemical changes and
microbiological spoilage Preservation is a function of primary packages such as cans in which the
product can be sterilized. The package provides an environment inside which the product is
preserved and recontamination is prevented.
3. Containment
It implies to both primary and secondary function. Primary pack contains a finite amount of
product in a portion size that is convenient for the consumers requirement, such as 100 gm, 500
gm or 1000 gm. Secondary pack contains an appropriate quantity of primary packs to be delivered
to the retailer, for sale as individual packs to the ultimate consumer, such as ten, dozen, and so on.
4. Information
It also implies to both primary and secondary function. It must provide identification and
instruction so that the food is used correctly and have sales appeal. The primary package must
provide information about weight, ingredients, date of manufacture and expiry, etc. The main
information is the name of the product and the brand. This identifies the pack and makes it
distinct from other similar products. Other details such as how to cook, store and serving
suggestions may also be provided. Examples are the nutritional details on yoghurt pots or dosage
information on medicines. The secondary package provides information about the methods of
handling, address to which the product is to be sent and so on. The handling instructions give
details of how high it should be stacked to prevent damage due to excessive weight on the lower
packages. It also informs if the contents are breakable and the storage conditions to be maintained,
such as dry, chilled or frozen, etc.
5. Marketability
It refers to the use of packaging as a marketing tool. It is an important primary function to make
the product look attractive and to make it stand out from its competitors. Packaging also enables
or promotes sales process and makes it more efficient. Sales promotion such as money off or free
extra contents can be advertised on the pack.
6. Convenience
Packaging makes the product easier to handle, use, open, dispense, store, etc. A convenient
primary pack can encourage sales by making life easier for the users. A pack that is easy to open,
is reclosable, and comes in convenient unit size and stores well, offers many advantages to the
consumer.
7. Efficiency
It refers mainly to the package in the manufacturing process. If the production is possible on a
high speed filling/sealing machine, it improves the output efficiency. The package needs to suit
the mechanized line by being consistent in quality. Otherwise, it may give problems such as faulty
seals, breakages, etc.
8. Economy
It applies to both primary and secondary packs. The package cost must be low; otherwise the
product may be too expensive. Insufficient packaging causes damage to the product, leading to
losses in sales and reputation. The cost of transport, storage and the economics of recycling are
important.

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9. Disposability
It is important for both primary and secondary packaging. Where possible, the package should be
returnable, recyclable or be easy and safe to discard.
10. Loading and transportation function
Convenient goods handling entails designing transport packaging in such a manner that it may be
held, lifted, moved, set down and stowed easily, efficiently and safely. Packaging thus has a
crucial impact on the efficiency of transport, handling and storage of goods. Packaging should
therefore be designed to be easily handled and to permit space-saving storage and stowage. The
shape and strength of packages should be such that they may not only be stowed side by side
leaving virtually no voids but may also be stowed safely one above the other.
Where handling is to be an entirely or partially manual, package must be easy to pick up and must
be of a suitably low mass. Heavy goods must be accommodated in packages which are well suited
to mechanical handling. Such items of cargo must be fork liftable and be provided with
convenient load-bearing lifting points for the lifting gear, with the points being specially marked
where necessary (handling marks).
11. Storage function
The packaging materials and packaging containers required for producing packages must be
stored in many different locations both before packaging of the goods and once the package
contents have been used. Packaging must thus also fulfill a storage function.
12. Guarantee function
By supplying an undamaged and unblemished package, the manufacturer guarantees that the
details on the packaging correspond to the contents. The packaging is therefore the basis for
branded goods, consumer protection and product liability. There are legislative requirements
which demand that goods be clearly marked with details indicating their nature, composition,
weight, quantity, and storage life.
13. Additional function
The additional function in particular relates to the extent to which the packaging materials or
packaging containers may be reused once the package contents have been used. The most
significant example is the recycling of paper, paperboard and cardboard packaging as waste paper.
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PRINCIPLES OF PACKAGING
Packaging Hazards
Product goes through various steps from production to sale and reuse of package. A number of
packaging hazards are involved in the chain of distribution. The hazards depend on the mode of
transportation, method of handling and storage.
a. Hazards arising from mode of transport
The modes of transport include bullock cart, road-trucks, rail goods trains, sea ship, and air cargo.
Hazard is inevitable in all of these modes.
Bullock cart
The stacking and drop height is about 5ft. Bumping occurs due to rough road. Directional placing
of packages may not be possible because of the constructional constraint of the cart.
Road trucks
Road has the advantage of being cheap, and can take the goods directly from the producer to the
retailer. However, the quantity that can be carried in one vehicle is limited. It is also affected by
weather. It is used for short and long distance as well as door to door service. The package
dimension should suit the body dimension for maximum use of space. It is costlier that by rail.
Maximum stacking and drop height are 7ft and 5ft respectively. Puncturing of package by
protruding bolts is possible. Bumping in the rough road may cause damage to the contents.
Rail goods trains
Rail is excellent for moving large quantities in bulk. However, it is not direct and the extra
loading and unloading operations introduce extra hazards. Also, pilferage is possible. It has no
problem for inter-state transport. There is no interruption of journey even in rainy season.
Stacking height = 8ft. vibration in railway joint. Shunting shock is possible. In summer, the steel
wagons get heated.
Sea ship
Sea or river travel is also slow and not direct to the end user, requiring extra handling. Stacking
height = 10-15ft. High humidity may be a problem. Swaying can occur due to waves. Salt spray
on decks and docks can harm the package.
Air cargo
Freight charge is very high. There is limitation in size and weight of package, and sometimes even
the product type. Air travel is too expensive for all but the lightest or luxury items. The journey
time is less and there is better handling but cooling facility is not available. Hazards include high-
frequency vibration, low pressure and temperature when flying at high altitude.
b. Hazards arising from handling
Handling can be done manually or by mechanical means. Hazards are involved in both the
methods.
Manual handling
In India and Nepal, single man handling is common and a man handles about 35-40kg. The drop
height is about 6ft when carried on head and 3-4 ft when carried on shoulder. The packages are
rolled on the floor when heavy and this damages the package.
Mechanical handling
Mechanical handling includes conveyors, fork, lift, etc., for handling palletized or unified loads.
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c. Hazards arising from storage
The product and the package undergoes compressive/static load during storage. During
transportation, the package experiences dynamic load. The stacking height for any package should
not be greater than 20 ft.
Types of hazards
Packaging materials, packaged products and the packages themselves have to weather several
hazards during storage and transportation. The major and most common hazards encountered
during transportation and storage are as follows:
A. Physical hazards
Physical hazards are mainly the mechanical hazards encountered in storage, during loading and
unloading and in transit from the factory to the retailer and consumer. Physical hazards include:
1. Puncturing, piercing, tearing by hooks, nails, bolts
2. Crushing by rope
3. Drop hazard due to drop impact which occurs during loading/unloading and transportation
4. Drop impact results in breakage, distortion, leakage, bursting
5. Uneven lifting due to slinging
6. Vibration and bouncing (bumping) can occur during road transport, vibration and shock
during rail transport, vibration during air transport due to high frequency vibration of
engine. Vibration produces shock impact, shunting causing shunting shock. Vibration
shock causes abrasion of goods, leading to wearing, distortion, breakage, leakage, fracture,
loosening of fastening or strap.
B. Chemical hazards
It includes light and ultraviolet radiation that can affect the shelf life of the product. Other
chemical hazards are enzymatic reactions such as browning, oxidation and the risk of odours or
volatiles transferring into or from the product. It also includes the corrosion or migration of the
constituents from the packaging into the product and vice-versa.
C. Climatic hazards
This type of hazard can be of several types, the more important of which are:
1. High/low temperature, high/low RH, high/low pressure
2. Chemical pollutants like sulfate, chlorides, acids, etc of the environment
3. Direct exposure to sun
4. Rain or drain water
Climatic hazards arise due to the effect which humidity, rain, condensation, dust, changes in
temperature and pressure, have on the product. These include physio-biochemical changes such as
loss of crispness, mold growth, formation of hydrates, cracking or hardening of the product,
rusting, etc. Low pressure can affect the seal integrity of the pack.
D. Biological hazards
It is caused by insects, rodents, birds and microorganisms during transportation and storage. They
cause decay, spoilage, material loss, contamination and spillage. Biological hazards can be
divided into macro and micro sections. The macro includes birds, rodents, insects such as moths
and beetles, flies, ants, termites, etc. Insects may account for up to 20% of the losses of some
products.
Some insects are capable of boring their way through packaging. A smooth, thick material is best,
avoiding creases and folds in the style of pack in which insects could hide. For the protection
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against rodents, the best way is to keep the storage areas in good condition, allowing them
nowhere to nest and survive, setting bait to poison them, etc.
The microbiological hazards are aerobic and anaerobic bacteria, yeasts, molds and fungi. Molds
make the substrate acidic and break down paper products. The acidity can lead to problems with
corrosion. These can be prevented by proper packaging by maintaining a vacuum or modified
atmosphere, preventing the entry of micro-organisms, keeping the product dry, or allowing
moisture to escape from moist products that would otherwise become moldy, etc. The product can
be sterilized in the pack as in canning, or be irradiated or aseptically packed, etc.
E. Static hazards
Static hazards occur from compression of goods due to stacking loads and are influenced by
factors such as:
- Stacking pattern
- Duration
- Condition of floor such as evenness
- Nature of goods
F. Miscellaneous
In addition to mechanical hazards in handling and transportation, the climatic and biological
hazards to which packaged goods may be subjected during their life cycle should also be
considered. Other possible hazards are:
1. Exposure to foreign odours; some corrosive chemical odours may cause stress cracking
2. Contamination by other products stored alongside which may have leaked, thereby
affecting the external appearance
3. Hazards of pilferage
4. Fire
5. Floods, particularly evident in low lying areas during heavy rainfalls
These hazards have been the basis for the development of transport packaging. Knowing the
hazards, suitable packaging can be developed to protect the product. It is necessary to know all
the facts about the product (discussed earlier) to develop suitable packaging.
Interaction between the product and the packaging material includes considering toxicity,
corrosion of metal packaging, migration of the constituents into the food, migration of solvents
through the material, etc.
The environmental conditions that it will encounter depend on the location of both the producer
and the market. The climatic factors such as temperature and RH affect the choice of a suitable
material. Dust or pollutants in the atmosphere, radiation, etc all cause deterioration. Storage
factors such as the condition of the store and what products are stored nearby can affect the
packaging requirements.
Distribution Hazards
Distribution hazards occur during loading & unloading, transit and in storage. These hazards can
be assessed by observing handling procedures, by sending a trial shipment through the normal
distribution system and inspecting its condition on arrival, or by simulating expected conditions in
the laboratory, subjecting the package to impacts, drops, vibration, etc.
Loading and unloading hazards
These are mainly drops and impacts. The important factor is the height from which the product
has dropped or been impacted, the surface onto which it has dropped, and the edge which it lands
(base, side or corner), etc. The weight of the unit is also important. If it is too light, it will be easy
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to throw and thus increases the risk of such hazards. If it is too heavy, it requires two or more
people to move and thus reducing the risk of such hazards. But the damage is higher in heavy
goods, if occurred. Special handling equipments such as cranes may also cause damage to the
pack by piercing or tearing with the hook. An ideal unit weight is 10-25 kg.
Transit or movement hazards
It depends upon the mode of transportation. For road transportation, it depends upon the condition
of the road and the vehicle. A vehicle having more suspension system prevents the package from
the more severe impacts. Speed also plays an important role. Higher speed on rough surface
causes more damage. Other hazards in road transportation include crushing by ropes used for
tying, side impacts with heavy breaking and drop during loading and unloading. For rail
transportation, there are hazards such as vibrations, shunting and snatching due to the sudden
start/stop of the loose coupled wagons. Sea transportation can give rise to crushing due to the
practice of stacking the load very high in the hold. There is also the hazard of low frequency
vibration and if the sea is rough, stresses may included by pitching and rolling. Air transportation
has the risk of high frequency vibration, pressure and temperature drops.
Shock is a stress induced by sudden deceleration, i.e. if the vehicle stops abruptly. This can cause
internal stress distorting the product. The resistance to shock is known as the fragility of the
product and it can be expressed in terms of fragility factor (ff). This is defined as the maximum
stress that can be tolerated under specific conditions. The measurement unit is g, the
acceleration due to gravity. For e.g. a package having ff of 50 can withstand an impact force of
magnitude up to 50 times its own weight.
Vibration can give rise to failure due to resonance and fatigue, can cause loosening of closures
and fastenings, print abrasion, scuffing and have a destabilizing effect in stacked packs. It is a
major problem with sensitive electronic equipments. Cushioning material (soft protective pad) can
be used to dampen the frequency of vibration.
Storage hazards
It depends on the height of the stack and the stocking pattern used. Crushing will occur if too
much weight is applied from packs above in a stack. If all boxes are stacked in the same
orientation, it leads to a concentration of the load on the corners. This can be overcome by
arranging them so that alternate layers in the stack are in opposite directions. This gives a better
distribution of load, which reduces the compressive force and therefore the risk of crushing is
reduced. Also, the stack is more stable.
The compressive strength of a box depends on its cross sectional area over which the load is
distributed. If a given box has theoretical compression strength of 300 kg and is to contain 5 kg of
product, then it could in theory have 60 boxes placed on top of it before it would fail. However, in
practice, a safety factor is applied to allow for damage to the boxes, a loss in strength due to an
increase in moisture content/relative humidity, or shifting of the load as the vehicle goes around a
corner, etc. Higher safety factor is needed in tropical countries where the boxes will lose strength
due to their increase in moisture content.
During storage the product may also incur climatic hazards and biological hazards such as
bacteria, fungi, mice, rats, etc.
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PACKAGING MATERIALS
Introduction
There are many different types of packaging materials in use today. Originating from natural
materials such as skins, leaves, and bark, tremendous progress has been made in the development
of diversified packaging materials and packaging equipment. Packaging materials are commonly
grouped into rigid and flexible structures. Plastic film, foil, paper, and textiles are flexible
materials; whereas wood, glass, metals, and hard plastics are examples of rigid materials. Each
material has advantages, disadvantages and limitations.
The main packaging materials in use today are:
Metals
Plastics
Glass
Paper/board/wood
Traditional packaging materials
In general these materials are used to hold foods but they offer little in the way of barrier
properties needed for a long shelf life. The exception is glazed pottery, which although heavy,
has excellent properties.
Leaves
Banana or plantain leaves are the most common and widespread leaves used for wrapping foods,
such as certain kinds of cheese and confectionery (guava cheese). Cornhusk is used to wrap corn
paste or block brown sugar, and cooked foods of all sorts are wrapped into leaves. 'Pan' leaves are
used for wrapping spices; they are an excellent solution for products that are quickly consumed,
as they are cheap and readily available.
Bamboo and rattan
These are widely used materials for basket making. Bamboo pots, cut out of the bamboo stem are
also found.
Coconut palm
Green coconut palm and papyrus leaves are frequently woven into bags or baskets, which are used
for carrying meat and vegetables in many parts of the world. Palyra palm leaves are used to
weave boxes in which items such as cooked foods are transported.
Vegetable fibres
These natural raw materials are converted into fibres to produce the yarn, string or cord for
packaging materials. Such materials, although categorized by the nature of the constituent fibre,
have certain common characteristics. They are very flexible, to some extent resistant to tearing
and permeable to water and water vapour. Their lightweight is an advantage in handling and
transport.
The rough surface makes stacking easier in comparison to man-made fibre sacks, which slide due
to their smooth surface. Another difference with man-made fibres is that the natural raw materials
are bio-degradable when left in their pure state. However, they rot when moist limiting the
number of times that they can be re-used.
Earthenware
Earthenware is used worldwide for storage of liquids and solid foods such as curd, yoghurt, beer,
dried food, honey, etc. Corks, wooden lids, leaves, wax, plastic sheets, or combinations of these
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are used to seal the pots. If well sealed, it is a gas, moisture and lightproof container. Unglazed
earthenware is porous and is very suitable for products that need cooling e.g. curd. Glazed pots
are better for storing liquids e.g. oils, wine, as they are moisture proof and airtight, if properly
sealed. All are lightproof and if clean, restrict the entry and growth of micro-organisms, insects
and rodents. One should ensure that the glazing of the earthenware does not contain lead. Most
traditionally glazed pots do have lead glazings which, although they are not really harmful for
serving coffee or soup, should not be used for acid drinks and other products which are to be
stored for a long time.
Treated skins
Leather has been used for many centuries as a non-breakable container or bottle. Water and wine
are frequently stored and transported in leather containers (camel, pig and kid goat hides).
Manioc flour and solidified sugar are also packed in leather cases and pouches.
Properties of an ideal packaging material
In general, an ideal packaging material must have the following properties:
1. Good barrier properties low GTR and WVTR and Controlled transmission of required or
unwanted gases
2. Protection from loss of flavor and odor
3. Good mechanical properties (i.e., strength in compression, wear, and puncture characteristics)
4. Resistance of migration or leaching from package
5. Have a functional size and shape
6. Give optimum efficiency
7. Easy machine handling and suitable friction coefficient
8. Low cost and availability
9. Compatible with products
10. Easy for cleaning, safe and easily disposable, recycle and reusable
11. Heat sealability
12. Closure characteristics, such as opening, sealing and resealing, pouring
13. Convenience
14. Chemically inert and zero toxicity
15. High product visibility
16. Strong marketing appeal
17. Stable performance over a large temperature range
18. Ability to include proper labeling
19. Should meet legislation

12
METAL PACKAGING
Introduction
Metal is used in a number of forms in packaging, as cans, foil, tubes, drums and closures, etc.
Steel, tin, and aluminum are used mainly for canned foods and beverages. The most commonly
used metals for packaging are tin-coated steel and aluminum cans.
Metal packages for food products must perform the following basic functions if the contents are to
be delivered to the ultimate consumer in a safe and wholesome manner:
preserve and protect the product
resist chemical actions of product
withstand the handling and processing conditions
withstand the external environment conditions
have the correct dimensions and the ability to be practically interchangeable with similar
products from other supply sources (when necessary)
have the required shelf display properties at the point of sale
give easy opening and simple/safe product removal
be constructed from recyclable raw materials
In addition, these functions must continue to be performed satisfactorily until well after the end of
the stated shelf life period. Most filled food and drink containers for ambient shelf storage are
subjected to some form of heat process to prolong the shelf life of the product. For food cans, this
will normally provide a shelf life of up to 23 years or more. The heat process cycles used to
achieve this are particularly severe and the containers must be specifically designed to withstand
these conditions of temperature and pressure cycles in a steam/water atmosphere.
Advantages
Metal containers have a number of advantages over other types of container, including the
following:
1. Complete barrier in terms of GTR and WVTR provide total protection of the contents
2. 100% UV/light protection
3. Strong as compared to plastic, paper, glass and wood
4. Highly durable
5. Reusable and recyclable economic
6. Good machineability can be produced and filled in high speed machine automatically
7. Light in weight as compared to glass
8. Providing a cheap matter of preserving food canning
9. Heat processable/resistance
10. Printable and embossable
11. Convenient for ambient storage and presentation better protection against insects
12. They are tamperproof
13. Creates hermetically sealed/aseptic environment.
14. As regard to their opacity, it is an advantage for light-sensitive products.
Disadvantages
1. The high cost of metal and the high manufacturing costs make cans expensive as compared to
plastic and paper but not glass
13
2. Not completely inert Tendency to interact with contents and environment (internal and
external corrosion). Takes part in chemical reactions thus leading to corrosion, rusting,
leakage, etc.
3. Chance of migration of tin and lacquer material into food
4. Heavier than other materials, except glass, and therefore have higher transport costs
5. Completely opaque contents cant be seen without opening

Commonly 4 types of metals are used for food packaging purpose:
- Steel
- Aluminium
- Tin plate
- Chromium plate ECCS (electrolytically chromium coated steel plate)
Lead and copper are also used but in soldering or welding of 3 piece can. Tin and aluminium are
most widely used metals for the manufacturing of cans.
Canning
The most common use of metals for packaging is in tin and aluminum cans. The metal provides a
highly effective barrier between the food product and the environment. Thus, the critical concepts
of canning are to ensure that the product in the can is biologically stable and that the seal provided
by the metal is complete. Food stability for non-powders is usually achieved by thermal
processing.
A. Tin Can
This is also called open top sanitary can. It has a base of mild steel plate coated with tin (0.04-
0.1%). Steel is easily corroded so is usually in the form of tinplate which consists of mild steel
(low carbon content in the order of 0.1-0.5%) coated on both sides with a layer of tin. The tin
coating protects the steel from rusting and corroding by forming a tin/iron alloy at the interface to
prevent the attack on the steel base. The typical structure is shown in the figure below:

Fig: Structure of tin plate
The base steel plate is also known as black plate which has low carbon content.
Passivation treatment: This stabilizes the surface of tin coating by controlling the growth of
natural oxide. The uncontrolled oxide growth can cause yellow discoloration of the plate surface
and effects lacquering and printing process, i.e. it makes the surface more stable and resistant to
atmosphere.
An electrolytic treatment in a sodium dichromate electrolyte is widely used method. It results in
the formation of thin (<1mm) film consisting of chromium and chromium oxides and tin oxide.
Surface oiling: It is designed mainly to lubricate the plate to improve the slip characteristics and
reduce surface scratching and adhesion properties when a plate is subsequently fabricated into
container. The amount of oil used is 5-10 mg. The oils used are dioctyl sebacate (DOS), acetyl-
tributyl citrate (ATBC). The level of oil application must be controlled because excessive oil
coating causes decoating of lacquer and disturbs in printing.
14
Advantage of tin coating
The combination of steel and tin produces a material that has:
- Good strength and barrier properties
- Excellent fabrication quality such as ductility and drawability
- Good solder and weld ability
- Non-toxic in nature
- Lubricity
- Lacquer ability
- Provide corrosion resistant surface of bright appearance most important factor
- They tend to be used for higher-value products, as the painted tin can look very effective.
Types of steel for producing tin plate
Tin cans can be classified on various bases, e.g., i) based on corrosion resistance, ii) based on
grades of base plate, iii) based on size, and iv) New system based on ISO diameter.
a. Classification based on corrosion resistance
Type MR: This is the most widely used grade used for moderately and mildly corrosive products,
such as peas, apricots, meat, peaches and grapefruit. Residual elements are not limited except
phosphorus which is kept at a low level. Typical composition contains 0.2% copper, 0.02%
phosphorus and 0.5% sulphur.
Type L: This is used for highly corrosive foods, i.e. those that are highly acidic such as apple
juice, berries and pickles. In this type the amounts of phosphorus, silicon, copper, nickel,
chromium and molybdenum are limited to as low as practicable, typically 0.06% copper, 0.015%
phosphorus and 0.05% sulphur.
Type LT: It is the same as type L, but it has been tested to confirm that it is corrosion resistant.
Type MC/N: This has been rephosphorised for extra strength and stiffness. It is suitable for mildly
corrosive or non-corrosive products such as peas, meat, fish, dried soups, milk, etc. it is used for
making high-strength tin plate i.e. for can ends for carbonated beverages where the internal
pressure is high.
Type D/M: For making D & I (drawn and ironing) can.
NOTE: Low copper cans are used for acid foods. The copper content of tin plate varies from 0.02
to 0.6%. The phosphorus content varies from 0.01 to 0.1%. The strength of can is proportional to
phosphorus content in the base plate.
b. Classification based on strength and ductility
Tinplate is graded according to its strength and ductility in a grading system that refers to each
grade as a temper (T) numbered from 1-6. T1 represents the most ductile but least strong grade;
therefore it is easy to mold. T6 is nitrogenised steel, very stiff and suitable for ends subjected to
high pressure. Each grade has a typical use, such as:
T1 T3: used for deep draw components, e.g. two piece cans
T3 T4: general purpose grades used for can bodies/ends
T5 T6: stronger grades used for heavy duty can bodies and ends.
c. Classification based on size
Based on size, American system of nomenclature is used, e.g., A1 Tall, A2, etc. Each of these
nomenclatures has a meaning.
For example, A2 can refers to diameter height of
' ' 4 ' ' 4
16
11
16
1
.
15
d. New system based on ISO diameter
ISO diameter system is related to American system of nomenclature. The A2 equivalent in this
system is 401411. The derivation of the relation is outlined below:

Manufacturing principle of can base plate
An outline of the manufacture of can base plate is shown in the figure that follows

The steel plate is made by hot rolling cast steel ingots or continuous steel strip down to a
thickness of 2 mm. It is then treated in a bath of sulphuric acid to remove the surface layer of iron
oxide. Cold rolling follows, reducing the thickness further to 0.15-0.5 mm. It is heat treated to
remove the manufacturing stresses and to improve ductility in a process known as annealing. This
can be a continuous or batch type process. Continuous annealing takes the metal to a temperature
between 600-650
o
C for 1-1.5 minutes. The batch process holds a batch of metal at between 600-
650
o
C for 7-10 hours in a nitrogen/hydrogen atmosphere to prevent oxidation. A light rolling
follows to achieve the required mechanical properties and surface finish. Inspection and
degreasing follows before the tin is applied.
Tin coating can be carried out by two methods:
a. Hot dipping method
Traditionally the tin coating was achieved by hot dipping the steel in a batch of tin. Hot dipping
produces thick coating (a minimum of 22 gram per square meter; gsm), i.e. 11 gm tin per square
meter on each plate, which tends to be expensive. It also produces uneven coating and differential
coating cant be achieved as well.
b. Electroplating/electrotinning process

16
11
16
01
2
1
4 4 2 A =
411 401
American system nomenclature
ISO diameter system
Hot steel ingots
Cold rolling
Steel strip of thickness 1.8mm
Pickling
(hot, dilute H
2
SO
4
bath)
Steel strip of 0.15-0.5mm
Annealing and temper rolling
(to give required hardness and surface finish)
Coating on both sides
(hot dipping or electrolytic process)
16
Nowadays, electroplating method is used to achieve more controlled and uniform coat weights,
which can be adapted to the product requirements. The tin anode and the steel cathode are
immersed in an electrolyte of acidic stannous (tin) sulphate. The tin dissolves and is deposited on
the steel cathode. Electrolytic coating can give as low as 5.6 gsm, i.e. 2.8 gm tin per square meter
of plate. It can also give differential coating such as D100/50.
However, the resulting tin plate has a dull finish. A shiny appearance can be produced by a
process known as flow brightening, which produces brightening by heating in hot oil bath or by
electrical induction process. This not only gives bright appearance but also enhances resistance to
corrosion. Finally it is treated with chromic acid, dichromate, perchromate or phosphate solution
to stabilize the finish. Alternatively, oil such as dioctyl sebacate can be applied to the tinplate to
act as a lubricant, minimizing the scratching of the plate.
The tin coating may be the same weight on both the sides of the plate or it may be different by
using a differential coating process. This allows for savings as only the required amount of tin,
which is expensive, will be applied. The can is more vulnerable to the attack from the pack
contents than from the atmosphere, so a thicker tin coating can be applied internally. Typical
coating weights vary from 1.4-11.2 gsm on either side of the steel base. The code letter E refers
to equal coat weight on both the sides whereas D refers to different coat weights.
As tin is very expensive, efforts have been made to reduce the quantity required as in the
electroplating method. Double cold reducing (DCR) involves giving the metal a second rolling
process to reduce its thickness by 25-50%, while increasing the stiffness. This is used to achieve
the same strength through thinner and therefore cheaper metals. Another alternative is the use of
cans without tins.
Principles of can manufacture (round can)
Example: open top sanitary can
strip of base plate
cut to required size
edges are notched and locked
side seam is formed
reforming in mandrel (body reformer)
can ends are notched or plunged and flanges made
one end is seamed with lid in double seamer
lid
gasket of rubber composition
body blank
side seam
flange

The side seam after reforming the can body is welded before flanging. The rubber gasket in the lid
helps seal the joints between lid and edges of body blank.
Tin cans are made of sheet steel coated with 0.5 mm tin. The coating is applied by tinning, which
is electrolytic deposition of the tin at about 10 g/m
2
, and hot dip, which uses about 30 g/m
2
. The
steel is rolled and ribbed (for added strength) and either sealed with solder (usually 95% lead, 5%
17
tin), or, more commonly, welded. The resulting tube ends are flanged, and the lids at both ends
are attached by a double seam without solder. Since steel corrodes rapidly in the presence of
acidic substances, the tin acts as a barrier. Some cans are lacquered internally for high-acid
products (pH 3) or for products that change color in the presence of tin. Foods that contain sulfur
produce a blackening of the tin. The steel can provide almost perfect barrier protection and,
because of its structural strength and ability to handle pressure, can be retorted (cooked under
pressure) after sealing.
Tin coating or lacquering is an important part of can manufacture. The lacquer is a resin, such as
an acrylic (which resists high temperatures), oleoresinous, alkyd,epoxy, phenolic, polybutadiene,
or vinyl resin. More than 200 different protective coatings are now in use. The lacquering must be
complete. Small gaps in the coating can lead to the iron being exposed.
The interior coating has to withstand sterilization temperatures and action of acids, as well as
sulfide staining. As iron corrodes it produces hydrogen gas, which can blow the can. The
development of lacquers has meant that tin-free cans are possible. Another disadvantage of steel is
the high-energy requirement during manufacture.
Cans without tin
a. Tin free steel (TFS)
TFS, also referred to as electrolytic chromium/chrome oxide coated steel (ECCS), is made from
mild steel coated electrically with chromium (chromic acid). It is usually lacquered for better
performance. Tin-free cans are cheaper. Such cans are used for dehydrated foods, beer,
carbonated beverages, meat and fish.

It consists of:
- Chromium coating 0.07-0.15 gsm
- Oxide layer 0.03-0.06 gsm
Advantages over tin plating
1. Cheaper than tin coated plates
2. Produce surface more acceptable for protective lacquer coating or printing ink
3. Due to high melting point (232
o
C), tin layer show use of higher lacquer stoving
temperature. Shorter stoving time can be used for TFS.
Disadvantages
1. Low resistance to lacquer, so require high degree of lacquer protection
2. Cant be sealed with traditional lead or tin solder; requires bonding by welding or use of
organic solvent
b. Tinless steel (black plate)
It is mild steel sheet dipped in phosphate solution and then lacquered. Phosphate treatment
facilitates lacquering and is called bonderizing. The material is used in cans for beer and other
carbonated beverages, biscuits, etc.
c. Aluminized steel
It is made by coating aluminum by hot dipping or vapor-coating on steel plate.
18
B. Aluminium Can
Aluminum is used increasingly for canning due to its lightness, low cost, corrosion resistance,
availability, and recyclability. It is third lighter in weight than tinplate but is not as strong, but is
more ductile. It is easier to form in a variety of shapes and is ideal for easy open features.
Aluminium for light metal packaging is used in a relatively pure form, with manganese and
magnesium added to improve the strength properties. This material cannot be welded by can-
making systems and can only be used for seamless (two-piece) containers. The internal surfaces
of aluminium containers are always coated with an organic lacquer because of the products
normally packed.
Advantages
1. Light weight
2. Good appearance
3. Good dead folding properties
4. Excellent barrier to moisture and gases
5. Good weight : strength ratio
6. Impermeable to light, odour and micro-organisms
7. Extensively corrosion-free (due to oxide film formation on surface) no need of lacquer
8. Does not discolor the product
9. Resistant to sulfur-containing products (meat, fish, etc.)
10. Easy to open
11. Non-toxic and does not give metallic taste
12. High recycling
13. High quality surface for printing and decorating
14. Compatible with wide range of sealing resin and closure for different closure system
15. Aluminium foil can be laminated with paper or plastic to increase the barrier properties of
paper and plastic
Disadvantages
1. Not highly resistant to corrosion by acid fruit, hence extra protection through lacquering or
anodization is necessary
2. Less strength, thus denting is possible
3. Retort pressure can cause permanent distortion if precautions, like use of overriding
pressure, are not taken
4. Incompatible with use in microwave oven
5. Some chemical reactions are carried out with mild acid and alkali
6. Aluminum foil is difficult to use on modern fast packaging equipment because of creases,
tearing, and marking effects.
7. Aluminum foil of fine gauge may have minute pinhole defects due to the tolerances of the
rollers, crystal size, and lubricants used, which allow transmission of air and water.
Aluminum alloy
Aluminum plate containing 1% manganese increases strength and corrosion resistance. This can
has the strength equal to aluminum can with 20% higher thickness.
Aluminium alloy is used because of the following reasons:
It has high strength as compared to pure aluminium
It improves formability characteristics
It influences corrosion characteristics
19
Wide range of aluminium alloy is used. The choice of use depends on the container design and
fabrication design.
Cu reduce the corrosion resistance
Mn slightly increase the corrosion resistance
Mg good corrosion resistance
Zn corrosion resistance reduced in acidic media, but increased in alkaline media
Si decrease the corrosion resistance
Fe high iron content increase the bursting strength but reduce the corrosion resistance
Titanium slightly influence the corrosion resistance
Aluminium is generally used in the form of alloys as pure aluminium is too soft. The alloys
contain varying amounts of manganese, iron, and copper giving different grades that have a
number code to distinguish them. The first number in the four digit code identifies the main
component in the alloy. Some major grades used in packaging include:
Al 1100 contains at least 99% aluminium with small amounts of copper, iron and silicon.
Al 2000 series contains additional copper.
Al 3000 series contains additional manganese which makes it stiff and corrosion resistant. Grade
Al 3003 contains 1.25% manganese and is commonly used for packaging.
Al 4000 series contains additional silicon.
Al 5000 series contains additional magnesium; 5082 and 5182 are generally used for cans.
Anodized aluminum cans
Anodization and lacquering of aluminum cans improve corrosion resistance. Anodized can is used
for packing sardine in oil, shrimps, crab, fish cake, mussels, green peas, beans, mushroom,
condensed milk, meat, etc. Anodized and lacquered can is used in sardines in tomato sauce,
spinach, asparagus, meat, etc.
Making of Aluminium cans
1. Built-up can
It is similar to 3-piece can. The plate is cut and sides are locked, cemented or welded. It is
available in different shapes (oval, round, rectangular). It is ideal as presentation pack and is used
for cakes, biscuits, tea, sweets, etc. The container is reclosable and reused in household for dry
products like milk powder, coffee, cocoa, liquid and semi-liquid foods (cream, syrup).
2. Shallow formed type
This type of can is made by blowing of body blank with stroke of press. Such cans have
maximum height equal to half the diameter of container. They are round or rectangular in shape.
They are used for fish, vegetables, and meat products. The interior is lacquered.
3. Deep drawn
Deep drawn can differs from shallow formed can in height-diameter ration. The maximum height
is 1.2 times the diameter of the container. The maximum practical diameter is 815mm. They are
suitable for condensed milk, flavored cream, non-acid vegetables, meat, soup, etc.
4. Impact-extruded
Maximum height is 3 times the diameter.
The manufacturing process of aluminium can is similar to the steel plate production process; slabs
are hot rolled to a thickness of about 10 mm. This sheet is then coiled and cooled before cold
rolling in a mill down to thickness of 0.3-0.5 mm for can making purpose. The rolling stresses the
material and so it must be annealed at temperature of about 400
o
C. It is then further rolled to give
it the ductility required for can manufacture.
20
At gauges less than 0.2 mm, it is known as foil. This is produced by a high speed cold reduction
process. In this form, it can be used on its own as in chocolate wrappers or in gauges as low as 8-
12 mm in a laminate with plastics and paper where it provides an excellent barrier to the passage
of gases, water vapour and volatiles. Commercially pure aluminium can be used in these cases as
maximum ductility is required.
Metallization
Metallization is a process whereby a very thin layer (0.02-0.05 mm) of aluminium is applied as a
coating to plastics such as PET, PS and cellophane. Small pinholes will be present through which
light can be seen. This process gives an attractive metallic finish and improved barrier properties
but not as good as foil. Vapour of aluminium is coated on the plastic under vacuum. Vacuum
ensures that the aluminium reaches the material.
Styles of metal packages
The main metal can is the three piece can, but growing in popularity is the two piece can. Other
styles are called general line cans. The term general line is used for containers that are not
hermetically sealed for heat processing. These include the slip lid tin, lever lid can, pourer can,
collapsible tubes as well as bulk containers.
a. Three Piece can
Three-piece welded food cans are only constructed from steel, as aluminium is not suitable for
welding by this particular process. It consists of a body and two ends, one being fitted before
filling and one afterwards.
The metal sheets that have been pre-lacquered are cut into sheets approximately 1m
2
. The cut
sheets are then coated, and printed if necessary, to protect and decorate the surfaces. Areas where
the weld will be made on the can body are left without coating or print to ensure the weld is
always sound. The coatings and inks are normally dried by passing the sheets through a thermally
heated oven where the temperature is in the range 150205C. Alternatively, for some non-food
contact uses, UV-sensitive materials may be applied. These are cured instantaneously by passing
the wet coating/ink under a UV lamp.
The sheets are next slit into small individual blanks, one for each can body. Each blank is rolled
into a cylinder with the two longitudinal edges overlapping by approximately 0.4mm. The two
edges are welded by squeezing them together whilst passing an alternating electric current across
the two thicknesses of metal. This heats up and softens the metal sufficiently for a sound joint to
be made. If the can is internally coated with lacquer it is generally necessary to apply a repair side
stripe lacquer coat to the inside of the weld to ensure coating continuity over the whole can.
.
21
The ends of the body are flanged outwards to receive the end piece. Sometimes to increase the
compression strength of the can, it is corrugated or ribbed or beaded. This increases its area
resisting the load and therefore its strength.
The ends are punched out of a sheet of metal in staggered rows to reduce metal wastage. A lining
compound which is a resilient material such as a synthetic rubber dispersed in water or a suitable
solvent is injected into the periphery of the end piece. The solvent is evaporated in the curing
stage. This fills any small gaps where the body fits into the end, ensuring seal integrity. The end is
applied via a double seam. Where the side seem meets the end seam, they are merely overlapped
and soldered due to the notches. This is known as the lap section of the seam.
Soldering is becoming less popular as it requires a bare area of metal at the side seam, which
prevents printing all around with a design. Alternate side seaming method involves using a
thermoplastic polyamide adhesive to cement the seam or to use welding. Electrical welding by the
soudronic machine uses continuous copper electrodes and an alternating current. Welded seams
are stronger than soldered ones and have a neater side seam, especially at the intersection with the
end seam. The side seam is unlacquered to facilitate welding and a stripe of lacquer is applied to
the finished can.
b. Two Piece can
This consists of a body and a lid. It has the advantage of having no side or base seam and only one
double seam, thereby reducing the risk of leakage and corrosion. The body is formed by impact
extrusion of a thick piece of metal, generally aluminium as it is easier to form but low temper
tinplate is also used. There are two methods of producing two piece cans, viz. DRD (draw and
redraw) and DWI (draw and wall iron), depending on the end use of can.
DRD Process
This produces cans whose wall and base thickness are not much changed from original cup but
diameter is successively reduced to achieve the required height. As the diameter is reduced, the
can becomes taller and narrower. The area of the blank is the same as the area of the completed
container. Pre-lacquered plates can be used in this process.

A slug of metal is impacted with a die to form a cup of the required diameter. During the drawing
process, the metal is reformed from flat metal into a three-dimensional can without changing the
metal thickness at any point. After this single draw, the can may be already at its finished
dimension. However, by passing this cup through a similar process with different tooling, it may
be re-drawn into a can of smaller diameter and greater height to make a drawredraw can (DRD).
It is drawn through dies of successively narrower diameters until it has been reduced to the
required dimensions. This process may be repeated once more to achieve the maximum height
22
can. At each of these steps, the can base and wall thickness remain effectively unchanged from
that of the original flat metal. Following this body-forming operation, necking, flanging and
beading operations follow according to the end use and height-to-diameter ratio of the can (as for
three-piece welded cans). The top is then trimmed and flanged. The base is profiled for added
strength.
DWI Process
This produces cans that have very thin walls, about 1/3
rd
of the original thickness, e.g. reduced
from 0.3 mm to 0.1-0.14 mm. This becomes too weak for retort applications but is suited to
carbonated beverages as the internal pressure ( 50 psi) provides the strength. Sometimes beads
are formed in the body to give added strength. As in the DRD process, a disc of metal is impacted
to form a redrawn cup of the required diameter. This cup is supported internally by a punch as it is
forced through a series of annular dies. Each die is slightly smaller than the preceding one, thus
elongating the wall by a stretching or ironing action. During ironing the wall thickness is reduced
and the height correspondingly increased, while the base dimensions remain constant. The bottom
is pushed in for added strength and the top is trimmed and flanged.

The appearance of the can is good (streamlined). It has printing and processing advantage. The
exterior can be printed after forming and the interior can be sprayed to apply the lacquer before
curing. There is no risk of lead contamination (because sealing of side seam is not needed).
Two piece cans have a maximum height : diameter ratio of 1 : 1.5 as in the typical sardine can, or
2 : 1 for the beverage container. This is due to the distortion resulting from the forming process.
Therefore, the depth is limited to avoid excessive distortion, which can lead to failure.
The capital cost for equipment to make the two piece can is high. This method uses less material
in the manufacturing of can as compared to the three piece can.
For all two-piece cans pinhole and crack detection on finished cans is carried out in a light-testing
machine. This measures the amount of light passing across the can wall using high levels of
external illumination. One advantage of two-piece cans is that there is only one can end instead of
two, i.e. one major critical control hazard point is eliminated. It also offers other advantages such
as:
- Uniform printing and lacquering
- No simming problem on the top
- No need of repeated lacquering
- More pressure resistance, used for carbonated beverages
23
c. General line cans
I. Lever lid cans: It is usually a round, built-up tin, the ring component being secured to the body
and having an orifice into which the inverted, hat-shaped lid is pressed. These are frequently
used for powders such as milk, custard, coco, etc. Their main advantage is that they are
resealable and are easier to open than three piece cans. It consists of 4 pieces; a body, an end,
a drawn seamless ring double seamed to the top of the body, into which a shallow disk shaped
seamless lid is pushed.
II. Slip lid cans: The body is normally seamless, and closed by a separate lid which fits over the
mouth of the body. It is used for confectionary such as biscuits and toffees, especially for gift
market. These can be round or square, with an interlocked side seam and a double seamed
base. The lid is solid drawn and fits by friction. It is not airtight and to protect, the product is
sealed to the base with a layer of sellotape until it is opened by the consumer. These tins tend
to be highly decorated by printing and embossing.
III. Oblong pourer tin: These are used for 5 liter containers of oil, etc. These tins are made from
soldered or welded oblong bodies with end oblong panels that have rounded corners for ease
of double seaming. The handle or pouring neck may be welded onto the top of the container.
IV. Collapsible tubes: These are available in either metal or plastic, and are used for paste type
products. It is basically a cylindrical container with a shoulder and nozzle at one end formed
by impact extrusion of heat treated lubricated slugs of metal, generally aluminium. The
process of extrusion leaves the metal stressed in a condition known as work hardened. Unless
this is not removed, the tube will not collapse, so it must be annealed at a temperature of 500-
650
o
C. This also sterilizes the container. A closure is fitted to the nozzle after a screw has
been cut into it by a lathe. The interior can be lacquered if required and the exterior can be
enameled and printed, then dried.
Metal collapsible tubes are better to collapse than plastic ones but as they are rolled up, the
printed design disappears or becomes more difficult to read. Plastic tubes are made by blow
moulding process and are heat sealed instead of being crimped.
V. Bulk containers: Drums of high capacity (5-200 L) are used for the bulk storage of liquids.
These are very strong cylindrical containers. The body is formed with a welded side seam; the
ends are fitted by double seaming. Beads and hoops are pressed out of the body to increase its
strength.
Interaction of can and product
1. Fruit containing anthocyanins (blue grapes, cherry, plum) react with tin ions. The pigment
is reduced to bleached color.
2. Sulfur containing foods (meat, fish, etc.) react with tin to form stannous sulfide (give
purple color). This is referred to as purple colored sulfur staining. Sulfur and ferrous iron
of base tin plate react to form ferrous sulfide, resulting in a black spot.
3. Oxalate-rich foods like asparagus, spinach, etc., are high detinners and lead to product
discoloration. Lacquered can must be used.
4. Tomato product processed under typical condition and packaged in three piece can with a
plain tin plate body and enamel ends over a storage period of 24 month at ambient storage
temperature. The following degradative reactions occur:
- Colour changes
- Flavour changes
- Compositional changes
24
The concentration of tin ion increases rapidly during the first 3 months from approximately
20-160 ppm reaching 280 ppm after 24 months. Iron also dissolves, increasing slowly from 8
ppm initially to 10 pp, after 18 months and 14 ppm after 24 months. The flavour score
declines due to the increased quantity of dissolved tin and iron. Enamel can is required to
increase the shelf life from 24 to 30 months. Also, the color value show a decrease due to an
increase in brown pigment but remain acceptable.
One of the most important recent developments in 3 piece can has been the introduction of
aluminium pigment lacquer to improve the internal appearance of the can and give a greater
protection against internal corrosion and staining reaction.
Metal closures
The use of metal is popular for closures due to its strength and impermeability. A closure must
form a good seal with the container. This can be achieved by pressing a resilient material against
the sealing surface using an even pressure. The resilient material may be a thick piece of cork or
pulpboard sheet, faced with a layer of plastic known as the liner which prevents it contaminating
the product. Due to its resilience, when the sealing pressure is applied, the material is compressed
and then relaxes forming a tight seal. The sealing surface must be seamless, smooth and free from
defects. The headspace must be sufficient to allow the expansion of the product as the temperature
increases.
In the case of carbonated beverages, the closure must tolerate the internal pressure, which is in the
range of 350-1000 kN/sq.m. The force acting in the lid is this pressure multiplied by area. If the
area increases, the thickness of the metal closure must also increase to accommodate the
additional force. Hence, the narrow necked bottle is popular for carbonated beverages and it is
easy to pour from it.
Styles of closures
1. Crown cap
This is a tinplate closure with a fluted edge, widely used for retail size carbonated beverages. It
has a plastic flowed in liner. It is applied by a crimping machine at high speeds.
2. Roll on cap
This is a metal screw cap, used for carbonated beverages in high volumes that need to be reclosed.
The cap is generally aluminium due to its ductility. It consists of a plain, cylindrical lid, placed
over the bottle neck threads by a wheel capper, so that it exactly follows the contours of the
thread, giving a good seal. The resilient liner guarantees a gas tight fit. There can be a perforated
band along the base of the cap that has to be broken before the cap can be unscrewed.
3. Twist off caps
These have lugs, generally 2, 4 or 6, indented into the curled end of the lid skirt to give a screw
closure finish. There is a non continuous thread in the neck of the container. The lugs are
positioned under the corresponding threads of the container and when the cap is tightened the lugs
pull the cap tightly onto it. This style is used for vacuum packed products such as jam.
4. Press twist caps
This has a sealing compound injected into the curl which moulds to the contours of the screw
finish on a glass jar, giving a tailor-made seal with screw off facility. This style is also used for
vacuum packs.
5. Heat seal closures
These are based on foil or plastic laminates (which are gaining popularity).
25
Developments in seam making
1. Locked side seam: Edges are locked, molten and solder applied
2. Cemented side seam: Lap joint is bonded by thermoplastic cement (nylon). Heating and
rapid cooling bond the joints
3. Welded side seam: Side seams are bonded by welding under application of heat. No cement
is used.
Corrosion
Internal corrosion is the main concern but external corrosion due to the environment is also
important. Tinplate is more vulnerable to both types of corrosion whereas aluminium is not
affected by atmospheric corrosion.
Corrosion is an electrochemical reaction due to the occurrence of areas at different
electropotentials, i.e. an anode and a cathode, between which a current will flow due to the
transfer of electrons. In anodic polarization the metallic anode, the tin, dissolves exposing the base
metal to the product, which will then attack it, weakening it or giving rise to pinholes. If the tin
coating has not completely covered the steel base, the tin will act as cathode and the exposed iron
in the steel will act as anode, leading to localized corrosion at those areas. This reaction involves
hydrogen gas which causes the can to bulge, but is not due to microbial spoilage.
Therefore the important factor is the metal which will act as anode. If the tin is attacked, it will
dissolve giving rise to off flavours and discoloration of the product, but this is preferable to steel
being attacked and perforated. If the oxygen concentration is low, the tin will act as anode and
protect the steel. Thus, it is desirable to pack foods under vacuum. The use of lacquers to prevent
corrosion is also common.
The major factors that affect the internal corrosion are the pH of the product and the presence of
certain additives such as emulsifiers, colorants, preservatives, etc. Trace elements such as copper
picked up during processing can accelerate the rate. Other factors affecting the rate are plate
quality, lacquer integrity and the storage temperature as the rate is faster at higher temperature. If
the metal is stressed, it accelerates the rate of corrosion. The hydrogen gas that accumulates at the
cathode can reduce the rate by creating a current flowing in the opposite direction, reducing the
overall current; the effect known as polarisation.
Atmospheric corrosion affects the exterior of the metal and the resulting rust can be unattractive
to the consumer. The principal factors are the RH, chemical composition of the environment as
corrosion is catalysed by the presence of SO
2
or nitrogen oxide or by chlorine in the presence of
sea water. Resistance is provided by the tin coating and secondary packaging such as shrinkwrap.
The processing and handling of can is also important to minimize corrosion. Lubricants can be
used to prevent scratch to the cans during handling. Steam used in the retort should not be alkaline
and the cooling water should not contain too many salts. When the cans are removed from the
retort, they should not be too cool; they should have enough residual heat to enable the surface
water to evaporate off. Typical exit temperature should be in the range of 37-48
o
C. During
distribution, the cans must be protected from rain and condensation. If packed in cardboard boxes
or trays, they should have a maximum salt content of 0.05% chloride as NaCl and 0.15% sulphate
as sodium sulphate.
Lacquer and lacquering
Lacquer is called enamel in the US. These are applied to the surface of the metal to prevent
corrosion by protecting product internally and externally to prevent oxygen and moisture reaching
the metal. Lacquers are basically resins, which may be either natural or synthetic. Synthetic resins
26
are generally used; either water or solvent based, such as oleoresins, epoxides, acrylics, vinyls or
formaldehyde. These are usually colourless or gold tinted. White pigments are sometimes used.
There are two types of lacquer, viz. acid resistant lacquer and sulphur resistant lacquer.
Acid resistant lacquer is ordinary gold coloured enamel, and the cans treated with it are called R-
enamel cans or AR cans, used for packing of acid fruits with soluble colouring matter, such as
raspberry, strawberry, red plum and coloured grapes. Sulphur resistant lacquer is also golden
coloured and the cans coated with it are called C-enamel cans or SR cans, used for non-acid
products (corn, peas, beans, etc) containing protein rich in sulphur amino acids, which on heat
processing release hydrogen sulphide gas. The gas reacts with iron in the tinplate producing black
ferrous sulfide (sulfur staining). For such products, a lacquer containing zinc oxide or carbonate is
used to coat the internal can walls. Highly acidic foods should not be packed in SR cans.
Functions of lacquer
The function of lacquer is to protect the product, not the container. It does this by:
- Preventing the metal dissolving in the product, which would produce changes in flavour or
chemical reactions
- Preventing discoloration of the product, and discoloration of the can interior
- Preventing chemical reactions that could lead to corrosion, the evolution of hydrogen gas, or
the pinholing of the container.
A lacquer can have a beneficial effect on shelf life. The choice of lacquer depends on the product
composition, processing condition and the storage conditions. It is applied to the metal in the
sheet form & must be able to withstand the mechanical stresses of the can manufacturing process.
It must be easy to apply and to cure. All residual solvents which may taint the food must be driven
off in the curing process. To ensure adequate protection, a stripe of lacquer is often applied to the
side seam after can fabrication to cover up any cracks that may have occurred in the seaming
process. The other desirable properties of lacquer are:
It must be non-toxic and free from odours and flavours
It should not injure the wholesomeness of the contents and should be of attractive appearance
It must be compatible with the product
It should resist stoving temperature
Lacquer weight is specified in milligrams per 25 cm
2
. Typical lacquer weight for beer would be 4
mg/25 cm
2
. Beer enamel consists of a double vinyl coating to prevent a tinny taste and an
appearance of cloudiness in the product.
Types of lacquer
1. Natural resins
These include oleoresin lacquers. They are composed of natural resin, drying oils, dryer and
solvent, etc. Acid resistant (AR) cans are used for fruits containing anthocyanins.
- Low cost, general purpose, golden colour coating
- Used for beer and fruits and vegetables drinks
2. Synthetic lacquers
Synthetic lacquers include the following lacquers:
a. Phenolic lacquer
They are made of synthetic resin and solvent and are prepared by alkaline condensation of phenol
and formaldehyde.
- Resistance to acid and sulfide compounds
- Used for canning meat, fish, soup, and fruits and vegetables
27
b. Vinyl lacquer
They are made by copolymerization of vinyl chloride and vinyl acetate. These are used for beer
and soft drinks, which are not processed at high temperatures.
- Used as clear external coating
- Have good adhesion and flexibility
- Resistant to acid and alkali but do not withstand high temperatures.
c. Epoxy lacquer
They are made from eiphlorohydrin and bisphenol. They have fair resistance to sulfide staining.
d. Epoxyphenolic lacquer
- Resistant to acid
- Good heat resistance and flexibility
- Widely used for canning of meat, fish, fruits and vegetables
- Suitable for canning of acid food, condensed milk, etc.
- Also coated with zinc oxide or metallic aluminium powder to prevent sulphide staining
with meat, fish and vegetables.
e. Butadiene lacquer
- High heat resistance
- Prevent discoloration
- Used for beer and soft drinks
f. Acrylic lacquer
- White in colour
- Used both internally and externally for fruit products
- More expensive
- Can cause flavour problem in some products
g. Epoxy amino lacquer
- Good adhesion, heat and abrasion resistance
- Expensive
- Flexibility and no off flavours
- Used for beer, soft drink, dairy product, fish and meat
h. Alkyl lacquer
- Low cost
- Used externally as a varnish over ink
- Not used internally due to off flavour problem.
Summary
Metal containers are the most frequently used package for canning foods. While they are
produced in various shapes and forma, the conventional round represents 90% of the total metal
cans. The metal or tin cans have the following desirable qualities:
They are sufficiently robust to enable them high rate of automatic production (up to 1000
cans/min)
Their high thermal conductivity aids the heat penetration during thermal processing
They can withstand a wide range of temperature and pressure changes
Once cans are hermetically sealed, they are impermeable to dust, gases, liquids and micro-
organisms, and are opaque to light and ionizing radiation, and
The used containers are recyclable.
28
PLASTICS PACKAGING
Introduction
Plastics form a very large, comprehensive family with a wide range of properties that can meet
almost every requirement of the packaging industry. Plastics, being synthetic, can be tailormade
to meet specific requirement or achieve a combination of properties. Plastics are used as both
flexible films, such as pouches, bags, laminates, etc and as rigid containers, such as bottles, trays,
etc. The plastic materials are the same but the thickness is different.
Most plastic materials are derived from the distillation of oil into long chained hydrocarbons.
These are broken down by cracking into short chained hydrocarbons such as ethane/ethylene,
propane, etc. known as monomers. Polymerisation of these monomers converts into long chain
polymers, i.e. polyethylene, polypropylene, etc. copolymers are formed when two monomers are
combined into a single polymer chain in unequal proportion. It three monomers are combined, it
is known as terapolymer. The advantage of copolymerization is that it creates a new material with
modified properties which were not available from the either of the monomer.
The following table shows some of the plastics manufactured from petroleum.

The British Standards Institution has defined plastics as a wide group of solid composite
materials which are largely organic, usually based on synthetic resins or upon modified polymers
of natural origin and possessing appreciable mechanical strength. At a suitable stage in their
manufacture most plastics can be cast, moulded or polymerized directly to shape.
Plastics can be divided into two main subgroups: thermoplastics and thermosets. Thermoplastics
are those materials which can be heated and cooled repeatedly without appreciable loss of
mechanical and physical properties. There is no cross linking and adjacent molecules are free to
flow. For e.g. HDPE, LDPE, PVC, PVDC, EVOH, Nylon, Polyester, etc. On the other hand,
thermosets when heated for the first time will change their shape permanently. If heat is reapplied,
they will begin to decompose due to the cross linking of adjacent molecules. For e.g. Phenol
formaldehyde, Urea, etc.
29
Advantages of Plastics
1. Light weight, less bulky and cheap with respect to metal and glass
2. Versatile easy to mould into a wide range and style packages by different processes
3. Flexible with properties which can be tailored to suit the product requirements
4. Recyclable economic
5. Good appearance and available in a variety of colours
6. Printable and heat sealable
7. Pilfer-proof, tamper proof, break resistant, corrosion resistant and leak proof
8. Quieter in use than metal or glass noiseless unlike metals and glass
9. Excellent barriers properties to moisture, odour, oxygen and other gases so that they can
maintain the desired shelf life for various products
10. Resistant to most chemicals, non-toxic in nature and absolutely safe to use even in direct
contact with food products, medicines, etc
11. Safe in use as they do not break easily and the broken pieces are not harmful as those of glass
and metal
12. Do not promote bacterial growth and can be sterilized by all conventional methods and hence
provide wide applications in food, medical and chemical packaging
13. Single serve packs for food items such as ketchups, condiments, etc and small unit packs such
as sachets can be made available at low costs
14. Do not pose any major disposal problems or environmental hazards, since almost all of
plastics can be recycled for reuse.
Disadvantages of Plastics
1. Flammable as they are derived from petrochemicals
2. Permeable to the passage of gases, vapours, volatiles and some solvents to varying degrees
3. Can be degraded by UV light
4. Non-biodegradable
5. Some chemicals do attack particular plastics
6. Some plastics may absorb some food constituents, such as oils and fats
7. Abrasion resistance is not always adequate
8. Some plastics are not inert PVC monomer may transfer to food which is carcinogenic
Gases such as oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen together with water vapour and organic
solvents permeate through plastics. The rate of permeation depends on:
type of plastic
thickness and surface area
method of processing
concentration or partial pressure of the permeate molecule
storage temperature
Selection Criteria
Plastics have different properties and to select the best material for a required pack, it is necessary
to consider:
a. The requirements of the product
b. The requirements of the market
c. The requirements of the packing machine
The product can deteriorate in many ways. Dry products such as biscuits, crisps and soup will be
damaged by moisture; therefore they require a moisture barrier, i.e. the use of material having low
30
WVTR. A good seal is also essential to ensure that the moisture remains outside the pack. Moist
foods such as cakes must be prevented from drying out, without there being too much moisture
retained in the pack that would lead to mold growth.
Breathing foods such as vegetables and fruits continue to respire, producing carbon dioxide,
which must be allowed to escape from the pack or all the oxygen will be consumed and anaerobic
micro-organisms will grow. If there is too much oxygen inside the pack, the product will dry out,
so an impervious film with ventilation holes is needed. Oxygen sensitive foods, such as high fat
content food, must be protected from oxidative rancidity. As the rate is accelerated by light, it is
necessary to use and opaque material.
Liquids need a leakproof pack, resistant to chemical attack or penetration by the product. Some
products need to be stored at low temperature or frozen whereas other products are heated or
cooked in the pack. So, they must be packed in a material that will perform satisfactorily at the
required temperature.
Market requirements include the ease of handling and protection from the storage and distribution
hazards. Display requirements such as visibility and stackability must be considered. The pack
must be convenient such as easy to open features, reclosability, convenient unit/portion sizes, etc.
The size of the pack and its surface area affects its permeability to gases and water vapour. It also
affects the rigidity and strength. Bigger packs require thicker materials, strong enough to hold the
weight of the product. If the plastic is to be printed, it must be abrasion resistant or scuff proof.
This can be achieved by reverse printing, i.e. printing on the inner surface that will not be exposed
to the abrasion. Economy is also a relevant factor. Packaging may make product unaffordable, or
uncompetitive with similar products.
Machine factors are very relevant to the selection of plastic materials as they are usually used with
high speed machines. The properties important are elasticity, dead fold properties, tear strength,
slip, friction, and melt strength. The material chosen must be suitable for the equipment on which
it will be used. It must cut properly, seal well and run smoothly or else there will be stoppages and
wastage, or the risk of product failing in the shops due to faulty packaging.
Use of plastics in food packaging
Plastics are used as containers, container components and flexible packaging. In usage, by weight,
they are the second most widely used type of packaging and first in terms of value. Examples are
as follows:
rigid plastic containers such as bottles, jars, pots, tubs and trays
flexible plastic films in the form of bags, sachets, pouches and heat-sealable flexible lidding
materials
plastics combined with paperboard in liquid packaging cartons
expanded or foamed plastic for uses where some form of insulation, rigidity and the ability to
withstand compression is required
plastic lids and caps and the wadding used in such closures
diaphragms on plastic and glass jars to provide product protection and tamper evidence
plastic bands to provide external tamper evidence
pouring and dispensing devices
to collate and group individual packs in multipacks, e.g. Hi-cone rings for cans of beer, trays
for jars of sugar preserves etc
plastic films used in cling, stretch and shrink wrapping
films used as labels for bottles and jars, as flat glued labels or heat shrinkable sleeves
components of coatings, adhesives and inks
31
Types of plastics used in food packaging
The following are the types of plastics used in food-packaging
1. Polyethylene (PE)
2. Polypropylene (PP)
3. Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA)
4. Ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVAL/EVOH)
5. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
6. Polyvinylidene chloride (PVdC)
7. Ionomers
8. Polystyrene (PS)
9. Polyesters (PET, PEN, PC) (Note: PET is referred to as PETE in some markets)
10. Polyamides (PA) Nylon
11. Polycarbonate (PC)
12. Styrene butadiene (SB)
13. Polymethyl pentene (TPX)
14. High nitrile polymers (HNP)
15. Cellulose-based materials
16. Polyvinyl acetate (PVA).
Thermoplastics in Packaging
Polyethylene/Polyethene (PE)
Polyethylene (PE), commonly called polythene, is structurally the simplest plastic and is made in
one of two ways. Ethylene is polymerised at high temperature and pressure, in the presence of a
little oxygen & the polymer converted into a film by extrusion. Alternatively, lower temperatures
and pressures may be used to produce the polymer if certain alkyl metals are used as catalysts.

Types and density
Ultra low density polyethylene (ULDPE): 0.880-0.890
Linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE): 0.912
Low density polyethylene (LDPE): 0.910-0.939
High density polyethylene (HDPE): 0.940-0.965
Generally, PE is referred to as LDPE and HDPE.
LDPE is formed at high pressures (10003000 atm). This results in long branched chains, weakly
linked to each other by van der Waals forces (but strong overall force due to length). The
branching is random, and so LDPE is an atactic polymer. Thus, neighboring chains can slip past
each other, allowing the material to bend easily (flexible). As a result, the printability of LDPE is
poor. However, many plastics with poor printability can be made printable by corona treatment, in
which an ionic discharge is used to sensitize one side of the plastic.
HDPE is produced at low temperatures and pressures of about 10 atm. This gives rise to an
ordered molecular structure, which is called an isotactic polymer. The Ziegler process is used,
employing a catalyst. HDPE is stiffer, harder, less flexible, and waxy. Higher temperatures are
required to produce thermoplasticity (melting point, 134C). HDPE is used for making containers,
32
e.g., crates, bottles, bags, tubs, plastic knives and forks, etc. It can be steam sterilized, whereas
LDPE cannot. HDPE bottles are opaque and can be used to contain detergent and milk. HDPE
resists fats and oils better than LDPE. However, it does not seal easily. They are waterproof and
chemically resistant and are used instead of paper sacks.
LLDPE is produced at lower pressure in a gas phase polymerisation. It is stiffer, due to its more
linear structure and has better stress crack resistance than LDPE. It also has a higher surface gloss.
It is stronger and as a film has a better puncture resistance and tear strength. It has a higher
softening point (118
o
C) and has better performance at both high and low temperature than LDPE.
The film is available in low (LDPE), medium (MDPE) and high (HDPE) density grades. The
lower density grades are most widely used in food packaging. The main functional properties of
LDPE are its glossiness, strength, low permeability to water vapour and it forms a very strong
heat seal. It is not a good barrier to gases, oils or volatiles. It is used on its own in the form of
pouches, bags and sacks. It is also used for coating papers, boards and plain regenerated cellulose
and as a component in laminates. It is used for wrapping fruits and vegetables because of high
GTR and low WVTR, and also for frozen foods because it toughens at low temperature. It is less
expensive than most films and is therefore widely used. HDPE has a higher tensile strength and
stiffness than LDPE. It is used to prepare bottles, plates, etc because it is less vulnerable to stress
cracking. Its permeability to gases is lower and it can withstand higher temperatures. It is used for
foods which are heated in the package, so called boil in the bag items.
LLDPE, because of its better elongation and tensile strength is used to make heavy duty sacks. It
is used for stretch wrapping as its elongation is up to 600%, but it is not good for shrink wrapping.
Polyethylenes are widely accepted for the packaging of food products as well as chemical owing
to their inert character, compatibility and safety in contact with most products as well as
resistance to almost all commercially used chemicals, except oxidizing acids, such as conc. nitric
or sulphuric acid, free halogens such as chlorine, and certain ketones. They are easy to process,
economically priced and are used on their own or in combination with other polymers to meet the
most exacting demands. They are very resistant to water and water vapour; the higher the density,
the greater the resistance, i.e. the lower the value of WVTR, but the GTR is high. They are used in
the form of single-layer or multilayer films, laminates, blow-moulded containers, sintered
containers, tubes, moulded and extruded laminates, etc.
Polypropylene (PP)
This monomer has the formula CH
2
CHCH
3
. PP is the lowest density polymer (0.90 gm/cc) and
extremely versatile because of its excellent processability, mechanical and physical properties and
high heat distortion resistance.

Its structure is the same as the polyethylenes but one hydrogen molecule is replaced by a methyl
(CH
3
) group. If all the methyl groups are arranged on one side of the polymer, it is known as
isotactic material. If they are randomly arranged, it prevents the chains coming very close together
and the result is a sticky material known as atactic. Catalysts are used in the polymerisation to
encourage the formation of isotactic polypropylene.
33
PP is often used in oriented or biaxially oriented form, i.e. OPP and BOPP. Non oriented PP is
also known as cast PP. Orientation is a process by which the material is stretched to improve its
characteristics. By stretching, the molecules are straightened out giving a more rigid structure and
stronger material. This improves the barrier properties, low temperature performance, impact
strength and flex crack resistances. OPP has better mechanical properties than cast PP,
particularly at low temperature, and is used in thinner gauges. It is a good barrier to water vapour
but not gases. It is often coated with PP or PVdC/PVC copolymer to improve its barrier properties
and to make it heat-sealable. It is normally heat-shrinkable. It is used in coated or laminated form
to package a wide range of food products, including biscuits, cheese, meat and coffee. It is stable
at relatively high temperature and is used for in-package heat processing. A white opaque form of
OPP, known as pearlised film, is also available. Copolymers of PP and PE are also available.
Their functional properties tend to be in a range between PP and HDPE.
Properties
Properties similar to LLDPE and HDPE, but harder, stiffer, tougher and glossier than both
Stronger than PE, so can be used in thinner gauges
Chemically inert and resistant to most commonly found chemicals, both organic and inorganic,
except chlorinated hydrocarbons; CCl
4
, CHCl
3
, and strong oxidizing agents
PP is a clear glossy film with a high strength and has less waxy feel
Excellent grease resistance, puncture as well as flex crack resistance
Good resistance to fatigue if repeatedly flexed
Higher melting point than PE, so easily stand steam sterilization
Low density (0.89-0.905 gm/cc) than PE, so higher yield
Better barrier properties between LDPE & HDPE, and can be increased by orientation process
Excellent moisture and average gas-barrier properties, and not affected by changes in humidity
High clarity and gloss because of high crystallinity
Heat resistance, softening point >150
o
C and suitable for hot filling applications
It can be printed on and is ideal for reverse or surface printing
Low heat sealable but cast PP has excellent heat sealability
Low impact strength at low temperature but can be improved by copolymerization with
ethylene to butylenes
Applications
PP is used for injection-molded containers and blister packs, laminations, carton overwraps,
snack food bags, and confectionery bags
OPP is suitable for use in frozen storage
Cast PP is used for bags, candy twist-wraps, vegetable and fruit packing. It can be injection
moulded into crates, hinged lids or thin wall rigid container. Due to its resilience, it is used as a
linear, coating the inside of the bottle caps
BOPP and OPP are coated to make them heat sealable and are used in biscuits, bread and
confectionary packaging. It can also be cold seal coated, which can be used for chocolate bar
pack and is easy to peel. Elongation of up to 600% makes it suitable for stretch-wrapping. It
has good resistance to creep under load so is suitable for use in crates and boxes.
Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA)
EVA is a copolymer of ethylene with vinyl acetate and is widely used. The properties of the blend
depend on the proportion of the vinyl acetate component. Generally, as the VA component
increases, sealing temperature decreases and impact strength, low temperature flexibility, stress
34
resistance and clarity increase. At a 4% level, it improves heat sealability, at 8% it increases
toughness and elasticity, along with improved heat sealability, and at higher levels, the resultant
film has good stretch wrapping properties. 25-28% acts like a flexible polyvinylchloride with the
advantage of not containing plasticizers that could migrate into the food. A rubber like quality is
achieved by adding 28-50% vinyl acetate and this is used to make bottle cap liners. EVA with
PVdC is a tough high-barrier film which is used in vacuum packing large meat cuts and with
metalized PET for bag-in-box liners for wine.
Compared to LDPE, they have higher impact strength and elasticity, higher permeability to water
vapour and gases and are heat-sealable over a wider temperature range. It functions better at lower
temperatures as well as seals at a lower temperature. It is more permeable to gases and water
vapour. EVA has good flexing properties so it is useful for hinged lids. Slip is low so anti
blocking additives are used. EVA itself has very good stretch and cling characteristics and can be
used, as an alternative to PVC for cling-wrap applications. EVA is generally used for stretch
wrap, closures, liners for bag-in-box packages and meat wrap.
Modified EVAs are available for use as peelable coatings on lidding materials such as aluminium
foil, OPP, OPET and paper. They enable heat sealing, resulting in controllable heat seal strength
for easy, clean peeling. These coatings will seal to both flexible and rigid PE, PP, PET, PS and
PVC containers. Modified EVAs are also used to create strong interlayer tie bonding between
dissimilar materials, e.g. between PET and paper, LDPE and EVOH. EVA is also a major
component of hot melt adhesives, frequently used in packaging machinery to erect and close
packs, e.g. folding cartons and corrugated packaging.
Ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVAL / EVOH)
EVOH is a copolymer of ethylene and vinyl alcohol. The typical composition of this copolymer is
66-82% by weight of vinyl alcohol. The melting point of EVOH is 185C.

Due to its high gloss and low haze, it has excellent clarity. It has outstanding barrier properties,
i.e. it has very low values of GTR, WVTR, and is a barrier to the transfer of odours and flavours.
The barrier is better at lower levels of ethylene in the copolymer. This film has high oxygen-
barrier properties, but hydroxyl groups make it hydrophilic, which increases its permeability.
Thus, it must be sandwiched between materials with good water-barrier properties, such as PP of
LDPE, to be effective. However, its oxygen-barrier properties make it a highly desirable film,
competing with PVDC for this role. EVOH is more expensive than PVDC, but it is easier to
process and is recyclable.
It is related to polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH), which is a water-soluble synthetic polymer with
excellent film-forming, emulsifying and adhesive properties. It is a high-barrier material with
respect to oil, grease, organic solvents and oxygen. It is moisture sensitive and, in film form, is
water soluble. At high RH, the barrier properties are reduced. It is resistant to oils and organic
solvents but is affected by alcohols and strong acids. Due to the presence of alcohol molecule, its
surface is polar and therefore can be printed without pretreatment. It is an expensive material, so it
is generally used as a thin layer in a laminate or in a coextrusion.
35
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
The term vinyl means that a halogen has been substituted for a hydrogen atom. PVC is made by
chlorination of acetylene or ethylene forming the vinyl chloride monomer (VCM), followed by
polymerisation under pressure in the presence of a catalyst. It is available in two forms, a rigid
one known as UPVC and a flexible form known as PPVC, i.e. unplasticised and plasticised PVC.

It is a clear, transparent film which on its own is brittle. The addition of plasticizers and stabilizers
to the polymer are necessary to give it flexibility and reduce its processing temperature. The
plasticizers used are generally high boiling point organic chemical in the liquid form or dioctyl
phosphates. These work by reducing the interchain forces of attraction in the polymer, acting as a
lubricant. The plasticizer affects the strength, density, flexibility and elongation of material. It
makes it easier to mould the plastic into various shapes when the heat is applied.
Properties
PVC has low crystallinity (so has good transparency when pure), but higher interchain bonding
than PE due to the Cl halogen, so is harder & stiffer. For this reason, plasticizers are added during
manufacture. PVC has good feel and printability. It is highly inert. It is glossy and resistant to
moisture, fats, and gases. UPVC or lightly plasticised grades have good rigidity and
thermoformability, giving good mould detail. Density is higher than that of polyolefins at 1.35-
1.45 gm/cc. It has a softening point of less than 100
o
C. At low temperatures it has poor impact
resistance, which can be improved by orientation. It has good barrier properties, which includes
low GTR. WVTR is higher than for the polyolefins. Odours and flavours are also well retained
and it is an excellent barrier to the transfer of oils and alcohols. It has good mechanical properties.
Its permeability to water vapour, gases and volatiles depends on the type and amount of
plasticizers added to the polymer. These properties decrease with increasing plasticiser content. It
is resistant to acids, alkalis and many solvents except esters, ketones, aromatic hydrocarbons and
aldehydes. It heat shrinks after stretching and can be thermoformed. It is a cheap plastic but there
is a chance of migration of plasticizers from the plastic into the food. It is essential that PVC film
used in food packaging contains only permitted additives to avoid any hazard to the consumer.
Density of PPVC is in the range of 1.2-1.7 gm/cc. It has an elongation value of 200-450 whereas
the rigid form is only 2-40. It has better impact strength but lower tensile strength.
Applications
PVC is used in the biaxial-stressed form, e.g., for shrink wrapping of cheese and meat. It is also
used for thermoformed containers, e.g., for chocolates as well as for plastic pipes and toys. UPVC
is moulded into trays, bottles and other containers where it provides a better barrier and clarity
than PE. PPVC is generally used in film form. It has a higher WVTR and is used to pack fruits &
vegetables as it eliminates the risk of condensation by allowing the moisture and respiration gases
to escape. It is suitable for stretch-wrapping and shrink-wrapping, where it has better transparency
than PE.
Polyvinylidene chloride (PVdC)
Polyvinylidene chloride (PVdC) is made by further chlorination of vinyl chloride in the presence
of a catalyst, followed by polymerisation. It is also known by its trade name as Saran.
36

Properties
It is a very transparent, glossy and tough material, with good impact strength except at low
temperatures, and good abrasion resistance. It has excellent barrier properties, with very low GTR
(especially to O2), WVTR, and it also retains flavours and odours. Resistance to oils and waxes,
alcohols, strong acids and alkalis is good but it is attacked by ketones and ethers. It is difficult to
cut as it lacks stiffness, so is hard to machine by itself and is too expensive for use as a pure
monofilm. It has high chemical stability and is hydrophobic. It has a sharp melting point which
can lead to problems in heat sealing so it is often used with PE which provides a heat seal layer.
PVdC cannot be reprocessed because it degrades (melting point, 162C). This makes coextrusion
lamination difficult as well, although it can still be easily used in coating from solution. When
used in coextrusion, it must be copolymerized first (for e.g. with vinyl chloride) to give better
temperature stability.
Applications
It is used in flexible packaging in several ways as monolayer films, coextrusions and coatings.
Generally, it is used as a thin film or coating as it is expensive. Due to its elasticity, it is used for
shrink and stretch wrapping, and as a twist wrap for candy as it has excellent cling properties. Its
main use is as a barrier layer in a laminate structure, applied as a coating. As a result of the high
gas and odour barrier, it is used to protect flavour and aroma sensitive foods from both loss of
flavour and ingress of volatile contaminants. PVdC is a widely used component in the packaging
of cured meats, cheese, snack foods, tea, coffee and confectionery. It is used in hot filling,
retorting, low-temperature storage and MAP as well as ambient filling and distribution in a wide
range of pack shapes.
Comparison of barrier materials: PVdC and EVOH
PVdC is best for where a water vapour barrier is required. It is heat sealable and a good barrier to
gases, vapours and odours.
EVOH is moisture sensitive so it is best used for dry products. It is an excellent barrier to gases
and odours, and in dry condition it is ten times better than PVdC. It also has good chemical
resistances and transparency. The barrier improves as the vinyl alcohol content in the copolymer
increases. It is often used in coextrusions in very small amounts.
Ionomers
Ionomers are basically the copolymers of ethylene and methacrylic acid, with some of the acid
groups present in the form of a metal salt. The polymerisation process is similar to that of LDPE.
It is also known by its trade name as Surlyn. In Ionomers, there are ionic forces between the
polymer chains, in addition to the normal covalent (chemical) bonds between the separate atoms
in each chain.
These ionic bonds strengthen and stiffen the polymer without reducing its melt processability. The
ionic forces also make it much clearer than LDPE, by eliminating the traces of visible spherulites
that make LDPE hazy. It has very high puncture and abrasion resistance. It has high melt strength
and gives more uniform thermoforming, i.e. it has stronger corners. Its main advantage is its
ability to seal through the contaminated sealing surfaces. This is very useful in packing of messy
37
products, which spill onto the sealing area of the pack. This material will seal at a lower
temperature than LDPE, i.e. the packing machine can work faster. GTR is similar but WVTR is
higher. Chemical resistance to alkalis is good but it is slowly attacked by acids. At room
temperature, it has a greater resistance to oils and grease; at higher temperature its performance is
equal to LDPE.
They are most widely used as components in laminates with other films, such as PC or PET, for
packaging cheese and meat products. It is used to pack dry products that have sharp edges because
of its puncture resistance. It is also used for skin packages due to its clarity and for meat
packaging as it can seal through contamination such as grease or blood.
Polystyrene (PS)
Polystyrene (PS) is produced by reacting ethylene with benzene to form ethyl benzene. This is
dehydrogenated to give styrene which is polymerised at a relatively low temperature, in the
presence of catalysts, to form polystyrene. Its structure thus has a benzene ring attached to each
alternate carbon.

PS is an odourless, tasteless, colourless, very transparent and glossy material. It is hard, rigid and
brittle with poor impact strength. Due to a low softening point of 78-95
o
C, it is not suitable for hot
filling applications. Density ranges from 1.04 1.07 gm/cc. There is a problem of static in the
build up that makes it attract dust and cling to itself. It is easily scratched so the packing machines
must be smooth to prevent the damage to the surface. This is a stiff material so it handles well on
automatic equipment.
It is a poor barrier to gas, moisture, odours and flavours. Chemical resistance is good for acids and
alkalis; but it is soluble in toluene, ketones, such as acetone, chlorinated hydrocarbons like carbon
tetrachloride, higher alcohols and esters.
PS is widely used in the form of thermoformed semirigid containers and can be easily moulded
into jars, trays, containers and screw on caps, used for dairy products, salads, etc. Due to its high
transmission rates, it is suitable for fruits, vegetables and baked goods.
Oriented PS (OPS) is stronger and tougher and is used as an overwrap for meat and vegetables.
Copolymers of PS using acrylic and rubber compounds, e.g. butadiene are called High Impact PS
(HIPS). These have better impact strength and flexibility, but the plastic is translucent as some
clarity is lost. It is used for pots and tubs, especially for low temperature applications such as ice
cream.
Expanded PS (EPS) is produced by expanding the volume of the PS with pentane gas to produce a
high volume, low weight material with excellent insulating and cushioning properties. It is used to
produce cups for hot or cold beverages, shock absorbing trays for fruit, eggs, meat, etc. and
cushioning to protect sensitive equipments such as television in transit.
PS film is produced by extrusion. It is stiff and brittle with a clear sparkling appearance. In this
form it is not useful as a food packaging film. Biaxially oriented polystyrene (BOPS) is less brittle
and has an increased tensile strength, compared to the non-oriented film. BOPS has a relatively
high permeability to vapours and gases and is greaseproof. It shrinks on heating and may be heat
sealed by impulse sealers. For this, it is coextruded with EVOH or PVdC/PVC copolymer.
38
Polyethylene Terephthalate Polyesters - PET or PETE
Polyesters are condensation polymers formed from ester monomers, resulting from the reaction of
a carboxylic acid with an alcohol. There are many different types of polyester, depending on the
monomers used. When terephthalic acid reacts with ethylene glycol and polymerises, the result is
polyethylene Terephthalate (PET).
PET can be made into film by blowing or casting. It can be blow moulded, injection moulded,
foamed, extrusion coated on paperboard and extruded as sheet for thermoforming. PET can be
made into a biaxially oriented range of clear polyester films produced on essentially the same type
of extrusion and Stenter-orienting equipment as OPP. Film thicknesses range from thinner than
12m for most polyester films to around 200 m for laminated composites. No processing
additives are used in the manufacture of PET film.
Properties
It has good sparkle and clarity. Impact and tensile strength and puncture resistance are good. Due
to its high softening point of 245-270
o
C, it performs well over a wide range of temperature
ranging from -60 to +150
o
C, so it can be used for boil in the bag. It is not good for heat sealing
and if this is required, it is usually coated with a layer of polyethylene.
Density ranges from 1.38 1.395 gm/cc. If molten PET degrades, acetaldehyde can be formed.
This compound occurs naturally in citrus fruits. Even if the quantity is not enough to risk toxicity,
it can lead to taint in products such as coca-cola. It provides a good barrier to gases and odours,
and has a moderate WVTR, which is reduced to zero at freezing temperatures. It has good
resistance to grease and oil, as it is chemically resistant to weak acids, alkalis, alcohols,
hydrocarbons, ketones and esters. It is attacked by strong acids, alkalis and phenols.
Applications
As it has high strength and can withstand the carbonation pressure, it is used in bottle making.
However, the GTR may not be low enough in some bottle designs to prevent the carbonation
gases escaping. It is often used in laminates with PVdC and PE for coffee, meat, etc. in gauges as
low as 12 mm. Because of the wide temperature range, it can be used for boil in the bag,
microwave and ovenable applications.
Polyamides (PA) - Nylon
Polyamides (PA) are commonly known as nylon. These are made from condensation of a diacid
(e.g., adipic acid) and a diamine (e.g., hexamethylene diamine). These are distinguished by
numbering them according to the number of carbon atoms in the parent. Hence, Nylon 6, 6 is
produced from adipic acid and hexamethylene diamine. Nylon 6, 10 is made from
hexamethylenediamine and sebacic acid. They can also be produced from amino acids in which
case the number is that of the number of carbon atoms in the parent, i.e. Nylon 6 is made from
caprolactam whereas Nylon 11 is made from aminoudecanoic acid. The most common grades of
nylon used in packaging are nylon 6, 6; 6, 10 and 6, 11.
Properties
Polyamides have high crystallinity, strength, impact strength puncture and stress-crack resistance,
flexibility, and melting and softening points. It is slightly hygroscopic and is thus not a good
moisture barrier but it is very good gas barrier. Nylon is a tough material, very resistant to
abrasion with a high tensile strength. It can be biaxially oriented to give it improved strength and
toughness. It has high melting point, 185
o
C for Nylon 11 and 265
o
C for Nylon 6, 6. Chemically, it
is resistant to most inorganic solvents but it is attacked by oxidizing agents and concentrated
mineral acids. It is unaffected by alcohols, ethers, benzene, acetone, carbon tetrachloride and
39
many mineral oils. It is resistant to grease and oils. It is an excellent material for printing and
thermoforming. They are stable over a very wide temperature range. They can be heat-sealed but
at a high temperature, 240
o
C. They do absorb moisture and their dimensions can change by 12%
as a result. Nylon films may be combined with other materials, by coating, coextrusion or
lamination, in order to facilitate heat-sealing and/or improve their mechanical and barrier
properties. Polyethylene, ionomers, EVA and EAA are among such other materials. Their
functional properties may be further modified by vacuum-metalizing.
Applications
Polyamides are used for boil-in-the-bag-type products, frozen foods, fish, meat, vegetables, and
processed meat and cheese, always in lamination for vacuum packaging. It is also used in
coextrusion as barrier layer.
Polycarbonate (PC)
These are formed from condensation of carbonic acid in the presence of aliphatic or aromatic
dihydroxy compounds. They are amorphous in nature and process by all conventional processing
techniques.
Polycarbonates are tough, stiff, hard, durable and transparent (high clarity), with high softening
points, and therefore can be cooked in oven or sterilized. They are mechanically strong and
grease-resistant. They have relatively high permeability to vapours and gases and cost three times
as much as PP, and are stable over a wide temperature range, from 70
o
C to 130
o
C.
It has excellent dimensional stability, rigidity and impact resistance at high temperature. It makes
an excellent structural layer in co-extruded or laminated packaging for hot fill, retortable pouch,
and frozen food products. PC can be sterilized by - and electrobeam radiation with good stability.
They are not widely used for food packaging but could be used for boil in the bag packages,
retortable pouches and frozen foods. They are also used for plastic tableware and fruit juice
containers. They are mainly used as a glass replacement in processing equipment and for glazing
applications. Their use in packaging is mainly for large, returnable/refillable 36 litre water
bottles. They are used for sterilisable baby feeding bottles and as a replacement in food service.
They have been used for returnable milk bottles, ovenable trays for frozen food and if coextruded
with nylon could be used for carbonated drinks.
Styrene butadiene (SB)
SB copolymer is also a packaging polymer. It is tough and transparent, with a high-gloss surface
finish. Blown film has high permeability to water vapour and gases. It is heat sealable to a variety
of surfaces. The film has good crease retention, making it suitable for twist wrapping sugar
confectionery. Injection-moulded containers with an integral locking closure have a flexible
hinge, similar in this respect to PP. It is known as K resin in the USA. It is used to pack fresh
produce. It can also be used to make thermoformable sheet, injection and blow moulded bottles
and other containers with high impact resistance and glass-like clarity. The relatively low density
gives SBC a 2030% yield advantage over other, non-styrenic, clear resins.
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)
ABS is a copolymer of acrylonitrile, butadiene and styrene, with a wide range of useful properties
which can be varied by altering the proportions of the three monomer components. It is a tough
material with good impact and tensile strength and good flexing properties. ABS is either
translucent or opaque. It is thermoformable and can be moulded. A major use is in large shipping
and storage containers (tote boxes), and it has been used for thin-walled margarine tubs and lids.
40
Polymethyl pentene (TPX)
TPX is the trade name for methyl pentene copolymer. It is based on 4-methyl-1-ene and possesses
the lowest density of commercially available packaging plastics (0.83 cm3). It is a clear, heat-
resistant plastic which can be used in applications up to 200C. The crystalline melting point is
40C (464F). TPX offers good chemical resistance, excellent transparency and gloss. It can be
extruded and injection moulded.
The main food packaging use is as an extrusion coating onto paperboard for use in baking
applications in the form of cartons and trays for bread, cakes and other cook-in-pack foods. This
packaging is dual ovenable, i.e. food packed in this way may be heated in microwave and
radiation ovens. The surface of this plastic gives superior product release compared with
aluminium and PET surfaces. TPX coated trays must be formed by the use of interlocking corners
as they cannot be erected by heat sealing.
High nitrile polymers (HNP)
HNPs are copolymers of acrylonitrile. They are used in the manufacture of other plastics such as
ABS and SAN. The nitrile component contributes very good gas and odour barrier properties to
the common gases, together with good chemical resistance. HNPs therefore offer very good
flavour and aroma protection.
Polyvinyl acetate (PVA)
PVA is a polymer of vinyl acetate which forms a highly amorphous material with good adhesive
properties in terms of open time, tack and dry bond strength. The main use of PVA in food
packaging is as an adhesive dispersion in water. PVA adhesives are used to seal the side seams of
folding cartons and corrugated fiberboard cases and to laminate paper to aluminium foil.
Cellulose-based materials
Plain cellulose is a glossy transparent film which is odourless, tasteless and biodegradable (within
approximately 100 days). It is tough and puncture resistant, although it tears easily. However, it
is not heat sealable and the dimensions and permeability of the film vary with changes in
humidity. It is used for foods that do not require a complete moisture or gas barrier.
The original packaging film was regenerated cellulose film (RCF). Pure cellulose fibre derived
from wood is dissolved and then regenerated by extrusion through a slot, casting onto a drum and
following acid treatment, is wound up as film. It is commonly known as Cellophane, though this
is in fact a trade name. Regenerated cellulose varies from other plastics in that it is derived not
from petrochemicals but from plants, generally woodpulp or cotton liners, thus are biodegradable.
Its main advantage is that it can be tailormade to meet product requirements with a variety of
coatings and barrier properties.
Properties
It has excellent clarity, glossiness, sparkle and transparency. It can be printed. Density is in the
range of 1.27-1.34 gm/cc. It has good tensile and impact strength as is stiffness which is needed
for high speed machine applications. It tears easily and is suited for easy opening applications. It
has low slip and dead folding characteristics. It remains unaffected by static build up, i.e. suitable
for shrink wrapping, and is also insoluble in organic solvents. It has low GTR and high WVTR. It
has excellent barrier to gases and odours, oils and grease. However, it is affected by humidity,
being slightly hygroscopic. As the RH decreases, it becomes brittle and shrinks. It is flammable
and is not resistant to strong acid and alkali. It can be coated with PVdC to improve its moisture
barrier and can be made heat sealable if required. It doesnt have same tensile strength as plastic
films. Cellulose is widely coated with other plastics, some of which are:
41
Nitrocellulose cellophane coated with nitrocellulose to increase moisture barrier
PVC coated cellophane for excellent machineability
PVC-PVdC coated cellophane superior product protection in terms of aroma, flavour lock
and decreased oxygen permeability
LDPE coated cellophane to increase heat sealable properties, has low GTR and high WVTR,
and used for fresh meat
There are various grades of cellophane. In order to identify the various grades, a coding system is
used, which is as follows:
A - Anchored (lacquer coating), gives better moisture resistance
/A - Copolymer coated from dispersion
B - Opaque
C - Colored
D - Coated one side only, moisture proof on one side only
F Flexible grade for twist wrapping applications
M Moisture proof on both sides
L Less moisture proof than M
P - Plain (non-moistureproof), uncoated material
Q Semi-moistureproof
QM Not as moisture proof as M
S - Heat sealable
/S - Copolymer coated
T - Transparent
U - For adhesive tape manufacture
X Copolymer (PVdC) coated on one side
XX - Copolymer coated on both sides
MXXT/A Double coated with PVdC applied as an aqueous dispersion
MXXT/S Same but applied by a solvent dispersion
The code is preceded by a number which corresponds to the weight of ten square meters of the
material, e.g. 350 MS refers to a material which is heat sealable and moisture proof of which ten
square meters will weigh 350 gm, i.e. 35 gsm.
Applications
Product requirements vary from one another. Leafy vegetables that are respiring need to let the
water vapour out to prevent the condensation fogging up the film, while cakes need to let the
moisture out to prevent mold growth and the crusty bread need to let the moisture out or it will
become soft. The P grade is used to give protection from dust or grease where a barrier is not
required. M grade is used for hygroscopic products such as biscuits, crisps, etc. QMS is popular
for meat wrap. DMS is used for fresh meat. The uncoated side in contact with the meat is
moistened and its permeability to gases rises helping to maintain the desired red colour.
Additives
There are many different additives used in the manufacture of plastics in order to improve their
characteristics or performance. These include:
Plasticizers to improve flexibility
Antistatic agents such as ammonia compounds or glycol derivatives are used to reduce static
which makes the layers cling to each other, attracts dust and can give electric shock to the
machine operators
42
Slip agents such as fatty acid amides, are used to achieve better running on the machine
Antioxidants may be organic sulphides, which prevent oxygen causing decomposition
especially at high processing temperatures of polyolefins, etc
Colorants used are titanium oxide, zinc oxide, chromium oxide and calcium sulphide
Fillers are used to reduce cost or improve strength and stiffness. They may be in the form of
talc, chopped glass fibres and other inert materials
An anti-blocking additive to prevent bags sticking together, coats the material with a very
fine powder such as silica with a diameter of 1-7 mm, which gives the material a microscopic
surface roughness.
Other additives include antifogging agents to prevent internal condensation which could obscure
the product visibility and easy peel additives to make the pack easier to open.
For food use, all the additives must be approved for food contact, and must not migrate into the
food products in unacceptable amounts.
Converting plastics into packs
Plastics are generally produced as pellets or granules of polymer known as resin. To convert this
into a plastic material for use in packaging, it must go through a series of conversion process.
There are various conversion processes available depending on the form of the material required.
Flexible films are usually cast or blown in extrusion process while rigid containers are
manufactured by moulding or thermoforming them.
Extrusion
The first major step in the conversion of plastic resin into films, sheets, containers etc., is to
change the pellets from solid to liquid or molten phase in an extruder. Extrusion is used to
produce film or sheets of material, to coat paper or other substances or to feed moulding
machines. It is a continuous process. The general sequence of the process is:
Feeding of the plastic material to the extruder hopper
Plastification of the plastic granules in the barrel by application of heat between 140
o
C and
350
o
C depending upon the polymer
Uniform plastification of the molten material in the barrel by a single or a twin screw
Metering of the platicised material through a die that forms it to the desired shape
Setting of the plastic (plus calibration) into the desired shape and size
Winding or cutting into desired lengths

Fig: Extruder
In the manufacture of film and sheet, the molten plastic is forced through a narrow slot or die. In
the manufacture of rigid packaging, such as bottles and closures, the molten plastic is forced into
shape using a precisely machined mould.
The properties of plastic films and sheets are dependent on the plastic(s) used and the method of
film manufacture together with any coating or lamination. In film and sheet manufacture, there
43
are two distinct methods of processing the molten plastic which is extruded from the extruder die.
The flexible film can be produced by two methods, which are:
a. Slit die or cast film extrusion process
In this process, the molten material is extruded through a T-die (also known as a slit or a coat
hanger die) and onto a chilled highly polished metal roller. The die consists of two lips, one of
which can be adjusted to vary the output. The gap between the die lips determines the film
thickness. From the die, the material is extruded onto a chilled metal roll to quench the melt and
produce a workable web of film. The rapid cooling of the hot film leads to the formation of small
crystallites, giving excellent clarity and shine to the film. It also reduces the tendency of the
material to neck in, i.e. it prevents contracting at the edges due to surface tension with a
resultant loss in width.
The cooling process can be carried out by two methods:
Quenching in water bath: In this method, the film formed is cooled by passing through the cold
water bath. This method has the following drawbacks:
Water remaining on the film leads to the problem in post film treatment and subsequent
printing process because total removal of water is very difficult and expensive.
There is a chance of presence of detergent residue on the film as water contains detergent.
Wave stability is less, i.e. not uniform packaging thickness, which can be minimized by
keeping the gap between the die and the water surface as small as possible. Generally, the gap
is 10-40 mm.
Chance of steam contamination on the die and formation of wave in the bath.
Casting on a chilled metal roll: In this process, the molten plastic is extruded through a straight
slot die onto a cooled cylinder, known as the chill roll. A chill roll has water inside which keeps
the surface cool. The roller surface is chromium plated to achieve a high optical quality film.

In both the processes, the molten polymer is quickly chilled and solidified to produce a film which
is reeled and slit to size.
The advantages are excellent clarity, uniformity of thickness, superior physical and mechanical
properties and higher outputs.
Orientation can be done to improve the film properties of tensile strength, stiffness, barrier
properties and visual appearance at the loss of stretchability. Machine direction (MD) orientation
is achieved by feeding the material thorough a series of rollers, which are of different diameters,
temperatures and rotating at different speeds. Initially the material is preheated to just below its
melt temperature as it passes through slow speed rollers. It then passes through some high speed
rollers of small diameter which stretches it pulling it through a faster pace than that at which it is
being fed. The final stage is heat setting stage to stabilize the material by passing it through a
series of large diameter fast driven rollers. For biaxial orientation, the material must also be
stretched in transverse direction.
44
This is achieved by the use of stenter which grips the edges of the film in an endless chain. The
film is preheated before the chains at either side begin to diverge thereby stretching the material.
An annealing stage follows to heat set the film, so it retains its new dimension. After it has cooled,
it is released from the chains and the thicker edges are trimmed off and recycled. It the surface is
to be printed, a corona discharge can be applied at this stage to activate the film surface so the
inks or adhesives can adhere to it.
b. Circular die blow film extrusion process
In this process, the molten plastic is continuously
extruded through a die in the form of a circular
annulus, so that it emerges as a tube. The tube is
prevented from collapsing by maintaining air
pressure inside the tube or bubble. This tube is
expanded into a bubble by blowing air through the
mandrel, the blow-up ratio being 1 : 2.5 to 3 and up
to 7 or 8 for special materials like HM-HDPE. The
size of the bubble and the film thickness are
controlled by die gap, air pressure, extrusion and
take-off speeds. The air is contained in the bubble
by pinch rollers at one end and by the die at the
other. The tube is pulled upwards, being collapsed
as it reaches the top by a series of guide rollers that
reduces its diameter.
The film emerges out as a flattened tube at the top.
This tube can be split at the edges to form two rolls
of film that are wound onto separate reels. For tubular containers, the edges are not split.
For increased strength and improved barrier properties, film can be stretched to realign, or orient,
the molecules in both the machine direction (MD), and across the web in the transverse direction
(TD) or cross direction. With the blown, or tubular, film process, orienting is achieved by
increasing the pressure inside the tube to create a tube with a much larger diameter.
Film stretched in one direction only is described as being mono-oriented. When a film is stretched
in both the directions, it is said to be biaxially orientated. Packing the molecules closer together
improves the gas and water vapour barrier properties. Orientation of the molecules increases the
mechanical strength of the film.
The materials most commonly used for monolayer films are LDPE, LLDPE, HDPE, HM-HDPE,
PP, PVC, etc.
The factors that govern the properties of blown film are:
- Monoaxially oriented films of PP
- Biaxially oriented films of PS, PP, PET
- Monoaxially oriented slit films of PP, HDPE, LLDPE for woven fabrics
- Sheets for thermoforming
- Extrusion coating
- Foamed sheets
Potential defects from this process include wrinkling of the film, hazy appearance, low impact and
tensile strength. Temperature control is important. If the temperature at the pinch roll is too cold,
then the material will stiffen and wrinkle. On the other hand, if the temperature is too high, the
material will tend to block. A high melt temperature will result in a tough and transparent
45
material. A low one gives better slip and antiblock properties. The air pressure within the bubble
must be uniform.
Comparison of blown versus cast extrusion
Blown film extrusion is cheaper. The tube produced can be readily converted to bags, without
need of making an extra seam, by just sealing the base. This film has better mechanical properties.
Cast film extrusion has very high output rate. The film produced is clearer. However, the cost of
the chill rollers is high and the material needs to have the edges trimmed after manufacture.
Extrusion coating
It is a technique used for coating a wide range of substrates such as paper, aluminium foil, duplex
board, textiles, woven fabrics of HDPE/PP, dry bond laminates, etc. with LDPE, LLDPE, HDPE,
PP, etc for improving the barrier and sealing properties.
Rigid and Semirigid Plastic Containers
Many of the thermoplastic materials can be formed into rigid and semirigid containers (such as
bottles, drums, crates, gallons, etc), the most common being LDPE, HDPE, PVC, PP, PET and
PS, singly or in combinations. Acrylic plastics are also used for this purpose, including
polyacrylonitrile and acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS). Urea formaldehyde, a thermosetting
material, is used to make screw cap closures for glass and plastic containers.
Construction of Rigid Plastics
This can be achieved by injection moulding, blow moulding and thermoforming.
Injection Moulding
This is a batch process, in which the polymer pellets are softened in a heated chamber and then
injected under high pressure into the closed mould through the nozzle of the moulding machine
and into the mould through a gate, sprue and runner system. It cools and hardens by circulation of
water in both parts of the mould, which is then opened and the item is ejected by ejector pins,
stripper plate or by compressed air. To reduce the cycle time, the material can be pre-plasticised
and the injection rate can be increased. The mould must be vented so that the air trapped in the
mould can escape. Otherwise, the air will overheat and lead to localized scorching of the plastic.
The pressure used, the temperature and the type of plastic and also the design of the mould will
determine the cycle time.

The injection moulding process produces products having excellent surface finish, very good
dimensional consistency and close tolerances. The mould design must allow for shrinkage in the
mould as the plastic contracts. High production rates can be achieved, especially if multi cavity
moulds are used, i.e. more than one moulding is made per cycle.
46
It is not possible to make items with reverse tapers or undercuts as the item could not be ejected
from the mould, i.e. the openings cant be narrower than the body. Injection moulds are expensive
because of their massive construction & expensive materials of construction, which are necessary
since they have to withstand high temperatures and pressures. So, this method is economical for
long production, high volume items. There may be problems with brittleness if the temperature is
too low, or distortion due to ejecting at too high temperature, and weld lines if there is insufficient
pressure or cold mould, detracting from the appearance.
All thermoplastics and special grades of thermosetting resins can be processed by this process.
Injection moulding is mainly used to produce wide-mouthed containers, but, narrow-necked
containers can be injection moulded in two parts which are joined together by a solvent or
welding. PS is the main material used for injection moulding, but PP and PET may also be
processed in this way. Applications include containers, cups and closures, base cups for PET
stretched bottles, crates and pallets, thin walled disposable cups, etc.
Blow Moulding
Many plastics are shaped using a process called blow molding. This is a process for producing
hollow items with openings narrower than their body and is primarily used to make plastic bottles.
Air under pressure is forced into a sealed molten body or plastic parison, surrounded by a cold
split mould, causing it to expand to fill the container thereby being moulded to its shape. The
material cools on contact with the cold mould walls and solidifies. The mould opens and the item
is ejected.
Blow moulding is mainly used to produce narrow-necked containers. LDPE is the main material
used for blow moulding, but PVC, PS & PP may also be processed in this way. Food applications
include bottles for oils, fruit juices and milk and squeezable bottles for sauces and syrups.
Variations on blow molding include extrusion blow molding, injection blow molding, and
injection stretch molding. Labeling can also be done in the mold.
a. Extrusion Blow Moulding
An extruded tube is produced either continuously or by batch process. A predetermined length of
this tube is then trapped between two halves of a split mould. Both ends of the mould are sealed
and the hot trapped parison is inflated by compressed air to take the shape of the mould. It cools
and solidifies before it is ejected. The neck has to be manufactured subsequently. The excess
material where the mould closes around the tube at the top & base, known as flash is trimmed.

47
Methods of increasing the production include the use of more than one mould. This being a low
pressure process, the moulds can be of aluminium and are, therefore, comparatively low cost. The
bottle will show a thin line in the position where the two parts of the mould are joined. Corners of
the containers formed by this process tend to be weaker as the material is stretched most at that
point. Blow moulding is used for milk bottles (HDPE) and wide mouth jars.
b. Injection Blow Moulding
In this method, the molten plastic material is first moulded round a parison stick inside a
conventional injection molding machine. This stick constitutes the core of a split mould, the
cavity of which is machined to accurately determined dimensions so as to give the required
thickness profile, after blowing to form the finished bottle. While still molten, the parison and the
blowing sticks are transferred to a second (blowing) mould, where it is blown into its final shape
by passing compressed air down the blowing stick. The blown bottle is cooled, the mould opens
and the bottle is ejected. Multi cavity injection moulds have also been developed.

The main advantage of this process is that it is possible to achieve accurate control of the wall
thickness and neck calibration. The wall thickness of the finished container is controlled by the
shape of the parison mould. The container will not have thin walls or base. Also, this produces
fully finished bottle because the parison is fully enclosed and formed in the blow-mould, unlike in
extrusion blow-moulding, where flash occurs at the parison pinch-off positions requiring a
secondary operation.
However, the equipment is expensive as two sets of moulds are required. It is a slower process
due to the time required for transfer between the two sets of moulds and a longer cooling time.
Injection moulded items are recognized by a pinhead-sized protrusion, known as the gate, on the
surface, indicating the point of entry of molten plastic into the mould. With injection blow
moulding, the gate mark on the preform is expanded in the blowing action to a larger diameter
circular shape.
Injection blow moulding is mainly used for the production of vials and small bottles even though
commercially machines up to 5 L capacity are available. This process is more versatile in terms
number of plastics that are possible to be processed such as PS, SAN, PC, etc which are not easily
blown on a conventional extrusion blow moulding machine.
c. Stretch Blow Moulding
A variation of injection and extrusion blow moulding is the stretch blow moulding. It involves
stretching the parison in the axial direction before blowing it to the required shape and size, which
stretches it in the transverse direction. The stretched preform is then blow moulded which results
in biaxial orientation of the polymer molecules, thereby increasing strength, clarity, gloss and gas
barrier. It enables a thinner material to be used and is excellent for carbonated beverages.
Injection stretch blow moulding is used to make PET bottles for carbonated beverages.
48

Aseptic bottles are formed by this method. The parison is extruded, blown to the required shape
and size, filled and sealed in the same machine. Thinner film can be used as the carbonation
pressure provides rigidity and strength.
Multilayer (Coextrusion) Blow Moulding
No single polymer can ever meet the complete requirements of a particular product to be packed,
and in such cases, a combination of various polymers to form a composite structure is used.
All the basic blow moulding processes are used with some differences. First, there are additional
extruders for extruding one layer each and secondly, a very specially designed die to form a
laminate composite structure of the bottle wall is used. All the polymers cant form bond with
each other and, therefore, an adhesive or bond layer is required to create the bond, which doesnt
delaminate. As a result, three or more extruders are required. With the HDPE/EVOH, for e.g., five
layers are actually required: HDPE | Adhesive | EVOH | Adhesive | HDPE.
EVOH is a relatively more expensive material but with excellent barrier properties, but is
sensitive to water, which can deteriorate its properties. So, it can sandwiched with HDPE or PP,
which are comparatively low priced, have excellent water vapour barrier properties, and are
approved for food contact applications, though they are poor oxygen barriers. Thus, EVOH and
HDPE/PP supplement each other to produce an economical package with excellent barrier
properties.
Thermoforming
This method uses sheets or reels of plastic films. The material is clamped in position above the
mould. The sheet is heated until it softens and then made to take up the shape of the mould by
either (a) Having an air pressure greater than atmospheric applied above the sheet,
(b) Having a vacuum created below the sheet, or
(c) Sandwiching the sheet between a male and female mould, i.e. matched die.

Fig: Thermoforming, filling and sealing
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The sheet cools through contact with the mould, hardens and is ejected from the mould. The
pressurized system gives better mould definition than the vacuum system whereas the matched die
is excellent for complex shapes but is more expensive as two dies is required. Thermoforming
tends to give thin corners as the film is stretched most there. However, compared to other methods
of moulding, the moulds are relatively cheap so it is suitable for short runs. It is hard to control
thickness but a good design of the mould helps. The shapes that can be made by this method are
limited. There are no weld lines.
Plastic materials that are thermoformed include PS, PP, PVC, HDPE and ABS. Thermoforming is
used to produce open-topped or wide-mouthed containers such as cups and tubs for yoghurt,
cottage cheese or margarine, trays for eggs or fresh fruit and inserts in biscuit tins or chocolate
boxes.
Compression Moulding
Compression moulding is used from thermosetting plastics, such as urea formaldehyde, as well as
for materials like ultra-high molecular weight HDPE. The plastic powder is held under pressure
between heated male and female moulds. It melts and takes up the shape of the mould. The mould
is cooled by water circulation, opened and the cooled item is removed from the bottom half of the
mould, i.e. female mould. The main application for this method is to produce screw caps.
Multilayer Films
Each type of plastic has its own role in the field of packaging. A single material may be suitable
for some products, but in certain cases it will need to be so thick that it would become
uneconomical. In some cases, no one material can achieve all the requirements. In such case, a
composite material is needed, different layer contributing to the overall performance. This can be
achieved by lamination or coextrusion.
In the form of laminates and multilayer coextruded films, they are expected to dominate the field
because of some distinct advantages:
Meeting the exact performance requirement by selection of different layers of the composite
structure
Considerable economy because of lower consumption of raw materials through lower weights,
for e.g. a 1 kg pouch weighs 8 gm as compared to at least 40 gm of an HDPE blown container
Retailing in smaller unit packs gives protection from adulteration and convenience to the
weaker sections of the society
Ease of handling and storage
Ease of disposal and total prevention of reuse with spurious materials causing a major health
hazard.
Lamination
Lamination is a combination of several different materials to form a multilayer material that
utilizes the advantage of each component to optimum effect at minimum cost. It creates a
composite material of the required properties by letting the weakness of one be compensated for
by the strengths of another. Lamination increases the physical properties (puncture resistance,
tensile strength, and impact strength), barrier properties (decrease GTR and WVTR), sealability,
printability, product compatibility, economy and appearance (gloss, clarity, etc).
For e.g. polyethene is an excellent heat seal medium and has a good moisture barrier but is
permeable to gases. At thicker gauges, this permeability is reduced but the cost increases. PVdC
has a very low gas transmission rate but is not so good at heat sealing. It is also a lot more
expensive than polyethylene. Nylon is strong, thermoformable with puncture resistance, but needs
50
to be protected from moisture. By combining nylon, PVdC and PE, a laminate is formed with
each layer contributing to the overall performance.
Similarly, aluminium foil is an excellent barrier material but is easily damaged by puncturing on
its own. It can be protected by sandwiching it between polyester, which has good puncture
resistance & polyethene to give a heat sealable material. Economy is achieved by using minimum
weights of each material or by using cheaper materials for rigidity or stiffness. Paper is cheap,
printable and has good dead fold properties. It can be coated with polyethene for moisture
resistance, laminated to foil and polyethene to form a barrier, heat sealable material.
By combining the qualities of choice from the raw material films, a laminate can be tailor-made
for its particular application. Each layer in the resulting laminate may exhibit different properties
from its free state, such as mutual layer reinforcement in which cracks in a brittle layer are pre-
vented from propagating by a high elongation (elastic) layer. This effect depends on good
adhesion between the layers. Three factors affect the adhesion between layers:
1. Viscosity/shear rate match during melding of layers. To be coextruded, the melt flow
viscosities should be similar (a ratio of within 3:1), otherwise one of the plastics will flow with
respect to the other, preventing bonding.
2. Temperature, pressure, and period of contact, to build the bond.
3. Functionality of adjacent resin layers, i.e., that they are sufficiently similar in structure to mix at
the contact surfaces.
Properties of some common components used for laminates
Components Uses
1. Low density polyethylene
(LDPE)
- Moisture vapour barrier
- Moderate barrier to gas
- Excellent heat sealing medium
- Low temperature performance
2. High density
polyethylene (HDPE)
- Moisture vapour barrier
- Low and high temperature performance
- Grease resistance
- Barrier properties superior than LDPE
3. Oriented polypropylene
(OPP)
- High transparency
- Excellent clarity
- Barrier properties similar to HDPE
4. Polyvinylidene chloride
(PVdC)
- Outstanding water vapour and gas barrier properties
- High grease resistance
5. Polyethylene
Terephthalate (PET)
- Gas barrier properties
- High strength
- Grease resistance
6. Polyester
- Excellent clarity and printability
- Good gas barrier properties
- Moderate water vapour barrier properties
- Excellent grease resistance
- Can be metalized for use as a substitute for aluminium foil
7. Ethylene vinyl acetate
(EVA)
- Properties similar to LDPE
- Superior grease resistance
- Printable
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8. Nylon
- Excellent grease resistance
- Low gas permeability & can be used for vacuum packaging
- Tough
9. Regenerated cellulose
- Excellent gas barrier properties
- Moisture vapour barrier when coated
- Transparent and printable
10. Ionomer (Surlyn)
- Generally similar to LDPE but superior grease resistance
- Stronger with better clarity and printability
- Can perfectly seal through even a contaminated layer
11. Paper
- Stiffness at low cost
- Opacity and printing
12. Aluminium foil
- Very good barrier (100% barrier to gas and water vapour)
- Decorative effects
- Excellent printing impression aids to the sales appeal
- Non-toxic & can be used in direct contact with food products
- Can be used at deep freeze & elevated temperature condition
13. Paraffin wax
- As adhesive
- Improves water vapour barrier properties
Materials selection based on package requirements
1. Opacity: Aluminium foil, metalized PET/BOPP films, paper and pigmented plastic films can
be used.
2. Transparency: Cast films of HDPE, PET and PP have good clarity.
3. Gas barrier properties: Aluminium foil and MET-PET/BOPP films are almost complete gas
barriers. The other films that meet the requirement in most cases are nylon, PVOC, EVOH.
4. Low temperature performance: Nylon, PET, BOPP and HDPE have good temperature
resistance. Aluminium foil is also excellent.
5. Heat sealability: LDPE tops the list.
6. Grease resistance: Nylon, EVA, HDPE, PP, PET, PVC and PVdC have good resistance.
7. Printability: Films like nylon, PET, etc have good printability.
Lamination Techniques
The most commonly used techniques for the preparation of laminates are:
Adhesive lamination wet lamination and dry lamination
Thermal or heat lamination (fusion method)
Wax or hot-melt lamination
Extrusion lamination (melt lamination)
Wet lamination
This method is used when one or more of the substrates is permeable to the passage of coating
solvents. The process is widely used to produce laminations of paper/foil, film/paper, and
paper/paper. It may be necessary to prime-coat the non-porous substrate prior to lamination to
ensure adequate adhesion.
Wet lamination uses solvent- or aqueous-based adhesives, including silicates, resin emulsions,
rubber lattices as well as water-soluble glues. The solvents must be able to evaporate without
causing web deformation. Wet lamination is not usually successful with plastic films when
laminating them to paper. However, wet lamination using organic solvent-based adhesives has
52
been carried out in some instances, and even aqueous-based adhesive lamination can be carried
out for films such as cellulose acetate when bonded to paper. Cellulose acetate is fairly permeable
to water vapour and hence aids drying out of water after laminating. Wet lamination method is
more popular with paper laminates. In any case, the finished laminate must run through a drying
oven to speed up the drying of the solvent.

The No. 1 ply is preheated along a section of the heating and combining drum, while the No. 2 ply
is coated on an adhesive applicator which then travels to the lay-on roll mounted on the surface of
the combining drum. By using a low fusion temperature plastisol adhesive, the films can be
bonded below the critical film temperature.
Dry lamination
This method is used for bonding two impervious webs and is more suitable for the lamination of
plastic films to other substrates. This method consists of applying the adhesive to the inside face
of one or both webs. Rubber based adhesives, aqueous emulsions and heat-seals type formulations
can also be used for dry bonding. Solvent drying can cause some problem. Solvent based
adhesives also present fire hazards.
The dry bonding process incorporates either:
- The use of an aqueous or solvent based adhesive film that is dried prior to laminating, or
- A hot-melt adhesive, based on wax or one of a range of polymers.
In the first case, the aqueous or organic solvent based adhesive is applied in precise amounts to
the inside face of one web. The coated web is then passed through the oven, to remove all water
or solvent. The second layer is applied to the sticky surface and the two are bonded under pressure
by passing through a nip roller, which may sometimes be heated.

The success of this lamination when used for plastic films includes factors such as tension control,
accurate adhesive application and accurate control of drying. Tension control is very important. If
it is too low, there will be wrinkles in the film, and if too high, it could stretch the film beyond its
elastic limit. Film tension should normally be kept to a minimum and will depend on the distance
the film has to be pulled through the laminating equipment and on the sharpness of any change in
direction as it passes over the various rolls. The amount of adhesive applied must be controlled;
53
the dose must be accurate & applied uniformly. The oven must operate at the correct temperature
and residence time in it must be sufficient to dry the solvent or the material could delaminate
(which is a process where the individual layers separate). Excessive solvent remaining in the
adhesive at the nip stage is the major cause of delamination.
Thermal or heat lamination (fusion method)
Heat lamination is used to combine coated materials by simply running them together between
rollers, one of which is heated. The equipment is very simple and relatively inexpensive. The
process involves passing two films through heated pressure rolls with the resultant heat sealing.
The heat during lamination can cause the film to become brittle because moisture is removed. In
order to prevent the loss of moisture, two different techniques are employed as a supplement to
thermal lamination.
One method utilizes a specially designed laminating head which preheats the film (the degree
depending upon the thickness) and injects steam prior to lamination. The heat causes softening of
the coating and allows for better moisture penetration and a softer and more durable lamination.
Great care must be taken to control the temperature, since it is easy for a sheet to become
overheated causing web failure or melt off; or on the other hand, to become too cool and perhaps
give only a superficial bond.
The other technique employs the use of a water nip. Water is added at the nip point. A well of
water from 2 to 2.5 cm high must be maintained in the nip between the metal & the rubber roller.
It is also important that the introduction of the webs is made properly to avoid air entrapment that
would tend to form bubbles between piles.
The degree of preheat required is determined by the film thickness as well as the production
speed. In the case of materials that have distinct melting points (such as polyethylene,
polypropylene, etc), the proper control and regulation of temperature and speed is more important.
Other problems involve bond strength and ink compatibility. Inks must be heat sealable, and as an
aid in thermal lamination, they may be applied in-line or separately.
Wax or hot-melt lamination
It is used to produce materials such as cellophane/wax/foil, cellophane/wax/cellophane, etc. This
method uses wax instead of adhesives. Microcrystalline waxes are most popular.
The equipment used for roll application of hot melts consists of a reverse kiss coater, a
pneumatically loaded rubber roll with a fixed steel roll to combine the substrate, and an adequate
chill roll section to set the adhesive.

The hot melt is applied by a reverse kiss coater to one of the webs. The two webs are brought
together at the nip between a pneumatically loaded rubber roll and a fixed steel roll. The laminate
again passes through a cooling section and is then wound up.
The advantage of this method is that the solvent drying or recovery is not required after
laminating and therefore the laminator machine can operate at a faster rate. The addition of
54
polymers to the waxes produces tougher films, better cohesive and adhesive characteristics, and
good moisture barrier properties. This type of lamination lends itself to the production of moisture
proof wrappers of all types, liners and pouches, and carton overwraps.
A limitation exists in heat sealing temperature. The heat sealing temperature of the finished
laminate is generally higher than the melting point of the laminate. This results in the movement
of the wax or hot melt away from the seal area.
Extrusion lamination (Melt lamination)
This method is used to produce coated materials like paper/polyethylene, foil/polyethylene,
paper/polyethylene/aluminium foil or paper/polyethylene/cellulose film. Due to its excellent heat
sealability, polyethylene is coated onto paper, aluminium foil, cellulose, etc. polyethylene resin is
used as the adhesive between two substrates in extrusion lamination. The type of plastics that can
be extruded are limited and about 90% of the extrusion is done with LDPE, or compounds in
which polyethylene is the principle ingredient. Polyethylene gives a laminate greater ability to
withstand impact stocks than conventional adhesives. The other materials used are HDPE, PP and
nylon. Extrusion laminates are good barrier to water and water vapour and are usually tough and
flexible. It can be used as a lamination process where the extruded layer acts as the adhesive layer
for applying the third material, e.g. in structure such as paper/polyethylene/aluminium foil.
Extrusion lamination is a form of dry bonding but without the use of any solvent in the lamination
medium. A flat die extruder discharges a molten curtain of polyethylene, polypropylene or some
other thermoplastic into the nip between the two webs to be laminated. The heated adhesive is
cooled by passing the laminated sheet over a specially designed combining & cooling roll section.
This cooling section replaces the drying section generally needed in wet adhesive bonding.
Pressure is applied to ensure that the two materials stick together.

Temperature and pressure must be controlled very carefully in each zone of the extruder to get a
uniform flow and avoid degradation of the material due to overheating. The extrusion die must
also be well designed, carefully maintained and accurately adjusted throughout its length to get
consistent results. Laminating weights are usually between 20 to 40 gsm of LDPE.
Common examples of Laminates
MXDT/LDPE for dry foodstuffs, where gas and water vapour barrier is required
Nylon/LDPE vacuum packs for cheese, meat, coffee, nuts
PET/LDPE vacuum packs for cheese, meat, coffee, nuts
Coated OPP/LDPE gas and vacuum packs for bacon, cheese, cooked meat
Paper/POLYETHYLENE/Al/LDPE dried foods, milk, coffee, soup, cake mixes
PET/Adh/Al/Adh/PP retort pouches, goods requiring long shelf life under extreme conditions
55
Factors affecting adhesion between layers
1. Viscosity/shear rate match during melding of layers. To be coextruded, the melt flow
viscosities should be similar (a ratio of within 3:1), otherwise one of the plastics will flow with
respect to the other, preventing bonding.
2. Temperature, pressure, and period of contact, to build the bond.
3. Functionality of adjacent resin layers, i.e., that they are sufficiently similar in structure to mix at
the contact surfaces.
Components of lamination machine
Lamination machine or process consists of the following components:
Continuous feed roll with a feeder on-the-fly splicer, which can cut off the old roll and
join on the new (there may be several rolls feeding film into the machine at once)
Tensioning rollers to give exact control over the tension in the plastic
Lamination stage where the primary and secondary webs are combined
Compression rollers to push the layers together
A take-up (rewind) roller to collect the final laminate
Comparison of extrusion coating and adhesive lamination
In adhesive lamination, excessive drying temperatures often lead to shinning where the solvent
is superficially dry and permeates through the skin after a period of time. Spoiled food, product
loss and delamination result from solvent odour incurred during adhesive lamination. However,
this is not present in adhesive techniques not involving solvents.
Extrusion coating permits coating of a very thin gauge. It not only strengthens the bond but also
helps in filling up pin holes and other pore found in paper and thinner gauge of foil.
Coextrusion
No single polymer can meet very exact performance requirements of packaging materials
flexible, semi-rigid or rigid. As such, the process of combining two or more polymers by
coextrusion to manufacture multilayer films was developed. In this method, two or more extruders
are used to produce a composite film/sheet using different polymers for achieving the desired
properties. Two or more (up to seven) extruders are coupled to a single die head and the die is so
designed that what emerges out is a well bound multilayer film/sheet, which appears as one single
composite film/sheet. Three and five layer constructions are common, with the alternate layers of
adhesive known as tie layers. A typical structure is LLDPE/tie layer/EVOH/tie layer/LLDPE. The
tubular film produced can be formed into bags or subsequently moulded into bottles.
The selection of the polymers is based on the salient features of each polymer to meet the
requirements. The polymers most commonly used for films are LDPE, LLDPE, EVA for the outer
layer; bonding agent or tie layer of CXA or Primacor; barrier layer of nylon, EVOH, etc. and the
sealant layer of Surlyn or Primacor. In sheet production, the polymers used are HIPS, EVOH,
PET, etc. Coextrusion helps to develop a tailor-made package while reducing the manufacturing
costs, particularly the raw material and energy costs.
Coextruded materials are not subjected to delamination. However, they cant be sandwich printed
as laminates. They can only be surface printed which leads to problem if the surface is scuffed off.
They can use materials in much thinner gauges than laminates. Each ply in a laminate must be
stiff enough to feed through the laminator but in a coextruder it can be used in very small amounts
such as 3 micron. Waste from the coextruder cant be easily recycled as it is not a pure material. It
is sometimes recycled and used as the core of the structure. Both laminates & coextrusions are not
easy to recycle but their environmental advantage is that they use minimal quantities of materials.
56
Coextrusion processes
There are five principal manufacturing processes utilizing coextrusion techniques. They are:
Cast-film extrusion
Blown-film extrusion
Coextrusion coating (extrusion coating)
Coextrusion lamination
Cast sheet coextrusion
Lamination versus coextrusion
Lamination Coextrusion
1. Chance of delamination.
2. Paper and aluminium foil can be used for
lamination.
3. Interior printing may be done.
4. Can be recycled (pure form).
1. No chance of delamination.
2. Takes place between plastics only.

3. Surface printing can only be done.
4. Cant be recycled.
Major advantage and disadvantages of multilayer films
Advantages
Multiple properties are achievable on a single converting operation with resultant economy
No solvents are used in the process & as of such no problem of pollution or odour on the film
Thin layers of films that will be difficult to handle separately can be produced by lamination
Pigmented layers could be sandwiched without affecting the sealability
To reduce cost, it is sometimes possible to recycle reclaimed materials, if they are compatible
Gas barrier resins could be introduced into structure eliminating the need for further coating
A sandwiched layer could be of reprocessed material for effective economy
A choice of various polymers to meet the product requirement with respect to compatibility,
sealing, barrier properties and cost.
Disadvantages
It is necessary to balance melt viscosities and the chemical properties of the resins to be
coextruded
Equipments are quite expensive
There is no chance to bury printing within a coextruded film
Make-ready costs are high so the coextrusion process require longer production runs to be
cost-effective
Shrink Wrapping
Shrink wrapping is a method of shrinking transparent plastic around a product, container or group
of containers to give a tight fitting pack. Shrink film packaging involves the use of thermoplastic
films that have been stretched or oriented during manufacturing and have the property of
shrinking with the application of heat. It involves passing a package wrapped in a loose envelope
of film through a heated tunel on a conveyer belt. In the heat, the material shrinks and forms a
tight wrap around the package, keeping it clean, dry and intact.
Manufacture
Extrusion is the most common method and either annular or slot dies are employed, depending on
the materials used and the subsequent methods of orientation. Both center-fed, spider dies or side-
fed, crosshead dies are used to produce polymer tubing. Calendering is sometimes used to
produce PVC films. The third method of casting from a polymer solution is also used for PVC,
but less frequently. Both of these processes normally yeild films with better thickness distribution
57
compared to extruded films, but the capital investment for calendering or casting is very high, and
for the solution cast process, operating costs are almost prohibitive.
Shrink film is oriented by stretching the polymer sheet or tube at a temperature above its softening
point, whereby the polymer chains are alligned in the direction of stretch. After stretching the
polymer, alignment is locked in the film by cooling.
When the oriented film is subsequently heated to temperatures in the vicinity of the stretching
temperature, the frozen-in shrinkage stresses become effective and the film shrinks, reflecting
strains and stresses related to the degree of orientation and the forces applied during stretching.
The orientation can significantly change some of the basic properties of a polymer.
Properties
Generally, orientation improves the tensile strength, impact strength, clarity, transparency, and
flexibility at both ambient and low temperatures. The degree of shrink and shrink derive from the
orientation process and it becomes difficult to tear. In certain cases, gas and moisture permeability
are also lowered. On the other hand, orientation generally has a detrimental effect on elongation,
ease-of-tear propogation and sealability of a film. The heat sealing range is narrowed and film
properties may vary with age.
Advantages
The various advantages of shrink packaging include the following:
Contour fit: Shrink film readily conforms to irregular shapes and product configurations
Multi-packing: Groups of products can be attached to the basic product
Appearance: A shrink-wrapped product has a transparent sparkling sheen that enhance
merchandising and display characteristics
Protection and cleanliness: Shrink film packaging reduces pilferage, increases shelf-life, and
provides environmental protection
Immobilization: Shrink film can lock one or more products in place, protecting against
movement that can cause scuffing or breakage
Economy: Packaging with shrink film can eliminate more costly materials such as corrugated,
kraft or chip board.
Applications
Shrink packaging is used for a wide range of industrial applications for tray pack, bundling and
pallet load utilization. Tray pack is widely used by beverage and canned goods industries as a
means of eliminating corrugated shippers. Shrink film is also used with corrugated board for what
is called a suspension pack. This process is used to suspend breakable products on a corrugated U-
pad, eliminating dunnage.
Stretch, Cling and Twist-Wrap Films
Stretch-Cling Film
Stretch wrapping can be used similarly to shrink wrapping as outer packaging or can be in direct
contact with the food. Stretch wrapping doesnt use heat, but relies on the elasticity of the
material. The material, generally LLDPE, is wrapped around the packages and stretched for a
revolution and half. When the tension is released the material clings to itself and retains its shape
to hold the good tightly in place. This is used to overwrap trays of food or to secure a stack of
pallet of boxes so that they do not move about in the vehicle while it is moving.
Stretch wrapping is a cost effective and highly efficient means of utilization. It is applied by hand
dispenser or by machine to the load or pallet load and is ideal for any type of regular or irregular
sized product. Its chemical composition gives it high tensile strength and memory providing a
58
rubber band effect. Consequently, stretch cling film holds loads securely in place, regardless of
handling conditions and adjusts to loads that shift or settle after packing. Stretch wrapping is an
alternative to shrink wrapping as no power or heat energy is required to provide the secure effect.
It can be divided into:
1. Standard stretch: A tough film for use in applications where cling properties are not required.
2. Cling-stretch: A tough film for use in applications, with good stretch and cling properties.
3. Super stretch cling: A linear low density polyethylene film with exceptional stretch and cling
properties.

Areas of application
For lighter loads up to 350 kg: for protection without crushing such as potato crisps where the
packed load requires protection against dust, pilfer-proofness to humidity during storage.
For assorted loads between 350 kg and 750 kg: for users demanding high load security at
lower unit cost.
For loads from 700 kg up to 1 ton: as protection for general applications.
For loads exceeding 1 ton: for palletized goods and heavy irregular loads providing extra
holding force and toughness.
Household Cling-Catering Film
For packaging and preservation of cooked food and as a protection towards insect contamination,
cling film is used by airlines, fast-food stores and to cover cooked food & vegetables to be stored
in refrigerators/freezers. The applications include the packaging of meat, fruits and vegetables,
cheese and dairy products and for catering films for use in homes and hotels as covering material
for cooked food to be stored in refrigerators or under ambient temperature conditions. The
commonly used combinations are EVA/LLDPE/EVA or LLDPE/LLDPE/EVA.
Twist-Wrap Film
Sweets, toffee, candies, chewing gums, etc utilize cellophane, PVC film, and wax coated paper as
over wraps. Cellophane is undoubtedly the traditionally used film for wrapping of hard boiled
sweets but is expensive. PVC film is utilized by the small scale units where there are no
self/buyers regulatory controls. Wax coated paper is utilized in the lower price range of
sweet/toffee products. The industry therefore needs an alternative to cellophane, which can work
at fast operational speeds on twist-wrap machinery providing economy in production. The PP
twist-wrap film is the alternative as it provides high clarity with good printability characteristics
and speeds of operation reaching as high as 1000 wrappings per minute.
General requirements
Raw materials requirements for:
Stretch-film production: LDPE, EVA, PVC, LLDPE
Cling-wrap film: EVA, LLDPE, PVC
Twist-wrap film: PP-cast homopolymer
Additives: PIB, atatic PP, anti-block, clarity modifier
Functional property requirements for:
Stretch-cling films:
- High values for puncture energy
- Tear strength
- Tensile strength
- Elongation
- Cling property
59
Twist-wrap films:
- Tear strength
- Ability to retain twist
- Clarity and gloss
- Good surface printing property
- Knife cuttability
- Stiffness
- Anti-static
Process of manufacture:
- Blown
- Cast
- Monolayer
- Multilayer
Generally, the use of PIB is preferred to provide the cling effect. Selection of PIB grade depends
on the production process as also its performance on the processed product. Selecting a higher
molecular weight PIB (for a given level) provides a stretch-wrap film with the following
properties:
High cling value
Film feels less greasy
Cling takes longer to develop pumping pib to extruder more difficult noise on film
unwinding increases
Stretch-Film Equipments
Stretch film can be prepared by the use of any of the following equipments.
1. Rotary pallet wrapper
This is a general term for those machines that are based on a turntable combined with a fixed
frame to which the film is attached. As the film moves along the frame, the turntable rotates
resulting in a spiral winding of the pallet load. This type of equipment is most common with
added sophistication to be automated and with the provision for a top sheet inserter which ensures
water proofing. Equipment capacity varies between 15 and 80 pallets per hour. The suitable
stretch film to be used is 15-20 microns.
2. Full-width wrapper
This is also based on the rotary wrap principle with the only change that the film used has
sufficient width to cover the load in one rotation. The suitable film thickness is 50-100 microns.
3. Curtain wrapper
This equipment was the first type developed for the use of stretch films. The principle involves
allowing the load to pass between the two rollers rotating around individual vertical axes where
the film is kept stretched for the wrapping operation. As the pallet passes between the rollers, the
film is stretched along the sides of the pallet. When the entire pallet is enclosed, two welding jaws
come together and seal the stretched film. This film is retained mechanically until the joint has
cooled and reached full strength.
4. Horizontal wrapping machine
This differs markedly from other machines. Instead of pallet rotating, the film is allowed to rotate
around the load. The machine is intended for wrapping long loads that do not fit into a pallet.
5. Wrapping paper reels
The latest addition to stretch film dispensing equipment is the innovation to wrap paper reels by
radial and axial winding simultaneously. The suitable film thickness is 30-120 microns.
60
6. Hand wrapper
The hand wrapper is the simplest implement for stretch-film wrapping. The film rolls are mounted
on a frame where unwinding of the film can be slowed down by turning a handle. This allows a
certain degree of stretch control. This device is excellently suited to tasks as the re-sealing of
loads that have already been opened or repairing damaged wrapping as also normal wrapping not
subjected to any load capacity requirements. The suitable film thickness is 15-20 microns.
Comparison of shrink and stretch wrapping
Shrink wrapping requires heat, which makes it more expensive as a heating tunnel is required, and
less flexible as it cannot be used everywhere. It uses more material than stretch wrapping. It is not
suitable for heat sensitive food products. It uses power whereas stretch wrapping can be done
manually. However, it will shrink to shape of the product which is very useful for irregular shaped
items.
Metalizing
Metalizing of paper and plastic films is done for improving the barrier properties as well as for
enhancing the visual appeal.
The metalizing machine is similar to a conventional coating machine. A roll of paper or film is
passed over a sprayhead, the coating is applied and the web is wound on a core. The paper/film
roll is then loaded on an unwind stand and threaded over rollers to a windup stand. In this case,
the coater on which the roll passes consists of evaporator pots containing molten aluminium,
opposite a chill roll. The whole process takes place in a vacuum chamber.
In this process, the aluminium is melted, vaporized and condensed on the substrate containing a
prime coat of adhesion. The amount of deposition is controlled by (i) temperature of the
aluminium higher temperature implies more metal, (ii) running speed slower speed gives more
metal, and (iii) the number of plating stations more stations will give more metal. The amount of
coating is determined by the percentage light transmission, electrical resistance, & optical density.
Plastic films that are mostly metalized are PET, BOPP, PS, and to lesser extent, PVC and nylon.
Package Design
Retortable Pouch
Retortable flexible packaging materials are defined by the ASTM as those capable of
withstanding specified thermal processing in a closed retort at temperature above 100
o
C.
Initially, only metal containers were used. Nowadays, plastics are being used. Retorting is done
above boiling point (for low-acid foods) to increase shelf life. Retorting a can has certain
disadvantages. It requires openers and may cause injury. Plastics, on the other hand, have low
weight, lower production cost and several other advantages.
The pouch has narrow profile (cross-section thickness) and heat penetration is quicker (shorter
process time). Consequently, this results in better product quality and control over micro-
organisms. The desirable characteristics include toughness, puncture resistance, good barrier
properties (against oxygen, water vapor, light and microbial penetration), high temperature
resistance (110-114C), heat sealability.
Retortable pouches have several plies of laminates, e.g., two-ply laminate, 3-ply laminate, etc.
The outer film should have good strength and flex resistance (flexural rigidity = stiffness),
resistant to heat-seal temperature, ability to withstand retort temperature without bursting,
shrinking and delamination. A very common example of retortable pouch is polyethylene
terepthalate (PET).
Some of the important product considerations include:
61
1. Exact filling: accurate measurement and dosing
2. Clean filling: contamination in the seal area weakens the seal (low seal strength)
3. Removal of headspace before sealing: by exhausting residual air content in the pouch.
Should be < 2% of pouch capacity by volume
4. Good seal integrity
5. Use of overriding pressure: (air pressure of 3-10psig). This minimizes pressure differential
inside and outside of retort. This is done as a counter-pressure during retorting.
Semi-rigid containers (tray or tub type) have the advantage over flexible package of ease and
speed of filling.
Hot fill pouch
It is a flexible plastic container. The product is filled in hot condition. It is normally used for acid
food or acidified food. The filling temperature is about 70-93C. The usual process is to fill hot,
seal, and hold for 1-3 min to achieve commercial sterility. The package may be in the form of i)
Flat type or ii) Stand-up type. These are made from PET/Al-foil/PE; PET/PE; Metallized PET/PE.
Plastics for vacuum, gas and modified atmosphere (ma) packaging
For vacuum packaging, the air/gas is expelled from the package before sealing. In the case of gas
packaging, inert gases like N
2
and CO
2
is introduced into the package by different means and
sealed. Today, machines are available for combined vacuum and gas packaging. The materials
commonly used in such packaging are PVdC (polyvinylidene chloride)-coated PET or PE; PVdC-
coated PP; and metalized PET or PE.
Ovenable plastic container
Ovens can imply either conventional oven or microwave oven. The characteristic of the
packaging material can differ in this aspect. The desirable properties include:
1. Resistance to high temperature (200-250C for ovenable containers)
2. Permeable to microwave radiation for microwavable containers
3. Good impact strength at freezer temperature (= good deep-freeze performance)
4. Good printability
The following materials can be used for both types of ovens: PP, high impact polystyrene (HIPS),
crystallized PET (CPET). The package may be in the form of tray or board.
Plastic tubes
They are used for paste, sauce, ketchup, etc. They are available as metal tubes or plastic tubes.
Plastic tubes do not collapse but retain the full length, shape, etc. throughout the life of use. They
are crush-proof. They have stronger seal and are corrosion less.
The commonly used plastic materials for tube manufacture are low density polyethylene (LDPE),
medium density polyethylene (MDPE), high density polyethylene (HDPE) and linear LDPE.
Colored polyethylene granules are mixed and blended to produce a continuous length of tubing
offering the required characteristics of color, density, circumference and wall thickness. This
tubing is cut to correct length. Shoulder and nozzle are molded. The complete molding is
subjected to offset machine for color printing. Lacquering is done to give glossiness. A UV-light
system is used to dry the printing ink.
Laminated tubes
It contains additional plastic layer, paper and aluminum foil. It has superior barrier properties.
Consequently, the product quality is better. The outer layer is LDPE with antistatic agents
(prevents static electricity). The agent is used as print carrier. Then come LDPE, printing ink,
62
pigmented white LDPE, paper, LDPE, ethylene acrylic acid copolymer, aluminum foil, ethylene
vinyl acetate (EVA), and LDPE (innermost layer). The advantages include:
1. Easily squeezable (so, eliminates waste)
2. Cracking, creasing and denting do not take place
3. Since printing is done prior to tube formation, it has a superior eye appeal and the printed
matter is scratch-proof
4. Superior barrier properties
5. Corrosion-free
Edible coating
This is a new form of packaging. The food is coated with a thin film of edible package. For a
heterogeneous material, coating of individual component is done to serve as a boundary within the
bulk (demarcating film). Protective edible coating controls deterioration (microbiological,
physical, and chemical). The coating contains certain agents, e.g., antibiotics and preservatives.
Thus, edible coating can also be used as part of active packaging. Chocolate and sugar coatings,
gelatin coatings, etc are some of the well known examples of this category. Edible coatings can be
applied by two methods, viz., i) coating formation, and ii) applying the coating on product.
Advantages/characteristics of edible coating include: Edible, Waste reduction and pollution
control, Low cost, Improves organoleptic and nutritional properties, Solubility, and Barrier
property (to moisture, oxygen, and solute movement).
Coating can be done by i) normal coating or ii) solution coating. Drying can be done in IR
radiation or in air. Films are prepared as coating or over-wraps. The basic preparation for over-
wraps entails concentration of the mix, extrusion, and wrapping. The coating techniques are:
1. Hand spreading with paint brush
2. Spraying
3. Falling film enrobing
4. Dipping and subsequent dripping
5. Distribution in a revolving pan
6. Bed fluidizing or air brushing
Plastic Bags
Bags are formed from sheet or film plastic by folding and heat sealing as required. Some bags
have folds in the base so that when packed, they expand to a rectangular shape. Handles may be
inserted during folding and heat sealed into the folds. The bags must be strong enough to resist
breakage under the design load, but also must not break when being loaded.
Bags may be preformed, in which case they may be wicketed, or formed from the source plastic
sheet during packaging (usually by forming tubes from the plastic). Wicketing is the process of
punching small carry holds at one end of the bag with which to hold the bag during loading. The
holes must be carefully designed to carry the load of the product entering the bag, yet must tear
off easily so that the next bag becomes available.
Plastic Closures
A closure must perform five functions:
1. Contain, to the same level as the remainder of the package.
2. Allow access, so that the consumer can retrieve the product in a convenient way. The ability of
the package to be functional in this regard is an important marketing consideration.
3. Restrict access, e.g., tamper-evident and child-resistant caps.
4. Protect the product, keeping out dirt, moisture, etc.
5. Be economic.
63
The closure may also be used for advertising or bar-coding. A plastic screw cap lid has three main
components:
1. The cap itself
2. A linear (HDPE wad), adhesively attached to the cap in most cases
3. The screw, which interlocks with connecting lugs in the finish of the container but does not
provide a good barrier seal
The closure must be applied with the correct torque. Insufficient torque leads to leakage, whereas
too much torque makes removal by the consumer difficult. Tamper-evident attachments to the
screw cap are commonly used with plastic beverage bottles, consisting of a ratchet ring under the
cap, which becomes detached when the customer removes the lid. A dispensing closure is one that
allows the product to be dispensed without removing the closure. Examples of dispensing closures
are lids such as flip-tops, pump action, aerosols, and opening pourers, which allow small amounts
of the product to be removed easily.

64
GLASS PACKAGING
Introduction
The American Society for Testing Materials defined glass as an inorganic product of fusion
which has cooled to a rigid state without crystallizing. Glass is a popular and traditional
packaging material used for milk, jams, soft drinks, wines, beer, and spirits, and for many food
products, pharmaceuticals, etc. Glass containers used to be and still are considered a prestigious
means of packaging, and serve for the most expensive wines, liqueurs, perfumes, and cosmetics.
Advantages
1. It is highly inert neither affecting nor being affected by the product, no change in colour and
flavour
2. It is a rigid inflexible material that can support a lot of weight strong as compared to plastic
and paper
3. Glass doesnt deteriorate or change over time not degraded by light
4. Easily available, easy to mold and cheap
5. Glass is impervious - has almost perfect barrier properties (including barriers to odors)
6. Suitable for recycling, reuse and reclosing, it is made from renewable resources
7. In its normal state, it has the advantage of transparency, but where required it can be given
different desired colors attractive appearance
8. It has complete as well as selective light protection properties
9. A variety of sizes and shapes are available - amenable to the most diverse shaping
10. May be heat processed, hot filled and microwaved
11. High speed automatic lines can be used to fill glass containers
12. Smooth surface easily cleanable
Disadvantages
1. It is brittle (breakable) and there is the danger of contaminating the product or injuring the
consumer with splinters or chipped edges and there is also the chance of product loss
2. It is heavy which leads to high transportation costs
3. It is subject to thermal shock
4. It is noisy material in use at the filling stage
5. Light sensitive product cant be stored
6. Not printable requires additional label
7. Occupy large volume
8. High energy requirement during manufacturing
Composition
Glass is manufactured by a continuous process in huge machines, which may take up to 2 days
from the input of raw materials to the output of finished containers. It is important to have a good
quality control throughout the process to ensure that the quality will be acceptable.
The composition of glass can be broken down as follows:
Silica oxide (from sand) : 73.0%
Lime as calcium oxide or carbonate : 11.0%
Soda ash (sodium oxide or carbonate) : 14.0%
Alumina (Al
2
O
3
) : 1.0%
65
Additives such as selenium and cobalt are added for decolorizing. Colours are made by adding
various additives. For e.g.:
Pale green: add 0.2% iron oxide
Dark green: add chromium oxide
Blue: add cobalt oxide
Amber/brown: add iron oxide + sulphur + carbon for UV protection
Opal/white: add calcium fluoride that scatters the light to give a white appearance
For glass to resist thermal shock, a high silica and low alkali blend is used.
Cullet is the term given to recycled glass which is broken down and added to the fresh raw
materials to make glass of a similar composition. The cullet is added in the ratio of 25% cullet to
75% raw materials to assist the melting process and to achieve a homogenous melt.
Manufacture
The raw materials used for the manufacture of glass are
SiO
2
: 68-73%
Calcia, CaO: 10-13%
Magnesia, MgO: 0.3-3%
Soda, Na
2
O: 12-15%
Alumina, Al
2
O
3
: 1.5-2%
Fe
2
O
3
: 0.05-0.25%
Sulfur trioxide, SO
3
: 0.05-0.2%
Silica is combined with other flux. Sodium and potassium carbonate are added to lower the fusion
temperature and viscosity of silica. Calcium and magnesium carbonates act as a sterilizer,
preventing the glass from dissolving into water. Lead gives clarity while alumina increases the
hardness and durability. Addition of borax up to 6% reduces the leaching of sodium which is
loosely combined with silicon from the glass by forming the boro-silicate.
The raw materials and cullet are mixed and fed into the melting chamber of the oil or gas fired
furnace. The operating temperature is about 1500
o
C and the capacity is 4-400 tons. Small amounts
of minerals are added for color or strength. The soda ash melts first and acts as solvent for the
sand. The raw materials react, fuse and circulate until they become a homogenous molten liquid.
Gas bubbles are given off and set up currents that improve the mixing. If they are not given
sufficient time at this stage, the gas bubbles will be trapped in the mass and will not be vented,
leading to the occurrence of small bubbles in the finished container, known as seeds. Another
potential fault is the occurrence of stones that are crystalline inclusions in the glass, which are
imperfections due to the raw materials being insufficiently melted.
As the mixture melts, the compounds fuse & become easy to shape. From the furnace, the molten
liquid is fed through a throat or restriction that prevents the passage of impurities, into the
working chamber, which is fired by a small number of burners. The main aim is to ensure uniform
temperature distribution throughout the depth of the glass. Glass in a continuous and viscous
stream is cut by rapidly moving horizontal blade to form a gob (gob formation). A gob is a piece
of material of the right size and weight to form the required container. The gob falls by gravity
into the former. There are two sets of moulds; the first is the parison mould where the shape of the
finish (the opening) is formed and it determines the distribution of the material and the wall
thickness of the container. The second is the blow mould where the inverted parison is blown to
its final size and shape. The parison mould can operate using pressure or by blowing air. So, there
are two methods, viz. Press and Blow (P & B) method, which is used for wide mouthed containers
66
such as jars and the other is the Blow and Blow (B & B) method, which is used for narrow necked
containers, such as bottles.

Fig: Blow and Blow (B & B) method

Fig: Wide neck Press and Blow (P & B) method
An alternative, for lightweight bottles, is the narrow neck press and blow process. The press and
blow process is generally best suited to produce jars with a neck finish size of 35mm (1.25);
the other two processes are more suited to produce bottles with a neck finish size of 35mm.
The narrow neck press and blow process offers better control of the glass distribution than the
blow and blow process, allowing weight savings in the region of 30% to be made.

Fig: Narrow neck press and blow forming process
The temperature of the moulds is important. Molten glass enters at a temperature of about 1000
o
C
and the moulds should be about 500
o
C. If the mould is too cold, the glass will not flow properly as
it will tend to cool and solidify, whereas if the moulds are too hot, the glass will stick to the mould
surface. The moulds are made of fine grained cast iron with a highly polished surface, to a
specified size. Lubricants are used on the moulds but these contain graphite and leave a deposit of
a fine film of carbon on the mould surface that is oxidized by heat. This must be regularly
removed, which tends to enlarge the mould cavity.
After moulding, the glass is at a temperature of about 450
o
C. If allowed to cool at ambient
temperature, there would be internal stresses in the container as the exterior will cool at faster rate
than the interior. This differential rate will lead to contraction and the container may shatter. To
prevent this, the containers are fed into the annealing tunnel. Annealing is a process of reheating
the glass, and then gradually cooling to remove stresses. At first, the temperature is raised to about
600
o
C at which stresses are removed as it is near the softening point of glass. Then the
temperature is gradually reduced to ambient temperature.
Inspection is the next stage. The containers are examined for defects; their dimensions are
checked and compared to the specification, which includes height, diameter, weight, capacity,
color, etc. If there is an out of specification bottle, it would not be sealed on the machine and can
lead to downtime, breakages, faulty seals, etc.
67
Design parameters
One of the design parameters to be borne in mind when looking at the functionality of a glass
container is that the tilt angle for a wide-mouthed jar should be 22 and that for a bottle 16.
These parameters are indicative of the least degree of stability that the container can withstand.
Surface treatments
Glass just formed has non-lubricant surface and may lead to abrasion. Once formed, surface
treatment is applied to the container in two stages, which are:
Inner surface treatment
This can be carried out by two methods:
a. Sulphur dioxide or ammonium sulfate is injected into the container at 550-600
o
C. The gas
reacts with sodium atom to form a haze deposit of sodium sulfate on the surface, which is then
subsequently washed off by the filler leaving the surface which is extremely resistant to
chemical attack. This method is not commonly used.
b. This method involves the use of fluorocarbon gas in place of sulphur dioxide. In this case,
sodium fluorite is formed, which is then removed by volatilization process. The fluorine atoms
enter into the glass structure and immobilize the sodium ion. As a result, no residual film is
formed on the surface. This technique is valuable and is generally used for colour glasses.
Outer surface treatment
This method consists of two essential steps:
a. Hot end treatment: The purpose of hot end surface treatment is to prevent surface damage
whilst the bottle is still hot and to help maintain the strength of the container. This is done
prior to annealing process. In this process, vapour containing tin or titanium in the form of
tetrachloride is brought in contact with the outside of the container forming a thin metal oxide
layer which improves the adhesion of the subsequent post annealing coating. This treatment
tends to generate high friction surfaces; to overcome this problem, a lubricant is added.
b. Cold end treatment: This step is applied after the container has been annealed. This step
involves the spraying of an organic material in an aqueous base containing wax, silicon, oleic
acids, or polyethylene onto the surface of the container to increase the lubricity by providing a
surface with low coefficient of friction. The purpose of the cold end treatment is to create a
lubricated surface that does not break down under the influence of pressure or water, and aids
the flow of containers through a high speed filling line.
Components of glass bottles (Nomenclature)
The in sweep hill prevents the damage at the corners as it is less likely to hit off any object.
Thread is the protruding part on the neck of the bottle which the lid connects giving a seal. CT
refers to the continuous thread, commonly used for screw on lids. There are many styles of finish
available depending on the type of closure required. Thread engagement and thread pitch are
important. Thread engagement is defined as the number of turns given to the lid from the point of
first engagement to the point where the sealing edge of the bottle makes contact with the liner. It
must be at least equal to one. Greater than one is better for a secure closure.
Thread pitch is the number of turns of thread per unit travelled in the transverse direction. It
thereby measures the steepness or slope of the thread. A low number means that the thread is
steep, giving a more rapid screw on and off. However, it requires a deeper cap to achieve thread
engagement.
Although glass can be made into
products such as liqueurs and
Sharp corners and abrasion of
protruding shoulder which minimizes contact between containers during handling, or protection
by a plastic sleeve are used to reduce the risk of damage.
Alternatively glass surfaces may be treated with titanium, aluminium or zirconium
increase their strength and also
potential advances in glass-making technology using plasma
The molten glass could then be co
containers to produce jars or bottles of any shape,
Thermal shock
For pasteurized and sterilized products, the glass container will need to be able to withstand a
temperature difference of more than 45
conductor of heat and therefore is not suitable for these applications. Thicker glass is more
vulnerable to thermal shock as it will have a higher temperature differential across it and being
more stressed, it will crack.
Types of glass containers
The main components of the container are the cylindrical main part, the b
the finish), the closure (the screw cap), and the label. The cylindrical shape is chosen for
maximizing strength for a given volume (the sphere is a
packaging). Glass is not well suited
sharp curvature. The main components of the
be plastic or metal, and the type of closure might be
crown, twist-off, etc. The various types of glass containers
1. Bottles (most used) round, narrow neck to facilitate pouring and closure, for liquids and
powders
2. Jars (wide-mouthed bottles)
for liquids, solids, and non-pourable liquids such as sauces, jellies, and pastes
into a wide variety of shapes, particularly for
and spirits, simple cylindrical shapes are stronger
of glass surfaces weaken the container, and design
minimizes contact between containers during handling, or protection
are used to reduce the risk of damage.
Alternatively glass surfaces may be treated with titanium, aluminium or zirconium
increase their strength and also enable lighter containers to be used. Louis
making technology using plasma-arc crucibles to melt raw ingredients.
The molten glass could then be co-extruded in a similar way to that currently used for plastic
ntainers to produce jars or bottles of any shape, size or thickness.
temperature difference of more than 45
o
C. Ordinary glass will shatter becaus
The main components of the container are the cylindrical main part, the b
ish), the closure (the screw cap), and the label. The cylindrical shape is chosen for
for a given volume (the sphere is a better shape but not convenient for
packaging). Glass is not well suited for sharp corners as stresses tend to concentrate in areas of
sharp curvature. The main components of the cap are a lacquer, wad, liner, and cover. Caps may
he type of closure might be thread, lug, friction, snap
off, etc. The various types of glass containers have a range of names:
round, narrow neck to facilitate pouring and closure, for liquids and
mouthed bottles) neckless, allowing fingers or utensils to be easily inserted; used
pourable liquids such as sauces, jellies, and pastes
68

for marketing high-value
stronger and more durable.
design features such as a
minimizes contact between containers during handling, or protection
Alternatively glass surfaces may be treated with titanium, aluminium or zirconium compounds to
Louis (1998) described
crucibles to melt raw ingredients.
way to that currently used for plastic
C. Ordinary glass will shatter because it is a poor
The main components of the container are the cylindrical main part, the bottom, the neck (called
ish), the closure (the screw cap), and the label. The cylindrical shape is chosen for
better shape but not convenient for
for sharp corners as stresses tend to concentrate in areas of
cap are a lacquer, wad, liner, and cover. Caps may
thread, lug, friction, snap-cap, roll-on, cork,
have a range of names:
round, narrow neck to facilitate pouring and closure, for liquids and
neckless, allowing fingers or utensils to be easily inserted; used
pourable liquids such as sauces, jellies, and pastes
3. Tumblers (open-ended jars)
jellies
4. Jugs (bottles with carrying handles)
5. Carboys (shipping containers)
crate holder
6. Vials and ampoules (small g
used by the pharmaceutical industry
The main uses of glass for packaging are in milk bottles, condiments, baby foods, instant coffee,
and drinks. Glass is not used for frozen products, or fo
breakage costs and the difficulty of vacuum flushing.
Design of containers
It is important to achieve the best distribution of glass to maximize strength without being
excessively heavy. The reduction in weight of
materials and in transportation costs. The strongest shape is the sphere but this is not feasible for
containers that must have a flat base for stability. The most practical shape is the cylinder. An
ellipse is half as strong as cylinder. Bottles having square cross sections with rounded corners will
have quarter of the strength as cylindrical bottles, while with square corners will have only one
tenth strength as compared to the cylindrical ones. Here the corne
shape plays a large part in the strength of the container. Sharp corners and changes of direction
should be avoided, the smoother the radius, the better.
A returnable bottle such as beer bottle is known as multi
to the container to which it will be exposed, it will be thicker and heavier than a one
returnable container.
Sealing of glass containers
Although glass is a complete barrier to moisture vapour, gases and odours, the
deteriorate if the sealing of the bottle is faulty. The main features of a good bottle closure are:
1. It should prevent the loss of the contents or any constituents of the contents
2. It should prevent penetration of any substance from outside
3. The closure material should not react with the contents of the container
4. It should be easy for the consumer to reach the contents
5. If may have to make a good re
6. It may have to be pilfer
removed and replaced
7. It should harmonize with the container. A well
sales appeal of the pack
There is a wide range of closures available for the sealing of glass containers, but they can be
divided into 3 main groups:
ended jars) shaped like drinking glasses; used for jams, condiments, and
4. Jugs (bottles with carrying handles) short, narrow necks designed for pouring
ainers) shaped like short-necked bottles, usually used with a wooden
poules (small glass containers) occasionally used for spices, etc., but mainly
used by the pharmaceutical industry
drinks. Glass is not used for frozen products, or for ground or roasted coffee because of
and the difficulty of vacuum flushing.
excessively heavy. The reduction in weight of glass containers leads to savings in both raw
half as strong as cylinder. Bottles having square cross sections with rounded corners will
have quarter of the strength as cylindrical bottles, while with square corners will have only one
tenth strength as compared to the cylindrical ones. Here the corners must be reinforced. Thus the
should be avoided, the smoother the radius, the better.
A returnable bottle such as beer bottle is known as multi-trip container. Due to the extra hazards
to the container to which it will be exposed, it will be thicker and heavier than a one

Although glass is a complete barrier to moisture vapour, gases and odours, the
It should prevent the loss of the contents or any constituents of the contents
It should prevent penetration of any substance from outside the container
The closure material should not react with the contents of the container
It should be easy for the consumer to reach the contents
If may have to make a good re-seal
It may have to be pilfer-proof, i.e. it must be obvious, visually, if the cl
It should harmonize with the container. A well-designed closure can add considerably to the
69
for jams, condiments, and
short, narrow necks designed for pouring
necked bottles, usually used with a wooden
occasionally used for spices, etc., but mainly
r ground or roasted coffee because of
glass containers leads to savings in both raw
half as strong as cylinder. Bottles having square cross sections with rounded corners will
have quarter of the strength as cylindrical bottles, while with square corners will have only one-
rs must be reinforced. Thus the

iner. Due to the extra hazards
to the container to which it will be exposed, it will be thicker and heavier than a one-trip
Although glass is a complete barrier to moisture vapour, gases and odours, the product can still
It should prevent the loss of the contents or any constituents of the contents
the container
The closure material should not react with the contents of the container
proof, i.e. it must be obvious, visually, if the closure has been
designed closure can add considerably to the
70
a. Normal seals: These are closures whose main function is to give a good seal when internal and
external pressures are approximately equal. They are able to withstand reasonably small
change in pressure, such as might be caused by changes in ambient temperature. Normal seals,
that is those used for non-vacuum/non-pressure filled products, comprise composite closures
of plastic/foil, for products such as coffee, milk powders, powder and granular products in
general and for mustards, milk and yoghurts.
b. Pressure seals: These are designed to withstand high internal pressures, such as those
occurring in carbonated beverages. Pressure seals can be metal or plastic with a composite
liner to make the seal, and can either be pressed or twisted into place. They include:
- preformed metal, e.g. crown or twist crown
- metal closures rolled-on to the thread of the glass
- roll-on pilfer proof (ROPP)
- preformed plastic screwed into position with or without a tamper evidence band.
c. Vacuum seals: These are designed to give an air-tight seal where the pressure inside the
containers is appreciably lower than those outside the container. The seal is usually
maintained by the higher external pressure so that if there is a loss of vacuum inside, the
closure may leak. Vacuum seals are metal closures with a composite liner to seal onto the
glass rim. They can be pressed or twisted into place, at which time a vacuum is created by
flushing the headspace with steam. They lend themselves quite readily to in-bottle
pasteurization and retort sterilization and sizes range from 28 to 82 mm. For beverages, sizes
are usually in the 2840 mm range.
Finishes and closures
The part of the glass container that takes the closure is called the finish. Wide mouth containers
have an opening almost as large as the body of the bottle. Liquids are usually put into the narrow
neck containers for convenience in pouring.
The neck may be threaded for screw cap or rounded for crown cork. It may have an interrupted
thread to fit a lug type of cap, also known as quarter turn closures. Metal caps may be used, made
of tinplate or aluminium and are usually coated with organic compounds. Screw cap is widely
used and is made of tinplate with a liner of cork or pulp-board laminated with a layer of plastic
film, vinylite and other plastics or with a rubber gasket (for vacuum seal).
Defects in Glass Containers
More than 60 defects occur in glass container ranging from minor defects, major defects and
critical defects.
Critical defects
Critical defects are hazardous to the user and do not meet the requirements. The containers are
completely unsellable. The following are the critical defects occurring in the glass containers:
1. Unfilled finish: A depression on the surface above a thread not filled out
2. Check: A shallow surface crack usually wavy and generally in a straight line. Groups of
checks are called crizzled finish. Bruised checks occur near the shoulder or heel areas. Mould
checks are deep and run from the bottom to the sides. Panel checks are found on the flat areas
of the bottle.
3. Filament: Hair-like strings inside the bottle.
4. Split: Open crack starting at the finish and extending downwards.
5. Spikes: Long thin strands inside the bottle which would break when the bottle is filled.
6. Over-press: A rim inside the final which may be sometimes sharp.
71
7. Freaks: Odd shapes which render the bottle unusable.
8. Soft blister: A thin blister near the sealing surface or anywhere in the bottle.
9. Cracks: Partial fracture in the heel or shoulder.
10. Cord: A strain not relieved by annealing.
11. Finish marks: Lines on the sealing surface.
Major defects
Minor defects reduce the usability of the container or its contents. The following are the major
defects found in the glass containers:
1. Chipped finish: Broken edge.
2. Stone: Non-glass material in the container.
3. Rocker bottom: A sunken center portion in the base.
4. Fin: A seam on the top surface along the parting line.
5. Flanged bottom: A run of glass around the bottom at the parting line.
Minor defects
Minor defects do not affect the usability of the container but render them unattractive to the user.
The following are the minor defects occurring in the glass containers:
1. Hard blister or droplet: A projection on the glass.
2. Sunken shoulder: Improper blowing.
3. Long neck: Taken out from mould when too hot
4. Heel tap: Heavy glass on one portion of the base.
5. Mark: Caused by oil accumulating in the mould.
6. Dirt: Non-glass material like oil, carbon, rust, etc coming from the mould.
7. Seeds: Small bubbles in the glass.
8. Wavy bottles: Irregular surface on the inside.
9. Stuck bottles: Two bottles sticking when hot and leaving a rough spot on pulling apart.
Physical Properties of Glass
1. Mechanical properties
Because of its amorphous structure, glass is brittle and usually breaks because of an applied
tensile strength. The fracture of glass originates at small imperfections or flaws, the large majority
of which are found at the surface. A bruise or contact with any hard body will produce very small
cracks or checks on the glass surface that are invisible to our naked eye. However, because of
their extreme narrowness, they cause a concentration of stress that may be many times greater
than the nominal stress at the section containing them. It is the ultimate strength of a glass surface
which determines when a container will break. The fracture formula is:
Tensile stress + Stress concentrator = Fracture
The mechanical strength of a glass container is the measure of its ability to resist breaking when
forces or impacts are applied. Glass deforms elastically until it breaks in direct proportion to the
applied stress, the proportionality constant between the applied stress and the resulting strain
being Youngs modulus E. It is about 70 GPa for normal glass.
The following four aspects are important:
a. Internal pressure resistance
This is important for bottles produced for carbonated beverages, and when the glass container is
likely to be processed in boiling water or in pressurized hot water. Internal pressure produces
bending stresses at various points on the outer surface of the container.
72
b. Vertical load strength
The design of shoulder is important in minimizing breakage during high speed filling and sealing
operations.
c. Resistance to impact
Two forms of impact are important a moving container contacting a stationary object (as when a
bottle is dropped) and a moving object contacting a stationary bottle (as in a filling line). In the
latter situation, design features are incorporated into the sidewall to strengthen contact points. It is
also be lowered by the development of surface treatments (including energy absorbing coatings).
d. Resistance to scratches and abrasions
The overall strength of glass can be significantly impaired by surface damage such as scratches
and abrasions. This is especially important in the case of reduced wall thickness bottles such as
one trip bottles. Surface treatments involving tin compounds provide scuff resistance, thereby
overcoming susceptibility to early failure during bottle life.
2. Thermal properties
The thermal strength of the bottle is the measure of its ability to withstand sudden temperature
changes. This property is important because glass has the least resistance to temperature changes.
The resistance to the thermal failure depends upon the type of glass employed, the shape of the
container and the wall thickness of the container.

When a glass container is suddenly cooled (e.g. on removal from a hot oven), tensile stresses are
set up on the outer surfaces, with compensating compressional stresses on the inner surface, as
shown in fig(a). Conversely, sudden heating leads to surface compression and internal tension. In
both situations, the stresses are temporary and disappear when the equilibrium temperature has
been reached. Because glass containers fracture only in tension, the temporary stresses from
sudden cooling are much more damaging than those resulting from sudden heating, since the
potentially damaged outer surface is in tension. It is found that the amount of tension produced in
one surface of a bottle by sudden chilling is about twice as great as the tension produced by
suddenly heating the outer surface, assuming the same temperature change in both cases.
3. Optical properties
Because glass has no crystalline structure, when it is homogenous and free from any stresses, it is
optically isotropic. The optical properties of glass relate to the degree of penetration of light and
the subsequent effect of that transmission, transmission being a function of wavelength. The
spectral transmission is determined by reflection at the glass surface and the optical absorption
within the glass.

73
Factors affecting glass container strength
Shape
Surface condition
Glass weight
Applied stress
The shape, surface condition, applied stresses and glass weight all combine to determine the
strength of a glass container. Carbonated beverages and vacuum packed foods develop internal
pressure stresses, predominantly circumferential and longitudinal.
Typical pressure inside a carbonated beverage bottle at ambient temperature is 400 kPa, rising to
about 700 kPa at 40
o
C and 1000 kPa at pasteurization temperatures. Bottles for carbonated
beverages have target bursting strengths well in excess of the equilibrium pressure of a carbonated
beverage.
Vertical load stresses are generated by stacking containers on top of each other or by applying
closure; these compressive forces produce tensile stresses in the shoulder and heel region of up to
690 kPa. These stresses can be lowered by decreasing the diameter difference between the neck
and the body, by increasing the shoulder radius and by reducing the diameter difference between
the body and the bearing surface.
During hot filling or pasteurization of glass containers, the rapid temperature changes lead to the
development of tension stresses on the cold surface and compression stresses on the hot surface
with additional bending stresses being generated by expansion and contractions of the container.
Thermal stresses can be reduced by minimizing the temperature gradient from the hot to the cold
side, decreasing the glass thickness, and avoiding sharp corners, especially in the heel.
Stresses caused by steady-state thermal gradients may or may not cause failure depending on the
degree of constraint imposed by some parts of the container on others, or by the external
mounting. Consequently, under minimum constraint and maximum uniformity of gradient
through the thickness, very large temperature differences can be tolerated.
74
PAPER AND PAPERBOARD PACKAGING
Introduction
A wide range of paper and paperboard is used in packaging today from light-weight infusible
tissues for tea and coffee bags to heavy duty boards used in distribution. Paper and paperboard are
found wherever products are produced, distributed, marketed and used, and account for about
one-third of the total packaging market. Approximately 10% of all paper and paperboard
consumption is used for packaging and over 50% of the paper and paperboard used for packaging
is used by the food industry.
Today, examples of the use of paper and paperboard packaging for food can be found in many
places such as supermarkets, traditional markets and retail stores, mail order, fast food, dispensing
machines, pharmacies, and in hospital, catering and leisure situations. Uses can be found in
packaging all the main categories of food such as:
Dry food products cereals, biscuits, bread and baked products, tea, coffee,
Sugar, flour, dry food mixes etc.
Frozen foods, chilled foods and ice cream
Liquid foods and beverages juice drinks, milk and milk derived products
Chocolate and sugar confectionery
Fast foods
Fresh produce fruit, vegetables, meat and fish.
Packaging made from paper and paperboard is found at the point of sale (primary packs), in
storage and for distribution (secondary packaging).
Paper and paperboard are sheet materials made up from an interlaced network of cellulose fibres.
These materials are printable and have physical properties which enable them to be made into
flexible and rigid packaging by cutting, creasing, folding, forming, gluing etc. There are many
different types of paper and paperboard. They vary in appearance, strength and many other
properties depending on the type(s) and amount of fibre used and how the fibres are processed in
paper and paperboard manufacture.
The amount of fibre is expressed by the weight per unit area (grams per square meter, g/m
2
, or lbs.
per 1000sq. ft), thickness {microns, m or 0.001mm, and thou (0.001 inch), also referred to as
points} and appearance (colour and surface finish).
Paper is defined as sheets of material thinner than 0.23 mm and lighter than 220 g/m2, or
grammage of less than 150 gsm (grammage per square meter), whereas paperboard is thicker than
paper and has a higher weight per unit area. Paper over 200 g/m
2
is defined by ISO (International
Organization for Standardization) as paperboard or board. However, some products are known as
paperboard even though they are manufactured in grammages less than 200 g/m
2
.
Properties
1. Paper in its basic form is a cheap material
2. It is recyclable and biodegradable
3. It is derived from plant source and is thus renewable
4. It is easy to print
5. It has stiffness, rigidity and good fold properties
6. It is opaque and can be produced with different degrees of opacity
7. It has light weight and is flexible
8. It can be produced in many grades and converted to many different forms, especially boxes or
cartons
9. It is non-toxic directly be
10. It is easily combined with other materials to
11. It has high GTR and WVTR; without treatment, it provides a poor barrier to gases & moisture
12. It is sensitive to moisture content and RH; at high
can affect operation on high speed packing lines
13. It is not grease-proof except certain grades that have
14. It is easily torn and punctured
Composition of Paper
Paper is derived from cellulos
paper is also recycled when purity and strength are not essential. Additives are added to improve
its characteristics.
Of the total world paper production, 97% is from wood, of which 85% is
and spruces. Wood contains about 50% cellulose fibres,
lignin. The lignin makes up about
carbohydrates and some 4% of other materials such a
the cellulose which is eventually made into paper. The individual cellulose fibers are finer than
human hair, and a few mm in length. The type of raw material influences the fiber length and
thickness.
Depending upon the chemical constituents, wood is divided into two groups
hard wood.
Components
Cellulose
- long chain, unbranched molecule
Hemi-cellulose
- branched, short chain molecule
Lignin
- three dimensional phenolic polymer network
Cellulose moderately resistant to action of chlorine and dilute NaOH solution under mild
condition, resistant to oxidation, i.e. bleaching can be done without physical damage
Hemicellulose largely responsible for hydration and development of bonding during beating of
chemical pulps. So, hemicellulose must be rejected as possible
Lignin intracellular substance responsible for joining/cementing cellulose fibres together in a
bundle. It has no fiber forming properties, i.e. undesirable. It is attacked by chlorine and sodium
hydroxide with the formation of soluble dark brown derivatives. It softens at about 160
thus thermocoupling can be done.
Soft wood is especially preferred for paper manufactur
smoother but less strong sheet.
Manufacture of Paper

directly be used in contact with food surfaces
t is easily combined with other materials to make coated or laminated packs
It has high GTR and WVTR; without treatment, it provides a poor barrier to gases & moisture
It is sensitive to moisture content and RH; at high RH, it is likely to curl at the edges, which
can affect operation on high speed packing lines
proof except certain grades that have been specially treated
It is easily torn and punctured
Paper is derived from cellulose, which is found in wood, bamboo, cotton, straw, etc. Some waste
Of the total world paper production, 97% is from wood, of which 85% is obtained from firs, pines
Wood contains about 50% cellulose fibres, which is held together in bundles by
lignin. The lignin makes up about 30% of the composition with the remainder being 16%
carbohydrates and some 4% of other materials such as proteins, resins and fats. It is principally
on the chemical constituents, wood is divided into two groups
Components Soft wood
long chain, unbranched molecule
422%
branched, short chain molecule
272%
e dimensional phenolic polymer network
283%
moderately resistant to action of chlorine and dilute NaOH solution under mild
, resistant to oxidation, i.e. bleaching can be done without physical damage
ponsible for hydration and development of bonding during beating of
chemical pulps. So, hemicellulose must be rejected as possible
intracellular substance responsible for joining/cementing cellulose fibres together in a
ming properties, i.e. undesirable. It is attacked by chlorine and sodium
thus thermocoupling can be done.
Soft wood is especially preferred for paper manufacturing. Hard wood produces finer and
smoother but less strong sheet.
75
make coated or laminated packs
It has high GTR and WVTR; without treatment, it provides a poor barrier to gases & moisture
RH, it is likely to curl at the edges, which
been specially treated
e, which is found in wood, bamboo, cotton, straw, etc. Some waste
obtained from firs, pines
which is held together in bundles by
of the composition with the remainder being 16%
s proteins, resins and fats. It is principally
on the chemical constituents, wood is divided into two groups, viz. soft wood and
Hard wood
452%
305%
204%
moderately resistant to action of chlorine and dilute NaOH solution under mild
, resistant to oxidation, i.e. bleaching can be done without physical damage
ponsible for hydration and development of bonding during beating of
intracellular substance responsible for joining/cementing cellulose fibres together in a
ming properties, i.e. undesirable. It is attacked by chlorine and sodium
o
C, and
ing. Hard wood produces finer and

76
Pulping
Paper and paperboard are sheet materials comprising an interlaced network of cellulose fibres
derived from wood. Cellulose fibres are capable of developing physico-chemical bonds at their
points of contact within the fibre network, thus forming a sheet. The strength of the sheet depends
on the origin and type of fibre, how the fibre has been processed, the weight per unit area, and
thickness. The type of fibre also influences the colour.
To be useful to the papermaker, the raw material must be reduced to fibrous state. This method is
called pulping. The main objective of pulping is to separate cellulose fibers without damaging
them. The presence of lignin may deteriorate paper in terms of colour and strength. There are two
basic methods of pulping, mechanical and chemical pulping. In both the process, the bark is
stripped from logs cut to a suitable length at appropriate stage in their growth.
Mechanical Pulping
Logs for mechanical pulping may be used directly in 1.2 m lengths or, alternatively, they may be
chipped into pieces of uniform size about 15-20 mm long.
Two methods of mechanical pulping are used. In one, the logs are pressed against the surface of
large revolving grindstone, kept wet by a stream of water which also removes the fibers. In the
other system, the wood chips are passed between the two plates of a disc refiner with specially
treated surfaces, very close together and rotating at high speed. In this way, the wood chips are
reduced to individual fibers and the water soluble impurities are removed while most of the lignin
remains. Many fiber bundles and some damaged fibers are also left in the pulp.
Mechanical pulp is normally made from softwood, typically spruce. The yield of pulp is higher, in
the range of 70-80%. Much grinder and disc-refined wood pulp is used for newsprint, magazine,
folding and molding cartons, although substantial quantities are employed as a mixture with
chemical pulp for making certain kinds of board. Bundle fibers are only removed, and hence, the
bundle is stiff and bulky which do not collapse as chemical pulp. Paper made from this type of
pulp is relatively weak and dull compared to the alternative chemical pulp. This method is not as
efficient as chemical method.
Properties
Low cost requirement
Quick ink absorbing property
High bulk
Excellent opacity
Stiffness
Low mechanical strength
Mechanically separated fibre retains the colour of the wood though this can be made
lighter by mild chemical treatment.
Chemical Pulping
Chemical pulping starts from chips, but removes all materials other than the cellulose fibers by
chemical action and solution, the chemicals converting the lignin to a soluble form that can be
removed by washing. This type of pulping produces cellulose fibers of higher purity than those
produced by the mechanical process. They are generally much less damaged and, in addition, the
fiber bundles are fewer. Some mechanical pulp may be added to chemical pulp for paper
manufacture, but such paper is not usually used in direct contact with foods.
Several chemical pulping processes exist, and the quality of the pulp depends upon the process, as
well as the kind of wood fiber used. For packaging purpose, any of the following processes are
used:
77
a. Alkaline process
Chemical pulp is produced by digesting wood chips in an alkaline solution followed by washing.
This method involves the direct or indirect use of NaOH to degrade and dissolve the lignin from
the wood to separate the fibers. This is further divided into two methods:
Soda process: This method involves the direct use of NaOH in the range of 4-6% w/w and the
temperature is maintained at 170
o
C.
Sulphate/Kraft Process: In this process, the wood chips are digested in a solution of caustic soda
and sodium sulphate for some hours. This dissolves the lignin, which can be recovered and re-
used, and leaves the cellulose fibers to be used. This method produces the strongest papers, which
are brown in colour and strong due to their long fibers. The name comes from the Swedish word
Kraft meaning strong. Kraft paper has a blotchy appearance due to it being non-uniform with
varying length of fibers.
b. Sulphite process
This process uses sulphur dioxide and calcium bisulphate, which are mixed with the chips in
aqueous solution and heated to about 140
o
C. The lignin is dissolved out leaving the fibers, and
after digestion the mass is washed with water and then bleached with another chemical, such as
calcium hypochlorite and pressed into pulp sheets. This gives a very pure cellulose fiber, although
the resulting pulp is not as strong as that from the Kraft process.
c. Semi-chemical process
This method is a combination of mechanical and chemical pulping. In this process, the wood
chips are partially treated with chemicals and partly mechanically to reduce them to fibers, hence
the name semi-chemical. It consists of soaking the wood chips in caustic soda to soften the lignin
before grinding. It is commonly used for hardwoods. The material obtained has strength and
stiffness and is used for the manufacture of the fluting medium for corrugated board.
Chemically separated fibre is brown but it can be bleached to remove all traces of non-cellulosic
material. Pure cellulose fibres are translucent individually but appear white when bulked together.
Sulphate paper is strong and hence used for paper sacks for flour, sugar, fruits and vegetables.
Sulphite paper is lighter and weaker and is used for grocery bags and sweet wrappers, as an inner
liner for biscuits and in laminations.
Digestion
The digestion process essentially consists of the treatment of wood in chip form in a pressurized
vessel under controlled conditions of time, liquor concentration and pressure/temperature.
Digestion is carried out under pressure of 1000 KPa, at the temperature of 170
o
C for 1.5 hours.
The main objectives of digestion are:
To produce a well cooked pulp free from non-cellulose portion of wood (i.e. lignin and to
some extent hemicellulose)
To achieve a maximum yield of raw material from wood with pulp quality
To ensure a constant supply of pulp of uniform quality
After digestion, the liquor containing the soluble residue from the cook is washed out of the pulp,
which is then screened to remove knots and fiber bundles that have not fully disintegrated. The
pulp is then sent to the bleach plant or paper mill.
Bleaching
Pulps vary considerably in their colour after pulping, depending on the wood species, method of
processing and extraneous components. The whiteness of pulp is measured by its ability to reflect
78
monochromatic light in comparison with a known standard. Brightness is an index of whiteness,
measured as the reflectivity of paper sample using light at 457 nm. Unbleached pulps exhibit a
range of brightness values from 15 to 60. Cellulose and hemicellulose are inherently white but do
not contribute to colour. It is the chromatic groups on the lignin that are largely responsible for the
colour of the pulp.
Bleaching is done to improve the colour and appearance of the pulp, i.e. increase whiteness. It can
be carried out by two methods:
Oxidative bleaching use of H
2
O
2
, NaOHCl
Reductive bleaching use of sodium hydrosulphite
As bleaching reduces the strength of the pulp, it is necessary to reach a compromise between the
brightness of the finished sheet and its tensile properties.
Beating
After the pulp has been produced, it may have to be bleached to make it white, or coloured, or
treated in other ways. One of the most important processes used in the pre-preparation of fibers
for paper making is the beating process. After pulping, the water content is 96%, and the pulp is
beaten to rub and brush the individual fibers. This causes them to split down their length,
producing a mass of thin fibrils which will enable them to hold together in the matted paper more
strongly. This method is called fibrillation. The greater the degree of fibrillation, the stronger will
be the paper. Different pulps respond differently to this treatment. Softwood fibers will fibrillate
to a greater extent than hardwood fibers, and hence softwoods are potentially able to produce
stronger papers.
The main objective of beating is to improve the strength and other physical properties of the
finished sheet. Beating increases the surface area of the fiber, and also makes fibers flexible
causing them to become relatively mobile and to deform plastically on the paper machine.

However, beating also cuts the fibers,
which is undesirable, because in excess, it
will lead to a loss of tear strength. A
compromise must be reached to optimize
the performance of the paper. Fibrillation
increases its tensile & burst strength while
too much cutting lowers its burst strength.
This can be represented by the alongside
diagram:

Furthermore, beating breaks up any fibre clumps and refines them into individual cellulose fibers.
The art of breaking packaging pulps is to maintain a high proportion of fibrillation and a low
proportion of cutting in the pulp, to give the desired properties in one finished paper.
Paper and board making machines
The modern paper making instrument is the Fourdrinier machine. It has two sections, each with
four basic parts, known as the wet end and the dry end.
Wet End
1. Stuff chest
It holds slurry of pulp containing about 97 parts of water to every 3 parts of fibre. The pulp is
diluted from 96% to 99.5% water content so that it is not too heavy to form a sheet.
79
2. Head box
The diluted pulp from the stuff chest passes into the head box, which is both a means of agitating
the slurry and a turbulence reducer. The pulp is agitated to form a uniform fiber suspension,
known as the stock, which is fed to the slice.
3. Slice
The slice is a part of the head box and consists of a narrow slot in its front face through which the
stock flows onto the wire. Adjustments can be made in the opening to the slice, and it can be
raised or lowered to adjust the flow.
4. Fourdrinier wire
The Fourdrinier wire carries the stock from the slice up to the place where the sheet is removed at
the so-called couch roll. The wire allows some water to drain away, helped by rollers
underneath it and by suction boxes to remove the water, to get the mat of paper fibers into a
sufficiently strong sheet to transfer to a felt which will move into the drying section. At this stage
the mat of fiber consists of 75-80% water by weight. It is transferred from the wire onto a felt or
woolen carrier that absorbs moisture as it carries the sheet into the drying section.
Dry End
5. Presses
The presses may be either plain, which just catch the water in trays, or fitted with suction to help
to remove the water by pulling it through thousands of tiny holes in the suction roll. The sheet still
contains 60% water, which is then passed into the dryers.
6. Dryers
The dryers consist of long train of heated cylinders which come into intimate contact with the
paper and dry it by heat. The moisture content is reduced to 4-6%.
7. MG dryer
In certain cases, the paper may require to be machine glazed. A MG dryer is a special dryer which
gives the paper a machine glaze or a gloss finish, by use of a highly polished cylinder.
8. Calendar stacks
Machine finished (MF) papers are smoothed in what is called a calendar stack. This consists of a
series of rolls which iron the sheet by slippage. The degree of machine finish is controlled by the
number of rolls through which the paper passes, and it may be increased by applying a certain
amount of surface water (from water box) to increase it. The MF papers are less stiff.
Finally the paper passes to the reeler and winder, and is wound up into a giant roll, ready to be
sent to the converter to convert it into cartons, wrappers, bags, etc.
The furnish, the degree of beating, the amount of filler, binders, sizes, etc together with the
operating variables of the particular paper-making machine and specific finishing processes, can
be varied to produce many types of paper.
Finishing
The large diameter, full machine width reels of paper and board are then slit into narrower reels of
the same or smaller diameter or cut into sheets to meet customer and market needs. Sheets may be
guillotined, pile turned, counted, ream wrapped, palletized, labeled and wrapped securely, usually
with moisture resistant material such as PE coated paper or PE film. Surface sizing can be carried
out, usually with a solution of gelatin in water containing small quantities of other chemicals to
make the surface more water-resistant and to improve its printing properties. Paper and board are
often coated with a layer of mineral pigment to improve their appearance and printing properties.

80
Board Making
Paperboard is thicker and the basic idea behind the production is to form the paper web more
rapidly and usually between two wires so that the drainage can take place from both sides. The
twin wire former is in principle a method of letting the fibre suspension come out of the slice into
a converging gap between two wires. Water is expressed from both sides of the sheet by the
tension in the wire, and scraper blades pressing on the underside of the wires assist.
To manufacture board of 4-5 mm thickness, it is necessary to use a cylinder machine using several
vats of stock, each adding a layer to the web. Rollers are used to squeeze out the excessive water
and to dry it. The better quality papers are put on the outside while the cheaper, semi-chemical or
recycled papers are put inside.
Types of Paper and Paperboard
Paper Types
There are many types of paper available to meet the different requirements.
Kraft/sulphate Papers
Kraft papers are generally made from sulphate pulp on softwoods (e.g. spruce). These are heavy
duty paper used for 2550 kg multi-wall sacks, board liners, etc. They are usually used in several
layers or plies, to give the required strength. They may be bleached white, printed, or used
unbleached (brown), and may be wet-strengthened or treated to make water repellant. Bleached
varieties are used for packaging where strength is required. Typical grammages are in the range of
70-300 gsm.
Sulphite papers
They are lighter and weaker than sulphate papers. These are usually bleached and generally made
from mixture of softwood and hardwood. They are clean, bright paper, excellent for printing. It
may be glazed to improve its wet strength and oil resistance, when it is known as MG (machine
glazed) sulphite paper, which is used for labels. They can be coated with polythene to make it heat
sealable, used in laminates. These are generally used for smaller bags, pouches, envelopes, waxed
papers, labels and for foil laminating, etc. Typical grammages are in the range of 35-300 gsm.
Vegetable parchment
It is made from a pure cellulosic material (waterleaf) by treating pure sulphite pulp with
concentrated sulphuric acid, after which it is washed in dilute sulphuric acid and water before
drying. This closes the pores and fills voids in the fibre network to make the surface more intact
than kraft paper, and thus makes the paper resistant to grease and oils and gives greater wet
strength properties. Glycerol may be added to make a soft, flexible paper. It is odourless and
tasteless, used to pack butter, cheese and fresh fish or meat. Typical grammages: 35-300 gsm.
Grease-proof papers
It is often used instead of the more expensive vegetable parchment for baked and greasy foods. It
is made from sulphite pulp in which the fibres are more thoroughly beaten to produce a closer
structure. It is a close-textured paper with greaseproof properties under dry conditions. It is not as
white, strong nor as grease resistant as the parchment and will decompose if immersed in boiling
water for several hours. It is widely used for wrapping fish, meat and dairy products. Typical
grammages are in the range of 70-150 gsm.
Tissue
It is light and has an open structure. It is a soft non-resilient paper used to protect the surface of
fruits, soft wrapping for silverware, jewellery, flowers, hosiery, etc. Typical grammages are in the
range of 20-50 gsm.
81
Glassine papers
It is similar to greaseproof paper, but is given additional calendering to increase the density and
produce a close-knit structure and a high gloss finish. It is more resistant to water when dry but
loses the resistance once it becomes wet. It has good oil and grease resistance and provides an
odour barrier. It has a higher density and grammage of 40-150 gsm.
Waxed papers
It is a high grade sulphite paper coated in wax to give it a better moisture barrier, grease resistance
and heat sealability. Generally, paraffin wax blended with microcrystalline wax or polyethylene is
used.
Coated Papers
Paper and board both have the disadvantage from packaging point of view, of being susceptible to
changes due to moisture. There are many methods of impregnating, coating and laminating paper
with other materials in order to improve the resistance to water. The simplest and best method is
waxing, which can be carried out by two methods. The first is the dry waxing, in which the paper
passes through a bath containing the wax, and then through a heated section or hot nip rollers,
which assist the wax to penetrate right through the paper. The wax is impregnated uniformly and
doesnt from a surface film. The second method is the wet waxing, which is used when it is
desirable to have a film of wax on the top of the sheet. After the wax film has been applied to the
surface of the sheet, it passes into a bath of cold water, which immediately sets the wax before it
has time to penetrate into the sheet. Wax provides a moisture barrier and allows the paper to be
heat sealed. However, a simple wax coating is easily damaged by folding or by abrasive foods,
but this is overcome by laminating the wax between layers of paper and/or polyethylene. Waxed
papers are used for bread wrappers and inner liners for cereal cartons.
The paper or board web may also be coated with many kinds of emulsions, varnishes, lacquers
and may also be laminated to other materials such as plastics, either using adhesives or by direct
extrusion. The objective of all these methods is to improve the resistance of the basic sheet to
water, water vapour, gases, greases or oils.
Coatings can be applied:
from aqueous solutions (cellulose ethers, polyvinyl alcohol) to make papers greaseproof
from solvent solutions or lacquers
from aqueous dispersions (e.g. polyvinylidene chloride)
as hot-melts (e.g. microcrystalline wax, polyethylene and copolymers of ethylene and
vinyl acetate) to increase gloss, durability, scuff and crease resistance and permit heat
sealability)
as extrusion coatings (e.g. polyethylene)
Although they are not affected by temperature, all papers are sensitive to humidity variations, and
coated papers in particular may lose moisture from one face and are therefore prone to curling.
Smooth papers block if pressed together in a stack. The optimum storage conditions for papers are
about 20C and a relative humidity of approximately 50%.
Paperboard
Paperboard is a generic term covering boxboard, chipboard and corrugated or solid fiberboards.
Typical paperboard has the following structure:
a top ply of bleached pulp to give surface strength and printability
an underliner of white pulp to stop the grey/brown colour of middle plies showing through
middle plies of lower grade material
a back ply of either low grade pulp or better grade pulp if strength or printability are required
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All plies are glued together with hot-melt or aqueous adhesives. Boards are made in a similar way
to paper but are thicker to protect foods from mechanical damage. They normally are made on the
cylinder machine and consist of two or more layers of different quality pulps with a total
thickness in the range 300-1100 m. The main characteristics of board are thickness, stiffness, the
ability to crease without cracking, the degree of whiteness, surface properties, and suitability for
printing.
Board Types
The types of paperboard used in food packaging include:
White board
It is suitable for contact with food and is often coated with polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride or
wax for heat sealability. It is used for ice cream, chocolate and frozen food cartons.
Chipboard
It is made from waste or recycled paper and is not used in contact with foods. It is cheap but
unattractive due to its mottled appearance. It is difficult to print and has no strength or stiffness. It
is often lined with white board to improve the appearance and strength.
White lined chipboard
It is popular for secondary packaging. It is a chipboard with an outer lining of chemical pulp,
which gives a good printing surface, better foldability, and a better appearance. However, the
interior is an unattractive mottled gray colour and is unsuitable for direct food contact. It is often
used for products which are protected by an inner bag.
Duplex board
It has two layers. It has surface outer layer of bleached virgin chemical pulp and internal layers of
mechanical pulp while the inner surface in contact with the product is a bleached (white) or semi-
bleached (cream colour) chemical pulp layer. It is a popular material for folding box board cartons
and may be hard sized to allow it to be used for chilled or frozen products.
Solid bleached board
It is a bleached virgin chemical pulp material that is relatively thick. It is used for ice-cream and
frozen foods, etc. when it has been hard sized to prevent moisture ingress.
Applications
Primary Packs
Paper is used in many different package formats, either alone or in combination with other
materials. Bags are used to contain items in an easy to handle low cost form. Boxes are used to
give the product a better presentation, stackability and greater rigidity.
Bags are normally made from kraft paper which may be bleached for a white appearance when
strength is required. If an attractive appearance is the main criteria, it is common to use MG
sulphite paper. There are different styles of bags from a simple satchel type with a folded and
glued base, or a similar design with a gusset to give greater capacity. A block bottomed bag is
used for products which need to be displayed upright as it gives them a flat base so they can stand
upright. A self opening bag is a block bottomed and gusseted bag.
Folding bags are boxes made from board 300-1100 micron thick, 200-600 gsm, which are
delivered in a flat collapsed state to be erected at the filling point, usually by automatic erecter/
gluer/filler/sealer machines. They may be of cheap recycled material but this doesnt perform
well on automatic machines and would be suitable for hand pack operations, - or pure sulphite
board, or duplex board, or it can be coated with plastic, wax or laminated with another paper
83
depending on the application. For e.g. it may be wax coated for moisture resistance, laminated to
polyethylene for heat sealability or to glassine for grease resistance.
Manufacture
The board is manufactured and cut into sheets of the appropriate width and length for converting
machines where it is printed and made into cartons. Usually, several boxes are made from one
sheet depending on size, the individual box designs being arranged on the sheet to minimize board
wastage. The machine also creases it where the board will fold to form the box, slits it to the
desired shape and size and strips the excess board before passing the flat box to another machine
where the side seam is glued and the creases are prebroken to ensure that they will fold easily on
the fillers equipment. Each design is specific to a product and there are many variations available
offering different shapes, opening features, reclosable features, display windows to allow the
consumer to view the product, with punch holes or hooks so that the product can be hung for
display etc. The design in improved from a handmade sample to suit the inner container or
product. The crease must be of the correct depth. If it is too shallow, the box will not open easily
as it will be stiff. If it is too deep, it will cut into the board, causing it to delaminate or split. The
box may have opening flaps or bowing panels as a result. The pattern is supplied to the graphics
department for artwork origination which will then be transferred onto stereos or plates for
printing the boxes at the converters. A varnish is often applied to achieve a glossy appearance.
Dimensions are always specified: length x width x height
Setup boxes differ from folding boxboard boxes in that they are not supplied in flat form to the
packers but are pre-erected. For e.g. shoe box, match box, etc. These are used for low volume
where the expense of an automatic filling system could not be justified. They have the advantage
of greater rigidity but are less efficient in terms of storage requirements and material costs.
Composite containers
This is another type of paper based primary package. It is called a composite container as it is
made from more than one material, generally a paperboard body with metal or plastic ends. It is
often used for dry foods such as salt, spices, custard, etc and can also be used with liquids if the
interior is lined with a suitable material such as vegetable parchment, polyethylene or foil. There
are two types of composite containers, based on two manufacturing methods, the spirally wound
and the convolutedly wound. The spiral winding method is used to produce cylindrical containers
only. It superimposes two or more plies of board and glues them together as they are wound about
a stationary cylindrical mandrel in a spiral manner. Each ply is applied at an angle. When the
cylinder so formed is of the required length, it is cut and edged from the mandrel. The weakest
point in this structure is at the joint of the plies so these end need to be well butted with proper
overlaps.
The convolutedly wound container can be of different shapes; square, triangular, rectangular or
oval. By this method, the container is formed by the mandrel rotating, pulling paper from the reel
over glueing rollers and around the mandrel forming the tube. After each cycle, the paper is cut to
separate it from the parent reel, the partly formed tube is pushed up along the mandrel and the
next piece is formed behind it until it reaches the required length.
The strength of the container depends on the board thickness and the number of plies. It is
generally 250-500 micron thick. Two thin plies are better than one thick one. Materials used
include chipboard or kraft, lined with parchment for liquid products, wax for hygroscopic
products such as biscuits. Aluminium foil is non-toxic, opaque, water and grease resistant, and a
barrier to volatiles. Polyethylene coated paper is used for ice-cream products while glassine is
used with oily, greasy foods like butter. For very hygroscopic products such as milk powder, a
laminate of paper, foil and aluminium is used.
The base is usually applied by
are available, for example:
Slip on lids which are not airtight
Plug in lids which have a flush engagement so while not airtight are more secure
Lever lid, with or without a diaghram, good f
Plastic perforated top to aid dispensing product, e.g. salt. Initially sealed to prevent
spillage in transit
Double seamed end as used in canning, which is leakproof
Membrane closure (foil or plastic) with plastic
Comparison of composite containers versus Metal can
The composite container is versatile, strong, rigid and light weight. It is cheaper to produce and
can be handled on the same filling equipment as a conventional me
paper content, it can be affected by high humidity with a resultant loss of strength.
Other containers made of composite materials include paper laminate cartons such as tetrapak and
purepak used to pack liquids like milk, juic
Secondary Packages
Traditionally, wood was used for secondary packaging applications, but nowadays use of
fiberboard is more popular as it is cheaper, lighter and automatable. The two main types of
fiberboard are solid and corrugated fiberboard.
Solid fiberboard consists of a series of plies of paper. The inner plies are generally a cheap
material such as chipboard while the outer plies are often kraft or test as these have a more
attractive appearance. The plies are laminated together under pressur
sheet of board of overall thickness 0.8
form before it is converted into boxes by cutting it and gluing the side seam. Its strength depends
on the material used in the various plies, its thickness and the type of adhesive used. In general,
two to six plies are used. Solid fiber
Corrugated fiberboard consists of liners, usually kraft or test grades, and
corrugated sheet which is usually of a lower grade such as semi
between the liners. The flutes or corrugation run parallel to the depth, i.e. down the side wall,
when converted into a box and increases its strength by increasing the s
load is acting, thereby reducing the effective load being supported by the box. As a result, it can
be stacked higher. The liners grammage varies from 185 to 440 gsm while the fluting medium can
be 113, 127 or 150 gsm, depending on

Components of single walled corrugated fiberboard
laminate of paper, foil and aluminium is used.
The base is usually applied by the manufacturer, by double seaming. Different styles of closures
Slip on lids which are not airtight
Lever lid, with or without a diaghram, good for reclosability and hygroscopic products
Double seamed end as used in canning, which is leakproof
Membrane closure (foil or plastic) with plastic snap on lid for reclosability after use
Comparison of composite containers versus Metal can
can be handled on the same filling equipment as a conventional metal can. However, due to its
purepak used to pack liquids like milk, juice, etc.
are solid and corrugated fiberboard.
lid fiberboard consists of a series of plies of paper. The inner plies are generally a cheap
attractive appearance. The plies are laminated together under pressure using adhesive making a
sheet of board of overall thickness 0.8-2.8 mm. The sheet is creased, slotted and printed in the flat
various plies, its thickness and the type of adhesive used. In general,
Solid fiberboard is rigid and resistant to puncturing.
Corrugated fiberboard consists of liners, usually kraft or test grades, and
ed sheet which is usually of a lower grade such as semi-chemical or straw, sandwiched
The flutes or corrugation run parallel to the depth, i.e. down the side wall,
when converted into a box and increases its strength by increasing the surface area on which the
be 113, 127 or 150 gsm, depending on the compressive strength required.

Components of single walled corrugated fiberboard Triple walled corrugated fiberboard
84
the manufacturer, by double seaming. Different styles of closures
or reclosability and hygroscopic products
snap on lid for reclosability after use
tal can. However, due to its
lid fiberboard consists of a series of plies of paper. The inner plies are generally a cheap
e using adhesive making a
2.8 mm. The sheet is creased, slotted and printed in the flat
various plies, its thickness and the type of adhesive used. In general,
board is rigid and resistant to puncturing.
Corrugated fiberboard consists of liners, usually kraft or test grades, and fluting medium or
chemical or straw, sandwiched
The flutes or corrugation run parallel to the depth, i.e. down the side wall,
urface area on which the

Triple walled corrugated fiberboard
85
There are various constructions available, from single faced board which consists of a liner and a
fluting which is used to wrap articles, to single walled board which has one fluting medium
sandwiched between two layers. For heavier loads it may be necessary to use double walled board
which has three liners and two sheets of fluting arranged in alternate order, while very heavy
loads will require the strength offered by triple wall board which uses four liners interspersed with
three sheets of fluting.
The fluting medium is available in different grades denoted as A, B, C and E fluting, which all
have different characteristics and applications as outlined below:

Grade Flutes/m (m
-1
) Flute Height (mm) Description
A 104-125 4.5-4.7 Coarse, good compression resistance
B 150-184 2.1-2.9 Fine, best impact & crush resistance, folds easily
C 120-145 3.5-3.7 Medium-good stiffness & compression resistance
E 275-310 1.15-1.65 Very fine, good printing surface, very automatable

Combinations of fluting used for boxes are AB, BC, AA and AC for double wall and AAB, CCB,
BAE for triple wall.
The finer grades will be on the outside as they provide a better printing surface and fold more
easily. In testing the flat crush resistance grade B is best, 25% better than C and 50% better than
A. Applying the force in another direction to test the rigidity will reveal that grade A is the
strongest, 15% more than C and B is a further 25% behind. E grade has a good flat crush
resistance but not a lot of strength. So, it tends to be used for display boxes for on shelf display of
products. In transit to retailers, it is protected by a stronger outer carton.
Manufacture of corrugated board
The corrugation is achieved by subjecting the board to a steam shower and preheating rollers to
make it flexible before passing it through the corrugated rollers. The tips of the flutes on one side
are then coated with adhesive such as cornstarch, the liner is preheated and brought into contact
with the flutes to produce single faced board. To convert this to single walled board, the other
fluted side is passed over an adhesive applicator and a second liner is attached.

For double walled board, two single faced boards are combined and a backing liner is added to
complete the structure. The board is then dried, cut to the required width of sheet to be converted
into boxes and passed through the converter where it is printed, scored (i.e. creased where the
folds are required) and slit (to remove excess board where the flaps have to turn in) before it is cut
to the required size. Then the side seam is glued, stitched, taped or stapled.
These are available in many styles and in order to achieve standardization, the styles are all
denoted by a code, whose first two digits tell the basic nature of the style. For e.g. the 02 code
refers to a group of boxes which are one piece slotted blanks whose sides are folded.
86
The 03 groups are two piece boxes with a lid which fits over the body. The 04 groups have a
hinged base with a lid which folds down.
Economical packaging can be achieved by minimizing the amount of board used while
maximizing the enclosed volume. The most economical ratio of dimensions has been found to be
L:W:H :: 2:1:2
When the product is being palletized, the size should be designed to optimize the pallet, i.e. to
maximize the number of boxes per pallet.
Comparison of Solid versus Corrugated boxes
Solid is better for damp environment but the corrugated board can be treated to make it more
moisture resistant. It is more puncture resistant and not so easy to crush as corrugated so it is less
likely to lose its strength. However, it is less rigid. The waste paper content of solid fiberboard
may contain salts which can affect the corrosion of metal packages. Corrugated board is light in
weight for equivalent strength so it is more economical. The corrugations act as cushioning for the
product, being more shock absorbing.
Comparison of Fiberboard versus Wood
Fiberboard is cheaper, lighter more flexible in design, easy to automate on a packaging machine,
easier to print, with no danger of splinters. It can be transported and stored flat until required
thereby needing less storage volume.

87
WOOD AND SHIPPING CONTAINERS
Introduction
Wood had been traditionally used for secondary packaging in pallets, crates and boxes as it is a
strong, rigid, and indigenous material. However, in developed countries, environmental concerns
about deforestation have reduced the acceptability of wood packaging. As it is heavy, likely to
splinter, not automatable, neither easy to open not to close, requires a lot of storage space and has
a high labour requirement its use has been reduced. It is still popular material in the developing
countries where it is available and labour is cheap. Wooden packaging does not require high
capital investment in equipment as it is unsophisticated so it suits some small scale industries. It
is difficult to dispose of and is bulky which makes retailers unhappy to accept it. It has a bad cost
to weight ratio compared to fiberboard, which is its main rival. There are some applications for
wood as a primary pack, mainly for the gift market as a presentation pack for tea, spices etc.
Classification of Wood
Wood can be categorized as hard or soft wood. Hardwood comes from deciduous broad leafed
trees. It has shorter fibres than that from softwoods such as coniferous or needle bearing trees,
which have greater strength. The properties which are important from a packaging aspect include
the density which indicates the strength of the wood, its resistance to extraction of nails and how
much it will shrink in the drying process. Wood that has a density of less than 400 kg/m
3
is not
suitable as it is not strong enough. Wood with a density of more than 750 kg/m
3
is also not
suitable for packaging applications either as it is too heavy or will distort. Wood with a density in
the range 600-750 is suitable for use as load bearing member in a crate or as an edge bearing
plank in a pallet. If the density is between 400-600 it should be used in lower stress applications
such intermediate members, side and end panels etc. Other factors that are important are the
woods bending and compressive strength, its nail holding power, resistance to splitting, ease of
working and resistance to decay. For best results wood should have a moisture content of about
15%. There should be no knots more than one third the width of the plank and none in the nailing
area. There should be no splits, decay nor insect damage.

For classification wood can be subdivided into four groups:
Group 1:
This contains some soft and hard woods including cedars, chestnut, firs, pines and willows. This
group does not split easily when nailed, has moderate nail holding capacity, moderate strength as
a beam and moderate shock resistance capacity. It is soft, lightweight, & easy to work and to dry.
Group 2:
This includes heavier coniferous species that have a noticeable difference in the colour of their
wood grown during the spring (which is light) and the summer (dark) season, such as the larch,
Douglas fir etc. These have greater nail holding capacity than Group 1 but are more inclined to
split. The summer wood is harder and tends to deflect nails causing them to run out at the sides of
the cleats.
Group 3:
This includes medium density hardwoods such as ash, elm, maple and sycamore. Similar to Group
2 for nail holding capacity and beam strength but less inclined to split or shatter on impact.
Suitable for box ends and cleats.

88
Group 4:
These are the heavy hardwoods of highest density, e.g. beech, birch and oaks. Resistance to
shocks and nail holding capacity is greatest but their hardness makes them difficult to nail and
they tend to split at the nails. These are generally used for load bearing members.
Styles of wooden containers
Wood is used to make nailed wood boxes, wire bound boxes, crates, barrels, casks and baskets.
Considering the main types:
Nailed wooden boxes are available in different styles depending on the strength required. The
type of nail, size and spacing are very important as they affect the strength of the box. The
location of the nail with respect to the grain of the wood is also relevant. If the nail is too large it
will split the wood. The nails should be staggered, i.e. should not be in a straight line to give
maximum strength. On a 100 mm wide board there should be a minimum of two nails 25mm from
either end, if more than 100 wide then there should be at least three nails. The side grain is nearly
three times stronger than the end grain so nails in the end grain should be closer together. Steel
bands can be used to reduce the stress on the nails and reduce bulging. This allows a reduction of
one third in the thickness of the wood used, and it also discourages theft. The steel bands should
be placed one sixth of the box length in from either end for maximum effect.
Wirebound boxes can take load of up to 225 kg. They are made of thinner hardwood and have
wires secured around their girth at frequent intervals to add strength. Wooden cleats are placed at
the ends for reinforcement. The advantage of this style of box is that it can be stored flat (known
as shooks) until required so it takes up less storage space. The ends are fitted at that point.
These boxes use less wood, half as much as the nailed box. However they are not even, due to the
wire so they do not stack well. They require more sophisticated equipment to attach the wires and
ends, and have a poorer resistance to puncture. They also need to be ordered in larger quantities as
they are made to a specified size, but for longer production runs they are economical.
Crates are used for transporting large items. They may consist of an open framework of cleats and
battens that take the load, or they may be closed vial sheathing. Steel bands may be used to
reinforce the corners. It should be large enough to completely enclose the product, i.e. no part
should be protruding as it may be damaged. The contents should be secured within it so they do
not move about during transit. The use of diagonal planks from corner to corner greatly reinforces
the container.
Shipping Containers
This is the name given to packaging used to transport commercial quantities of material, also
known as transport or transit packaging. Shipping containers which contain and protect the
contents during transport and distribution, but have no marketing function. It includes wooden
boxes, crates, drums, fiberboard shipping containers, textiles, paper and plastic sacks. More
recently, intermediate bulk containers (IBCs), including combi-bins, large boxes made from
metal, plastic or corrugated fiberboard, and large bags made from woven plastic fabric, have been
introduced to increase handling efficiencies and have largely displaced wooden crates and cases.
The choice of shipping container will depend on the handling method and type of transportation
used, costs and the product requirements. Ideally a shipping container should be returnable, as in
crates from the dairy or for beer and coke bottles. These are designed to maximize transport and
storage areas ideally when they are empty they fit into one another or stack well.
Shipping containers play a vital but less glamorous role than the primary packaging that it
contains and protects on the journey from the manufacturer to the retailer. Identification is another
main function of these containers to ensure that t
good condition. To achieve this, there are several international symbols used to tell people how to
store, stack and handle the container.
Unlike sales packaging, transport packaging is removed after transport to the trader (wholesaler,
retailer etc.) and the goods are sold on to the consumer or other third party without the transport
packaging.
Packaging which is delivered to the consumer and in which the consumer has no interest is also
classed as transport packaging.
Examples of transport packaging are:
Paperboard trays and films as packaging for beverage cans
Boxes for capital goods, such as machinery, engines etc.
Cartons and films acting as packaging material for furniture
Cartons holding a relatively large number of individual items, such as toothpaste tubes,
canned foods
Some types of transport/shipp
Wooden containers
These are used for perishables (moisture content =12
is preferred. The surface is painted to prevent moisture loss. Such a packaging requires provision
for aeration in order to dissipate heat evolved from the produce. The material has high stacking
strength and dimensional stability. Fungal growth does not occur even at high RH
Corrugated fiberboard boxes (CFB)
These are made of paperboard liner and corrugated medi
is suitable for liner. Waxing may be done to retard entry of moisture. Corrugated boards can be
either single lined or double lined. Corrugated fiberboards are designated as per the number of
plies, the flute height, and number per 30cm. A 3
plies with every 30cm length having 32

Inserts in the box
These are used for cushioning very delicate items. They come in various forms, viz., cell
(partitioning), paper honey comb, molded pup tray, expanded polystyrene inserts, plastic foam
mat, paper wool or wood wool, thermoformed PVC trays.
Barrels and drums
They are made from metals or wood. Steel and aluminum are extensively used. Inn
be used in some cases. Wooden barrels are made by binding staves with hoops. Fiber drums are
light, have rubber or plastic gasket and may or may not be line or coated. Plywood drums are
made of 3-ply veneer. Polyethylene drums are also avail
tight drums and plain drums.
Sacks
These are made from jute, textile, paper and plastic material. Sacks cannot provide support for
products against superimposed loads. Because of the coarse weaving, there is possi
and spillage. Paper sacks are of 2 or more plies. They h
sulfate paper.
main function of these containers to ensure that they arrive at their intended destination and are in
store, stack and handle the container.
are sold on to the consumer or other third party without the transport
classed as transport packaging.
Examples of transport packaging are:
trays and films as packaging for beverage cans
Boxes for capital goods, such as machinery, engines etc.
Cartons and films acting as packaging material for furniture
ping containers used are:
are used for perishables (moisture content =12-18%) and machineries. Poplar or pine wood
order to dissipate heat evolved from the produce. The material has high stacking
strength and dimensional stability. Fungal growth does not occur even at high RH
Corrugated fiberboard boxes (CFB)
These are made of paperboard liner and corrugated medium. Unbleached, virgin, coniferous kraft
, and number per 30cm. A 3-ply A flute refers to fiberboard made of 3
plies with every 30cm length having 32-38 flutings of 4.5-4.7mm height.
The adjacent figure shows a tri-wall corrugated board. It consists
of three plies of fluted paper which are glued together by two plies
of paper or cardboard and the outer surfaces of which are likewise
each covered with one ply of paper or cardboard.
These are used for cushioning very delicate items. They come in various forms, viz., cell
mat, paper wool or wood wool, thermoformed PVC trays.
m metals or wood. Steel and aluminum are extensively used. Inn
ply veneer. Polyethylene drums are also available. Other drum types include liquid

products against superimposed loads. Because of the coarse weaving, there is possi
and spillage. Paper sacks are of 2 or more plies. They have 70 gsm substance are made f
89
hey arrive at their intended destination and are in
are sold on to the consumer or other third party without the transport
18%) and machineries. Poplar or pine wood
order to dissipate heat evolved from the produce. The material has high stacking
strength and dimensional stability. Fungal growth does not occur even at high RH.
um. Unbleached, virgin, coniferous kraft
ply A flute refers to fiberboard made of 3
wall corrugated board. It consists
ued together by two plies
of paper or cardboard and the outer surfaces of which are likewise
each covered with one ply of paper or cardboard.
These are used for cushioning very delicate items. They come in various forms, viz., cell pack
m metals or wood. Steel and aluminum are extensively used. Inner lacquer may
able. Other drum types include liquid-
products against superimposed loads. Because of the coarse weaving, there is possibility of sifting
ave 70 gsm substance are made from pure
90
Plastic sacks are made from PVC, polyethylene, polypropylene, etc. They are lighter in weight
and have a thickness of 0.12m.
Quite often, a combination of plastic and jute can also be used for making sacks.
Multiwall paper sacks
These have traditionally been made of kraft paper for its strength but modern technology has been
applied to improve its strength but modern technology has been applied to improve its
performance. Coatings such as PE and bitumen wax have improved the water resistance of these
materials.
Bag in box
The bag as such is flexible. It is supported by an outer rigid container of paperboard, fiberboard,
etc. A wide range of expensive foods are paper in such containers. There are two types of
production method of bag in box package, viz., (i) lined carton system, and (ii) coated and
laminated carton system.
Textiles
Textiles in packaging were dominated by jute but other fibres used include kenaf, cotton, sisal and
figue. Jute is a strong, non stretching material, easy to sew. Textiles allow the contents to breathe,
which is very important for cereals, etc. Traditionally used as sacks and bales, these materials
have been overtaken by plastics due to the latters hygienic appeal and lower cost. Plastics are also
heat sealable and water resistant so they are better suited to large scale use.
Plastics are being used as sacks, as rigid bulk containers and as large collapsible shipping bags
holding up to a tone of products such as cereals. The collapsible bags are reusable. Plastic crates
are popular for returnable bottle crates, and it is also used for pallets instead of wood. Plastic films
are being used to line the interiors of drums, boxes and sacks.
The choice of which material to use will depend on the level of protection required, the
economical aspects of each material, the handling facilities at the destination and on any
regulations that may apply.

Solid and corrugated fiberboard cases are probably the most widely used shipping containers.
They combine convenience with economy and hygiene. The most common type is the one-piece
(or regular) slotted container, although open tray and wrap-around styles are used extensively.
The normal range of weight which corrugated and solid fiberboard cases carry lies between 5 and
20 kg, but fiberboard cases can be made to hold loads of up to 50 kg without any special fittings
being used. If specially reinforced containers are made, they are capable of being produced to
carry loads of powdered or granular material up to 500 kg weight.
The main purposes of a shipping container can be listed as follows:
It must contain products efficiently throughout the journey
It must provide protection against the external climatic conditions and contaminants.
It must be compatible with the product.
It must be easily and efficiently filled and sealed.
It must be easily handled by the appropriate mechanical or other means.
It must remain securely closed in transit, open easily when required (as for customs
inspection), be capable of efficient and secure reclosure.
It must carry information for carriers, wholesalers, and manufacturers about contents,
destination, and how to handle and open the pack.
Where the product is dangerous or potentially harmful (as for chemicals and acids), the
package must be virtually unbreakable.
91
It must have minimum cost.
It must be readily disposable, re-usable or have another use.
Outline of Industrial Packaging
As large scale industries are becoming the norm, the level of sophistication in the handling of
materials has increased, to improve efficiency and productivity. One of the biggest advances in
this process was the introduction of the pallet. This is a wooden or metal framework, which has a
flat surface on which boxes, sacks, etc. can be stacked, supported by a base that keeps it clear of
the ground. The base consists of wooden beams in an open lattice and through the open spaces the
prongs of a forklift can fit, enabling it to extend under the pallet and lift it safely, to put it into a
truck or into a storage rack. The forklift can be attached to a truck or be hand operated with a
pneumatic device for raising the pallet a few inches off the ground so it can be moved easily. The
truck type can lift the pallet six or even ten meters high, enabling efficient utilization of the height
of the store. The advantage of pallets is that the manufacturer and wholesaler, etc. will have the
same handling equipment and racking and so will not need to transfer it from the delivery truck
manually into the store, etc. Racking means that the pallets are not stacked one directly on top of
another which would severely compress the lower pallets but are individually placed into the rack
and each pallet is supported individually by the rack, a metal framework like scaffolding to the
required dimensions for pallets.
The standard sizes of pallets are 1200 x 1000 mm and 1200 x 800mm. In some countries handling
is sophisticated with cranes loading special metal containers into the hold of a ship or onto a train.
Other types known as intermediate bulk containers (IBCs) which can be metal, fiberboard or
woven material, are reusable, the board and woven ones return in a collapsed form to the producer
to be refilled. To maximize efficiency of handling, standard sizes were adopted internationally.
This means that the handling equipment and storage facilities used internationally will be
compatible and cheaper due to higher volumes.

92
SPECIAL PACKAGING TECHNIQUES
There are many new techniques being developed to extend the shelf life of the product or to
package it in a new, more efficient or cost-effective way. Some are developed to find new markets
or applications for materials.
Aseptic Processing and Packaging
It refers to the filling of a commercially sterilized and cooled product into pre-sterilized containers
under aseptic conditions and sealing with a pre-sterilized closure in an atmosphere free of micro-
organisms. It is used to produce high quality, long life products such as fruit juices, soups and
UHT milk. The basic operation in aseptic packaging consists of:
Heating the product to sterilization temperatures (140-170
o
C)
Maintaining the sterility of the products till they are cooled
Filling into sterile containers and sealing aseptically
Many physico-chemical and optical properties are considered in packaging materials and forms to
be suitable for aseptic packaging from total packaging system and marketability criteria. The main
characteristics, which are essential from the basic functional view point, are as follows:
Low water-vapour transmission rate; very low or nil for long term storage
Low gas transmission rates, especially to oxygen. This is important to preserve the colour,
flavour and nutritional constituents in the products
Good physical or mechanical strength, sufficient to resist any falls, shock and puncturing
during manufacture and distribution.
Good sealing characteristics to prevent ingress of external contaminants and other
deteriorative factors
Capability to perform well on machine; ability to being handled on automatic fabricating
and filling equipment
Resistance to withstand the temperatures encountered during filling of the product as well
as that during storage and distribution
Chemically resistant to the product packed and ability to withstand sterilization conditions
gas, liquid or radiations
Resistance to microbes, insects or other types of biological hazards
Compatibility with the type of food product packed. The packaging material should not
taint the product packed. Further, the material constituents and additives, etc should be
inert with low migration levels
Economical in cost in commensurate with the packaged product and its free availability in
the market

Aseptic blow moulding
It is a process where the bottle is extrusion blow-moulded in a commercially sterile environment
with highly modified equipment. In many cases, the product filler is combined with the blow
moulders. Aseptic blow moulders are generally divided into two sub-groups, viz. blow-and-hold
method and blow-fill-and-seal method. All the operations take place in the same environment,
which is aseptically maintained.
In general, the modifications to the equipment include the use of special stainless steel and plated
materials throughout. The moulding/filling area of the machine is enclosed in a cabinet. Sterilized
air with positive pressure and laminar flow characteristics is maintained inside. All internal
93
surfaces, passage ways, hoses, blow pins, valves, and so forth are sterilized with special clean-in-
place fixtures. Once the process begins, nothing can be touched with the human hand.
Although bottles as large as 10 liters have been aseptically moulded, the process is generally used
for bottles and vials of small sizes.
Aseptic Packaging Applications
Rigid Plastics Containers
Aseptic packaging in rigid plastic containers is developing considerably due to advantages such as
ease of forming, low unit cost of containers, ease of handling and filling of multiple containers in
even small sizes, ease of opening and dispensing the product. Containers in the form of cups,
trays, portion packs, blisters, press-through packs, etc are aseptically filled and packaged for a
number of food items. Form-fill-seal system may be used, in which container manufacturing,
product filling and lid sealing are all performed in a single unit.
The body of the container could be of any plastic materials with a lid of peelable thermoplastics or
aluminium foil laminated film structure or fitted with a reclosable snap-on-closure.
Flexible Packaging Systems
The use of flexible laminates with PET/BOPP/foil, etc coextruded multilayer film structures,
aluminium foil, and/or paper board combinations with these for aseptic food packaging
applications has increased rapidly due to logistic advantages. In unit containers, the films used
may be of paper coated with wax, PE, BOPP, PET, and EVA blends or other combinations
depending on the product characteristics and the shelf-life required.
The Brik-Pak System
This system consists of a sterile rectangular block shaped paperboard carton, especially designed
for liquid milk and fruit juices. Generally, a combination of hydrogen peroxide and high
temperature air is used for the sterilization of the container. A laminate used for Brik-Pak unit
packages is 12 micron PE for general & special food-products requiring longer shelf-life. Another
laminate is made of 18 micron PE/kraft board/25 micron PE for milk packaging, formed, filled
and sealed into a brick-shaped carton. The filled containers result in considerable savings in space
over metal cans or glass bottles of equivalent volume.
Bag-in-Box System
This system is specifically designed for high and low acid products such as fruit juices, fruit
syrups and dairy related products. It combines all the producer, retailer and consumer advantages
of bag-in-box with high integrity aseptic filling and packaging. This system is easy to install,
simple to use, eliminates the risk of product contamination during and after filling, and provides
totally sealed, longer life packs. Its salient features are:
Used for fruit juices, syrups, concentrates, dairy related products, etc
No risk of product contamination during or after filling
No need for artificial environment positive sterilization at the point of fill, no chemical
sterilants used
Totally sealed pack is not dependent on friction-fit components
Aseptic fill needs no product preservatives
Filling system is easy to install and simple to use
Minimal energy requirements
Used for bag-in-box packs from 1 to 30 liters
The sealed membrane reduces the oxygen permeability of the pack by isolating the product from
the dispensing fitment. The pre-sterilized bag has a double membrane seal around the gland which
94
enables transfer sterilization, filling and resealing to take place within the fill head of the filling
machine. The product is then not exposed to potentially contaminated surfaces of air during or
after filling cycle. Positive, high pressure steam sterilization at the time of filling eliminates the
need for filtered air workstation technology. As a result, it provides a convenient and easy-to-
operate filling method which offers total aseptic packaging efficiency, overcomes the need for
preservatives, and also provides a totally sealed pack for longer shelf-life.
Bag-in-Box System for Bulk Packaging
This is an important development for bulk packaging of various food products. It consists of a
bag, which is made of a packaging material having high strength and excellent barrier properties
and could be pre-sterilized by suitable means.
The bag-in-box packages are generally of the capacity from 1 to 1000 liters. Bags are also
available as liners for 200 liter capacity containers. Bags are mostly of laminates of substances
such as foil, nylon, PET, BOPP, LDPE/LLDPE, EVA, etc. The box in the system in bag-in-box is
generally made of corrugated fiber-board of suitable construction with optimum strength and
cushioning properties. The box not only provides physical protection for the bag, but also stacking
strength and a means for transportation and handling. The advantages of bag-in-box system of
aseptic packaging are:
It occupies less storage space, since the empty package is transported in a knocked-down
condition
The transit weight of containers is reduced as both the empty and filled containers weigh less
than metal, glass or rigid plastic containers
Filled pallet loads are stable because the square shape of the filled package makes standard
stacking patterns possible
Packaging material cost is lower than other types of packages
The product being packed are edible oils, fruit juice concentrates, non-carbonated beverages,
alcoholic beverages, mineral water, etc.
The Tetra Pack System
In the Tetra Pack system, a sterile product is packed under sterile conditions, which remains
sterile until it is opened. To achieve this, the following conditions must be fulfilled:
Product sterilization
Packaging material sterilization
Sterile surrounding while forming and filling the cartons
The products mainly packed are milk, edible oils, non-carbonated beverages, etc.
The Packaging Material
The main function of packaging material is to protect the sterility of the product & be compatible
with the product itself. The Tetra Pack system uses paper-plastic laminates for the purpose. Apart
from providing protection to the sterilized product, the paper and plastics play important roles in
the package. Paper helps in shaping the pack and keeping the shape, while giving mechanical
strength to the pack. Paper is cheaper, lighter, easily storable and provides an excellent printing
surfaces. The plastic layer on the printing side provides protection to the print, while the inner
plastic layer imparts the heat sealability property. Both layers of plastic act as gas barriers.
Product Sterilization
The product sterilization is carried out by the in-process or on-line sterilization, which is
popularly known as ultra high temperature (UHT) or high temperature short time (HTST)
depending on the product treatment.
95
The packaging machine installed in a room is kept under positive pressure. In a common system,
the process takes place as:
Sterilization: In order to ensure a sterile path for the product, the product path in the machine
is sterilized by passing hot air.
Cooling: It is essential as the system will not be in a position to take the product directly due
to high temperature during sterilization. It is done by passing cooled sterile air through the
path.
Production: The packaging material in the form of paper reel is fed into the filling machine.
The material web passes through a bath containing hydrogen peroxide. Most of the liquid is
squeezed out by a pair of rollers. After passing a blending roller, the material web travels
downward; a tube is formed and sealed longitudinally. Following this, the sealed tube passes
the tube heater by which the inside of the tube is heated up. This results in evaporation and
disintegration of the remaining hydrogen peroxide into oxygen and water. This completes the
sterilization of the packaging material. The sterilized product flows into the tube, while
transversal seams are produced by a pair of jaws, which simultaneously pulls down the
packaging material and produces the cartons.
Vacuum and Gas Packaging
Many products, particularly foodstuffs, are adversely affected by oxygen and the shelf life can be
increased by the exclusion of oxygen from the package. This can be done by vacuum packaging,
in which the air is removed from the package by vacuum pumps. It also requires a packaging
material with very high barrier properties and such barrier properties can only be achieved by the
use of multi-layer webs.
Another method is inert gas packaging. The gases normally used are nitrogen and carbon dioxide.
Nitrogen is completely inert & when used to replace air inside a package, it prevents the oxidation
of oxygen sensitive products. Carbon dioxide also acts in a similar way but additionally it inhibits
bacterial growth within packages when stored at low temperatures. This property of carbon
dioxide has led to its use both alone and in combination with other gases in the form of modified
atmosphere packaging. There are two basic methods of gas packaging:
Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) which uses gas mixtures, usually containing carbon
dioxide to prevent bacterial growth, which would lead to putrefaction.
Single gas flushing with nitrogen or carbon dioxide to prevent oxidation of the product and
subsequent deterioration.
The multi-ply materials will provide the necessary gas barrier properties. Single gas flushing is
mainly used to prevent oxidation of the fat content of certain powders, granules and small-piece
solids, such as dried milk, coffee and roasted peanuts.
Controlled Atmosphere Packaging (CAP)
The shelf life of highly perishable foods can be increased by the use of flexible packaging
materials with a wide range of permeabilities to gases and vapours. By replacing the air
surrounding the food with an optimum mixture of nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and oxygen prior to
sealing at atmospheric or reduced pressure, shelf-life can be extended from days to week. The
factors affecting the cost-effective use of controlled atmosphere packaging are:
Chemical and biological activity of foods
Microbial contamination
Product formulation
Storage temperature
Susceptibility of the product to chilling injury
96
Susceptibility of the product to ethylene
Consumer packaging preferences
Product tolerance to high and low oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations
The level of packaging and the chemical and biological activity of foods can be organized in a
matrix to show how modified and controlled atmosphere can be used to extend shelf-life of
perishable foods. Packages can be grouped as: impermeable, selectively permeable and highly
permeable systems. Foods can be grouped as having minimal chemical activity, chemically active,
and biologically active foods.
The significant features of controlled atmosphere packaging are:
Prolongs high quality, doesnt improve or enhance quality.
Slows down the natural respiration rate of fresh product, causing lowered oxygen levels,
elevated carbon dioxide levels and lowered temperatures.
Results in either equilibrium between the respiration rate of the product and the influx and
escape of gases through the package, or, at least, a predictable rate of change of the levels of
different gases inside the package.
Only the macro-environment within the package can be controlled, and there is possibility that
different micro-environments can exist.
The product system (i.e. combination of product, package, atmosphere, temperature and all
probable micro-organisms and parasites) is unique for virtually every food product and should
be completely evaluated before the product is offered to sale.
Final condition of the package and its controlled atmosphere can only be determined safely by
careful studies of the packaged product, including microbiological determinations and sensory
testing panel evaluations.
In order to maximize the potential for extending retail shelf life of fresh food products, it is
likely that major changes to the distribution chains for these products will be required.
Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP)
The function of this packaging system is to extend the shelf-life of the product and, in some cases,
allow it to be presented in more palatable manner. The shelf-life can be extended by modifying
the atmosphere inside the structure. Generally, this is achieved by injecting gas mixture inside the
container- either carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen or a combination before sealing.
The kind of film used in MAP also affects the shelf-life. In most MAP applications, conventional
multilayer, high barrier films such as 5-layer LDPE blown with EVOH, nylon or PVdC is used as
the barrier layer. Vacuum packaging also uses similar packaging material as both need low gas
transmission rates, for vacuum packs to keep the atmosphere out and for MA packs to keep the
gases in. These techniques are often used with meat & other fresh produce to maintain their fresh
character, which is lost in other processes such as dehydration and canning. The normal
composition of the atmosphere is 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen & 0.3% carbon dioxide by volume,
with minute quantities of other gases. MAP changes this composition to prolong the shelf-life of
the product, by slowing down the rate of degradation, i.e. preventing oxidative rancidity by
reducing the oxygen content. It is also known as gas flush packing, as the air inside the package is
removed and replaced by flushing it with the mixture of gases to achieve the required atmospheric
composition.
MAP differs from CAP as the composition of the atmosphere inside the pack changes with time
as the product respires or absorbs gases. CAP maintains the composition of the internal
environment at a constant level.
97
The principal factors of MAP are:
Choice of gas or mixture of gases
Control of temperature
Choice of suitable packaging material
The gases involved in modified atmosphere packaging, as applied commercially today, are carbon
dioxide, nitrogen and oxygen. The gas or gas mixture that replaces the air depends on the product
and how it deteriorates. If oxidation is the problem, then the oxygen level can be maintained very
low by this method. It also protects against aerobic microbial growth.
Carbon dioxide inhibits the growth of many micro-organisms, so 20-30% carbon dioxide levels
have been found to be effective in aerobic systems and 100% concentrations in anaerobic systems.
In general, the higher the concentration of the gas, the greater is its inhibitory power. However,
this gas is readily absorbed by water and oils and will therefore be absorbed by the product until it
comes to equilibrium. This can lead to the pack collapsing as the volume of gas reduces. The
solubility of carbon dioxide increases as the temperature is reduced. Carbon dioxide reacts with
water in the product to form carbonic acid which lowers the pH of the food. The effect of carbon
dioxide is to increase both the lag phase and the generation time of spoilage micro-organisms.
Bacteria in the lag phase of growth are most affected by the gas.
Nitrogen is an inert gas, and has no direct effect on microorganisms or foods, other than to replace
oxygen, which can inhibit the oxidation of fats. As its solubility in water is low, it is used as a
bulking material (filler gas) to prevent the collapse of MAP packages when the carbon dioxide
dissolves in the food. Nitrogen is used to purge the air from the pack and to reduce the
concentration of other gases in the pack. This is also useful in packages of sliced or ground food
materials, such as cheese, which may consolidate under vacuum.
Oxygen is used to prevent anaerobic spoilage or to maintain the red colour in some meat products,
which is due to the oxygenation of the myoglobin pigments. It is also included in MAP packages
of white fish, to reduce the risk of botulism.
Other gases have antimicrobial effects. Carbon monoxide will inhibit the growth of many
bacteria, yeasts and moulds, in concentrations as low as 1%. However, due to its toxicity and
explosive nature, it is not used commercially. Sulphur dioxide has been used to inhibit the growth
of moulds and bacteria in some soft fruits and fruit juices. In recent years, there has been concern
that some people may be hypersensitive to sulphur dioxide.
So called noble gases, such as argon, helium, xenon and neon, have also been used in MAP of
some foods. However, apart from being relatively inert, it is not clear what particular benefits they
bring to this technology.
Temperature is a critical parameter as it affects the rate of deterioration of the product, whether
deterioration is by enzymatic, chemical or biochemical reactions. To achieve the required shelf-
life, the temperature must be carefully controlled. MAP is often applied to pasteurized and chilled
products so in this context, temperature control is important.
The packaging material must have a suitably low rate of gas transmission and be strong enough to
withstand the hazards of distribution, etc. MAP packages are either thermoformed trays with heat-
sealed lids or pouches. With the exception of packages for fresh produce, these trays and pouches
need to be made of materials with low permeability to gases (CO
2
, N
2
, and O
2
). Laminates and
coextrusions are popular, using PVdC, EVOH or foil as the barrier layer, polyester or nylon for
toughness and puncture resistance and polythene for heat sealability. The oxygen permeability of
these laminates should be less than15 cm
3
m
2
day
1
at a pressure of 1 atm (101 kPa).
98
Typical MAP Applications
Fresh meat: High oxygen systems are used to extend the colour stability and delay microbial
deterioration. Alternatively the pack can be flushed with nitrogen. This results in a reduction in
the formation of metmyoglobin on the surface. However, the nitrogen also dilutes the carbon
dioxide produced by tissue respiration, prolonging the time required for the concentration to reach
levels sufficient to inhibit the growth of spoilage bacteria. Fresh red meat packaged in an
atmosphere consisting of 80% oxygen and 20% carbon dioxide or 70% oxygen, 20% carbon
dioxide and 10% nitrogen have a shelf life of 712 days at 21
o
C.
Poultry: Poultry can be MA-packaged in a mixture of nitrogen and carbon dioxide. However, this
is not widely practiced because of cost considerations. Cooked and cured meats may be packaged
in a mixture of nitrogen and carbon dioxide. Packaging in a 20% carbon dioxide atmosphere will
give one week shelf life at storage temperatures of 2
o
C; higher levels will extend the life further.
Fish: Fresh white fish, packaged in a mixture of 30% oxygen, 30% nitrogen and 40% carbon
dioxide, have a shelf life of 1014 days at a temperature of 0
o
C. Such packages should not be
exposed to a temperature above 5
o
C, because of the risk of botulism. Fatty fish require low
oxygen concentrations to prevent rancidity and are thus packaged in mixtures of carbon dioxide
and nitrogen.
Fruits and vegetables: Respiration in such products leads to a build-up of carbon dioxide and a
reduction in the oxygen content. Some build-up of carbon dioxide may reduce the rate of
respiration and help to prolong the shelf life of the product. However, if the oxygen level is
reduced to 2% or less, anaerobic respiration will set in and the product will spoil. The effect of the
build-up of carbon dioxide varies from product to product. Some fruits and vegetables can tolerate
high levels of this gas while others cannot. Each fruit or vegetable will have an optimum in-
package gas composition which will result in a maximum shelf life. Selection of a packaging film
with an appropriate permeability to water vapour and gases can lead to the development of this
optimum composition. For fruits with very high respiration rates, the package may need to be
perforated.
Cheese: Portions of hard cheese may be packaged by flushing with carbon dioxide before sealing.
The gas will be absorbed by the cheese, creating a vacuum. Cheese packaged in this way may
have a shelf life of up to 60 days. To avoid collapse of the package, some nitrogen may be
included with the carbon dioxide. Mould ripened cheese may be packaging in nitrogen.
Bakery products and snack foods: The shelf life of bread rolls, crumpets and pita bread may be
significantly increased by packaging in carbon dioxide or nitrogen/carbon dioxide mixtures. Nuts
and potato crisps benefit by being MA-packaged in nitrogen.
Pasta: Fresh pasta may be MA-packaged in nitrogen or carbon dioxide.
Other foods: Pizza, Quiche, Lasagne, and many other prepared foods may benefit from MAP. It is
very important to take into account the microbiological implications of MA-packaging such
products. Maintenance of low temperatures during storage, distribution, in the retail outlet and in
the home is essential.
Comparison of Vacuum Packaging and MAP
Vacuum packs take up less volume, less weight and use less material than MAP. They give good
product visibility and dont have drip, blood, etc. moving about in the pack. However, irregular
size and shape can make them less easy to handle, stack, etc.

99
The following table shows typical gas mixtures, packaging materials used and additional days of
life required.

Food type Gas mix (% O
2
/CO
2
/N
2
) Typical Packaging Material Shelf Life
Red meat 70/20/10 PVC tray; PET/PVdC/PE lid 2-10
Poultry 40/40/20 PVC tray; PET/PVdC/PE lid 3-14
Bacon/Ham/Sausages 0/40/60 PVC/PE tray; PET/PVdC/PE lid 2-30
White fish 20/45/35 PET tray; PET/PVdC/PE lid 3-6
Oily fish 0/60/40 PVC tray; MXXT/A lid 3-5
Cheese 0/50/50 PVdC/OPP/PE coextrusion 6-30
Cakes/Pastries 0/70/30 PS/ PVC tray; PVdC/OPP/PE 7-90
Salads 2/10/88 OPP overwrap 3-14
Composite Packs
Composite packs offer a number of advantages over other types in packaging of many food
products. It allows the production of a wide variety of shapes and sizes.
The composite pack consists of four basic elements: body, base, membrane-lid and cap. The main
body comprises of a composite material consisting of a light weight high impact core of expanded
polystyrene in the thickness range of 0.6-12 mm. Externally, the core is coated with a printed
plastic film. The inner face is coated with a plastic film or a combination of a film and aluminium
foil, which ensure optimum barrier properties against moisture, oxygen, etc. A wide choice of
materials is available, such as PET, PVdC or EVOH. The base, like the lid and snap-on-cap, are
generally moulded from high impact polystyrene (HIPS) coated with a PET or other film to
enhance barrier properties. The base is a solid moulding, whereas the lid incorporates a membrane
which is pierced to give access to the contents. Typically, the membrane lid comprises a heat-
sealed paper/plastics film laminate. The cap is of snap-on type with reclosability. For security, a
tear cap can be provided between the snap-on-cap and body of the composite. Also, a hinge can
be fitted to link the lid and end cap.
The fact that the bodies, bases and caps can be supplied as flats gives considerable saving in the
cost of storage and transport.
100
PACKAGING NEEDS OF FOODS
Introduction
Packaging is an integral part of food processing industry. However the food will be processed and
preserved, it requires a suitable form of packaging. Several types of foods have their own
packaging requirements. The various types of packaging used for different food types are briefly
explained below.
Sterilized Food Products
Sterilized food products can be packed in cans, retort pouches, and aseptic packs. Cans can be
made from tinplate, aluminium or tin free steel. Lacquers may be used to prevent corrosion
affecting the product. The material needs to be heat resistant. A retort pouch is like a flexible can,
made of a laminate structure. It generally incorporates aluminium to prevent light and oxygen
causing the product to deteriorate. Typical structure is: PET/Aluminium foil/HDPE.
Aseptic packaging is based on the principle that the product and the package are both sterilized
separately. It is generally a laminate structure like PET/PE/Aluminium foil/PE, or
PET/Aluminium foil, or a plastic coated paperboard (LDPE/paper/LDPE) as in milk and fruit
juice packages.
Tetrapak uses a similar material but is supplied to the filling factory as a reel to be formed into a
carton, filled and sealed in one operation. It can be tetrahedral or rectangular. Foil may be
incorporated to provide a barrier to gases, volatile loss, light, etc. when it is to be used for aseptic
packaging.
Dried powders
This category includes soup mixes, spices, salt, sugar, flour, milk powder, breakfast cereals, etc.
Most of these have low moisture contents and tend to be hygroscopic. So, the packaging material
must prevent moisture from entering into the pack. Some of these are also sensitive to oxygen and
light, which catalyse rancidity. Volatiles need to be retained. Dried products have hard or sharp
edges usually, so a tough material is required. Vacuum packing or gas flushing with nitrogen may
be used for products such as milk powder. Therefore, the material should have low gas
transmission rates. Packages suitable for this type of product range from simple paper/PE bags to
maximum protection offered by metal cans, glass bottles and foil based laminates. Soup mixes are
often packed in paper/PE/foil/PE laminates. Dried foods are packed in OPP/LDPE.
Dried products
The most critical factors for dry products in relation to packaging are moisture uptake leading to
loss of crispiness and oxidation of fats resulting in development of rancidity. Other modes of
deterioration include oxidation of vitamins, breakage of products, loss of aroma, discoloration,
mould growth, staling, and fat bloom depending on the product. Thus, the most important
requirements for the packaging materials include high moisture, oxygen, and light barrier
properties and high mechanical strength.
Most dry products are packaged under atmospheric conditions. Packaging materials for dry
products include: underground pits or containers, piles of bagged grains and storage bins of
different sizes, shapes and construction types for grains; bags, bulk bins, multi-walled Kraft paper
bags, sometimes with an LDPE liner for flour; paperboard carton with a plastic window (cellulose
acetate), OPP or coated LDPE films for dried pasta; LDPE bags in which the end is twisted and
sealed with a strip of adhesive tape or perforated LDPE bags for bakery products; regenerated
cellulose films coated with LDPE or PVC/PVdC co-polymer and often with a layer of glassine in
101
direct contact with the product if it contains fat, for biscuits; cookies and crackers, aluminium
foil/LDPE sometimes containing a layer of paper, either between the foil and the LDPE or on the
outside of the foil, PVC/PVdC copolymer/LDPE, molded PVC trays wrapped in aluminium foil
or placed inside paperboard boxes or metal or glass containers for chocolate.
Dried Snacks
This includes nuts, popcorn and potato crisp type products. The most common modes of
deterioration of snack foods are loss of crispiness and development of fat rancidity. Thus, low
water vapour and oxygen permeabilities are of the utmost importance. Mechanical strength is
required of packages for snack foods and the exclusion of light has also been suggested.
Most snack foods are packaged by form fill sealing. For some snack products the air is removed
and packages are flushed with nitrogen gas to protect against moisture absorption and retard the
development of rancidity. Fried, extruded, and puffed snack foods are typically packaged in
multi-layer structures. Packaging materials are usually pigmented, metalized, or placed inside
paperboard cartons. Spiral-wound, paperboard cans lined with aluminium foil or a barrier polymer
are used for e.g. chips and nuts. In addition, metal cans are used for fried nuts; the container
usually being gas flushed with nitrogen.
As a result of the requirements for low permeability towards water, these require a very good
moisture barrier. They often have been fried or roasted and so they require protection from
oxygen, which would make the oil rancid. Gas flushing may be used for some products. PVdC
coated cellophane or OPP will give several months shelf life for most products, and foil based
laminates will be better for the more oxygen sensitive ones.
Bakery Products
The requirements vary from item to item. Biscuits have low moisture content and need protection
from moisture and oxygen due to their high fat content. MXXT/A cellophane, OPP, PVdC coated
cellophane or waxed paper are commonly used. Bread has high moisture content and this needs to
be retained to prevent staling, by packing it in LDPE, OPP or HDPE. Crusty bread however needs
to let moisture escape to maintain its crustiness. So, it is wrapped in a simple paper wrap or
perforated OPP. Cakes and pies also need to let moisture escape or else they will go moldy, while
retaining enough moisture to prevent them from drying out and tasting stale. MAP can be
considered for cakes. QMS cellophane is ideal for cakes and pies.
Confectionary
These include sweets, chocolate, toffees, etc. Moisture would soften toffees and make boiled
sweets go sticky or crystallize. Moisture can also lead to fat bloom on chocolate. The high fat
content of chocolate also makes it vulnerable to rancidity. Foil wraps are popular and laminates
are also being used, e.g. paper/foil/PE. OPP wraps and bags are popular or MXXT cellophane
overwraps for boxes of sweets. Tins give the ultimate protection and are popular for larger size
gift packs.
Dairy Products
Milk, cream, fermented milk products, and processed cheese require low oxygen permeability
packaging to avoid oxidation and growth of undesirable microorganisms. In addition, light
initiates the oxidation of fats in dairy products and leads to discoloration, off-flavour formation
and nutrient loss, even at temperatures found in refrigerated display cabinets. The oxidative
reactions initiated by light may continue even if the products are subsequently protected from
light. Dairy products should be protected from water evaporation, absorption of odours from the
surroundings and high storage temperature to maximize shelf life.
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Different packaging technologies apply to different products. Thus, cold filling is used for milk,
cream and fermented products, aseptic packaging is used for UHT milk, hot filling is used for
butter and yoghurts, MAP packaging is used for milk powder, MAP packaging and hot filling is
used for cheese. A high fat content requires an oxygen barrier to prevent rancidity. Solids such as
cheese products need to be prevented from losing excess moisture, which would lead to hardening
and yellowing of the surface. Vacuum packaging or gas flushing is popular for hard cheeses. A
PVC wrap is suitable for short shelf life or PVC/OPP/LDPE for longer life. Soft cheeses are
wrapped in Saran or PVC.
Liquid milk is available in a variety of packages. Milk can be packed into glass bottles that are
reusable but are heavy; HDPE plastic pouches are also used and flexible LDPE plastic pouches.
These usually have two layers of polyethylene, the inner one being black to prevent UV
degradation. Alternatively, polyethylene coated paperboard cartons such as Tetrapack are used.
Long life UHT milk can be packed into PE/paper/PE/foil/PE cartons. Cans are used for dried
milk, sweetened condensed milks, creams and milk based puddings.
Butter can be packed in vegetable parchment or foil tissue, which provides maximum protection
against flavour change. Yoghurt and ice-cream can be packed in HIPS or PE tubes. Coated papers
are also used for ice-creams.
Fruit Beverages
Factors limiting the shelf-life of beverages include microbial growth, migration/scalping,
oxidation of flavour components, nutrients and pigments, non-enzymatic browning, and, in the
case of carbonated beverages, loss of carbonation. Oxygen can cause flavour changes in these
drinks. Thus, requirements of the packaging materials for beverages include low gas transmission
and light permeabilities and resistance towards scalping (migration from food product to
package). Packaging materials with high water vapour barrier properties are required to prevent
penetration of the beverage through the package.
For packaging of acidic beverages the material must be resistant to acids. Packaging methods for
packaging of beverages include aseptic packaging with or without nitrogen injection, hot and cold
filling. The packaging materials commonly used include: glass, HDPE, PP, PC, PET, PVC,
PE/paper/PE/Al/PE, PE/paper/PE/Al/special coating (gable top packaging types) for water; glass,
metal, HDPE, PE/paper/PE/EVOH/PE, PE/paper/PE/SiOx/PE, PE/paper/PE/Al. Purepak and
other cartons are used for fresh juices. For longer shelf life and UHT products, foil is included in
the construction.
Carbonated beverages
The container must be able to withstand the high internal pressures of carbonation. The closures
must also be suitable. They are generally packed in glass bottles with crown caps or in tinplate or
aluminium cans with a suitable lacquer. Plastic bottles, usually PET, PVC or PE, are becoming
popular due to their light weight and non breakability. However, there occur problems with
maintaining the carbonation due to the high GTR of some materials.
Beer must be pasteurized in the bottles so thermal shock must be considered. It must also be
protected from UV light so amber bottles or cans are used.
Coffee/Tea
These products need to be protected from loss of flavour and odour volatiles, from moisture and
rancidity. Packaging materials used include glass jars, metal cans, metalized or foil based
laminates. Tea is not so susceptible to volatile losses and may be protected in a paper bag or box
overwrapped with MS cellophane.
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Fresh Fruits and vegetables
Fruits and vegetables continue to respire, transpire and produce the ripening hormone ethylene
even after harvesting with the result that the concentrations of carbon dioxide, oxygen, water and
ethylene change over time inside storage packs. Changes in gas composition may have a positive
influence on the colour and flavour of the products, but they may also induce negative effects on
texture, colour, shelf-life and nutritional quality.
Short-term preservation by reducing respiration and transpiration rates can be obtained by
controlling factors such as temperature, relative humidity, gas composition (ethylene, oxygen and
carbon dioxide), light, and by applying food additives and treatments such as waxing and
irradiation. Physical damage (e.g. surface injuries, impact bruising) may stimulate respiration and
ethylene production and accelerate the onset of senescence. To protect from physical damage,
they are often packed in contoured trays to keep them separate or with cushioning in the form of
paper or single faced board.
The choice of proper packaging material is complex because it depends on the specific respiration
and transpiration rates of the different products and the conditions in the supply chain. If the
chosen packaging material is impermeable to CO
2
, O
2
and H
2
O, an anaerobic environment inside
the packaging will develop and lead to microbial fermentation and product deterioration. If the
packaging material is too permeable to water vapour, the products will dry out and the atmosphere
in the packaging will contribute to a reduced storage life. Moisture must be controlled to prevent
wilting and mold growth. Condensation and respiratory gases must be allowed to escape. The
ideal packaging material has a permeability that takes the respiration processes of the products
into account so that the atmospheric balance (CO
2
/O
2
ratio) inside the packaging is optimal. The
packaging material should retain desirable odours, prevent odour pick-up, provide protection from
light and give sufficient protection against mechanical damage.
Reduction of the O
2
content to less than 10% by using a passive or active modified atmosphere in
the packaging (e.g. rigid tray wrapped in or sealed with plastic films) provides a tool for
controlling the respiration rate and slowing down senescence although an adequate O
2

concentration must be available to maintain aerobic respiration. Packaging with bags, incomplete
sealing or perforation of packages, individual shrink wraps, or bulk display where the consumers
pick the product themselves, are used for fruits and vegetables.
Among the packaging materials used for fruits and vegetables are: monolayer PVC, perforated
thin LDPE, LDPE/MDPE with EVA, kraft paper, LDPE, HDPE, white pigmented PVC or PP,
expanded (foamed) PS, LLDPE, shrinkable film, regular net stocking or expanded (foamed)
plastic netting, PET, moulded paper pulp with a thermoformed plastic liner, sleeve packs, PE bags
with small holes punched in them and PVC trays overwrapped by PVC.
Fresh Meat and Fish
Two factors are critical in the packaging of red meats: colour and microbiology. In order to
preserve the red colour of fresh meat, attributed to oxymyoglobin, a high oxygen level over the
product surface is required. This level can be obtained by using oxygen permeable films in the
packaging process. On the other hand, oxygen also supports the growth of bacteria, and
discoloration, attributed to the brown pigment metmyoglobin, occurs rather quickly. This surface
discoloration is even more pronounced in ground meats where the exposed surface area is hugely
increased. As a result of its high water activity, unprotected chilled meat will lose weight by
evaporation and its appearance will deteriorate. Thus, low water vapour permeability is important
in packaging of fresh meat. In cured meat products the pigment nitrosylmyoglobin oxidizes
rapidly in the presence of light and oxygen. The onset of oxidative rancidity is also accelerated in
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the presence of light and oxygen. Thus, low permeabilities to oxygen and light are required of
packaging materials for cured meat products. Raw poultry support microbial growth due to its
high pH (5.7-6.7). Hence, packaging in modified atmospheres with a high level of CO
2
or vacuum
extends shelf-life considerably.
Fresh meats are typically packed in oxygen permeable packs, vacuum packs or modified
atmosphere packs. Where residual oxygen must be maintained at a very low level, vacuum
packaging minimizes the colour and flavour defects associated with oxidation of muscle
myoglobin and lipids, respectively. Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), with 70-80% O
2
to
maintain oxymyoglobin and 20-30% CO
2
to inhibit microbial growth is commonly used to
package fresh red meats. White meats, such as poultry meats, are often packed in a mixture of
CO
2
and N
2
. However, some authors point out that more than 25% CO
2
may cause discoloration
and off-flavour formation in poultry. The snug-down effect obtained at high CO
2
, when the CO
2

is dissolved in the water phase, is undesirable for several products giving the package a vacuum
packaged look. It is possible to prevent the snug down effect by using N
2
in the gas mixture.
Fresh meats and fish are usually sold chilled in portions of varying sizes. MAP packaging using
high barrier laminates, is popular to slow the deterioration and to preserve the red colour of red
meats. Short shelf life meat is sold on HIPS or PVC trays, overwrapped with pPVC. Vacuum
packaging such as the Cryovac bag is popular for joints of meat. Thermoformed vacuum packs
can have nylon/PVdC/PE bases and PET/PVdC/PE tops. Rigid bases for MAP packs can be of
PVC/PE or PET/PE. Conventional packaging materials include permeable films (PVC, PE-based,
polyolefin based), PS, expanded PS, PETG, PA or PET or PVC/PVC or PVdC coating/LDPE or
EVA or ionomer, Saran (copolymer of PVdC and PVC).
Frozen Foods
The common modes of deterioration in frozen foods are pigment and vitamin degradation and
oxidation of lipids. Thus, requirements of packaging materials for frozen products include a high
moisture barrier property to reduce moisture loss and freezer burn and oxygen and light barrier
properties for protection against oxidation. The packaging material should be resistant to tearing
and puncturing. For common polymeric films, satisfactory water vapour transmission rates are
obtained at freezer temperatures below -20C. However, at the low temperature mechanical
properties may be affected making the polymeric materials more brittle and sensitive to
mechanical forces.
The rate of oxidation is much reduced at low temperatures so only vulnerable products such as
fatty fish require protection from oxygen and are vacuum packaged or packaged in nitrogen. A
barrier to the loss of volatiles may be required. Freezer burn due to moisture loss is the major
problem leading to whitening and wrinkling of the surface and loss of texture. This can be
prevented by using a good moisture barrier, which will also prevent atmosphere moisture
penetrating the pack and forming an ice layer on the inside. Frozen foods can have sharp edges,
i.e. bread crumbed or bone products so puncture resistance must be good. The material must also
perform well at low temperatures.
The majority of frozen fruits and vegetables are packed in polymeric films the major component
being LDPE. Some films contain white pigments to prevent light penetration. Other conventional
materials include waxed carton-board wrapped in a moisture-proof regenerated cellulose film and
folding cartons with a hot melt coating of PVC/PVdC copolymer. Films and wraps used for meat
and seafood include cellophane, aluminium foil, PVdC, PE, and PS trays surrounded by films and
wraps, and coated paper and cartons. LDPE and LLDPE bags are popular as they are easy to print,
105
seal and are economical. Some products are sold in paperboard cartons, waxed for moisture
resistance. Other products are sold as a convenience food that can be prepared by immersing it in
boiling water to defrost and heat it known as boil in the bag. For this application
PVdC/PET/LDPE and HDPE bags are popular. Foil and CPET trays (ovenable polyester) are used
for food to be prepared by heating in an oven.
Fats and Oils
The fatty parts of foods, foods made chiefly of fats and oils, and fats and oils themselves are
subject to chemical spoilage and microbial attack. The chief types of spoilage are oxidative
rancidity produced by chemical or microbial oxidation, and hydrolytic rancidity, due to lipases
naturally present or to micro-organisms.
Fats subjected to either or both of these changes may contain fatty oxy-acids and hydroxyl acids,
glycerol, other alcohols, aldehydes, ketones and lactones, in the presence of lecithin (e.g. butter &
margarine) may include trimethylene with fishy odour. Also, some of the pigments produced by
micro-organisms are fat soluble and therefore can diffuse into the fat, producing discolouration
ranging through yellow, red, purple or brown. Because of the low moisture content of fatty
materials, the growth of mold is favoured more than that of bacteria, which can also cause
oxidative and hydrolytic decomposition. The oxidation of fats and oils may be catalysed by
various metals (e.g. copper) and by irradiation and moisture as well as micro-organisms.
The packaging materials used in margarine manufacture must fulfill two principal functions: (a) to
protect the product from spoilage during transit, storage and use, i.e. from microbial spoilage,
oxidative changes, water and oil transmission, and odour and flavour changes, and (b) provide
sales appeal and convenience to the consumer.
Packet margarines (and other fats such as lard) are normally wrapped in vegetable parchment,
greaseproof paper or wrapper consisting of aluminium foil laminated to parchment or greaseproof
paper. All must accept printing sufficiently well to give an attractive pack. The materials used
include PVC, polystyrene, and acrylonitrile butadienestyrene (ABS). These materials are normally
thermoformed, although injection-moulded high density polyethylene and polypropylene tubs are
also used. Tubs in coextruded plastics and combinations of board and plastics are also used.
Thermoformed PVC is the most common material in use for lids.
Frying oils and salad oils for domestic consumption were originally packaged in glass bottles, but
now plastics bottles are used. Glass offers many advantages such as impermeability, cleanliness,
durability, rigidity and its lack of susceptibility to mold growth, but it is brittle and breakages in
transit can ruin a complete caseload. This has led to the development and use of moulded
thermoplastic containers of high and low density polyethylene, PVC and polystyrene. The choice
of material is, however, governed by cost, chemical resistance, permeability and ease of
processing and degree of clarity or opaqueness needed.
Plastics containers for oils must be reasonably rigid, resistant to microbial attack, and to
transmission of water and oxygen. Oils for the catering industry are usually packed in aluminium
cans.
106
SHELF LIFE OF PACKAGED FOODS
Introduction
Shelf life is the time between the product being harvested or processed and packed until its quality
has deteriorated to an unacceptable level. This may be due to organoleptic reasons such as a loss
of texture or flavour or to microbial reasons such as mold growth, etc. Therefore the shelf life is
the time during which the product can be consumed. Canned foods are shelf stable at ambient
temperatures for several years due to the sterilization process, whereas fresh foods such as milk
and bread have a relatively short life and are often described as perishable.
Packaging must be suitable to protect the product from the external hazards, such as moisture,
light, oxygen, microbial contamination, impacts, drops, etc. In selecting a suitable packaging
material, consideration must be given to the hazards to which the product will be subjected. The
food products may deteriorate due to rancidity, staling, microbial spoilage, enzymatic reactions,
etc and of the processes used to retard deterioration include sterilization, pasteurization, freezing,
and aseptic processing. In some of these processes, the packaging plays a major role in the actual
processing such as in canning. In all of them, packaging is meant to protect the food from further
contamination by preserving the micro environment inside the package in which the quality can
be maintained for the duration of the shelf life. Several methods such as vacuum packaging,
modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) and aseptic packaging can be used to extend the shelf life
of food products.
Factors affecting shelf life
Shelf life is affected by the product, the packaging material and by the environment. It depends on
many factors such as:
The mechanism of deterioration of the product, e.g. loss of volatiles, rancidity, moisture
loss or gain, etc
The factors that are responsible for controlling the rate of deterioration, e.g. presence of
antioxidants, vacuum, preservatives, etc
The initial quality of the product when packed. If the product is not in good condition, the
packaging cant improve it. Therefore, shelf life will be reduced as deterioration will have
started.
The minimum acceptable quality standard for the product will determine the shelf life.
For e.g. if biscuits become unacceptably soft at 4% moisture content then that means that
the shelf life is the time taken for the biscuits to reach 4% moisture content.
The barrier properties of the primary pack will determine the rate at which the volatiles,
moisture, etc can permeate the pack. This is particularly relevant for plastic and composite
materials whereas glass and metal are complete barriers. However, if the seams on a metal
can or the seal on a glass jar are faulty then gases, etc can permeate.
Defects in the material, such as pinholes in aluminium foil, will affect the theoretical value
of the shelf life
The shape and size of the pack will affect the surface area, which greatly affects the rate of
permeation of gases and moisture through the packaging material. The shape affects the
material distribution. A poor design may cause thin corners, etc where the material is most
stretched and there the permeation rate will be higher
The effect of conversion processes such as thermoforming plastic sheet into trays or
pellets into bottles may affect the result. For e.g. if the temperature is not correct the trays
might be thinner or thicker which greatly affects the permeation rate
107
The protection offered by the secondary packaging is a critical factor in reducing the
deterioration
The climatic variations likely to be encountered during the life cycle of the product are
very relevant. This includes issues such as a chilled product being left in the sun for a few
minutes during loading, which causes condensation to build up, weakening corrugated
packaging
The mechanical hazards of distribution and storage will put stresses on the packaging and
product that may cause it to fail earlier than the theoretical value for the shelf life
The environmental controls such as for refrigerated products if very variable will have a
different effect than if tightly controlled.
Permeability
Permeability is the ability of vapours, gases or volatiles to pass through a material. Permeation
through glass and metal is zero but all plastics and paper are permeable to some extent. This can
be good for some products while detrimental to others. For e.g. if moisture or oxygen permeates a
packet of potato crisps, then the moisture will affect the texture or crispiness while the oxygen
will catalyse the oxidative rancidity of the cooking oil in which the potatoes were fried. On the
other hand, a product such as cake, which has high moisture content, will need to let some
moisture escape to prevent mold growth.
The rate of permeation will depend on the nature of the packaging material, the conditions of
temperature and relative humidity, the area of the pack, the thickness of the material, and the
concentration or pressure difference between inside and outside of the pack. The difference in
crystallinity will also affect the rate depending on the material characteristics. This was seen in
comparing the differences in permeability between low and high density polyethylene, or between
oriented and non oriented polypropylene. The presence of any micro cracks or permeation will
affect the rate.
The process of permeation is that the gas or vapour goes into solution at the film interface,
diffuses through it and evaporates from the other side. This reaction is driven by the concentration
gradient and the desire to come to equilibrium.
Ficks law of diffusion can be applied. This states that the quantity of gas permeating (Q) depends
directly on the area of the film exposed (A), the time (t), and the concentration gradient across the
film (dc), and is inversely proportional to the thickness (X). The constant of proportionality is
given by D, the diffusion constant.
Mathematically,
Q =
. . .

The gas concentration can be expressed in terms of its pressure (P) and Henrys law can be
applied to convert c to Sp where S is the solubility coefficient. However, the product of D x S is b,
the permeability coefficient, which is a constant for each material under given conditions of
temperature and relative humidity.
Therefore, we have
Q =
. . .

This equation holds well for ideal gases such as oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen and carbon dioxide
which is almost an ideal gas.

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Shelf Life Estimation
Introduction
There are at least three situations when shelf life estimation might be required:
To determine the shelf life of existing products
To study the effect of specific factors and combination of factors such as storage
temperature, packaging materials, processing parameters or food additives on product shelf
life
To determine the shelf life of prototype or newly developed products
Several established approaches are available for estimating the shelf life of foods:
a. Literature study: the shelf life an analogous product is obtained from the published literature
or in-house company files.
b. Turnover time: the average length of time that a product spends on the retail shelf is found by
monitoring the sales from retail outlets, and from this the required shelf life is determined.
This doesnt give the actual shelf life. It is assumed that the product is still acceptable for
sometime after the average period on the retail shelf.
c. End point study: random samples of the product are collected from retail outlets and then
tested in the lab to determine their quality. From this, a reasonable estimation of shelf life can
be obtained because the product has been exposed to actual environmental stresses
encountered during warehousing and retailing.
d. Accelerated shelf life test: lab studies are undertaken during which environmental conditions
are accelerated by a known factor so that the product deteriorates at a faster than normal rate.
This method requires that the effect of environmental conditions on product shelf life can be
quantified.
Techniques to estimate shelf life
The shelf life does not only depend on the permeability of the packaging material but also on the
product itself, how it deteriorates in time due to enzymatic reactions, etc. Therefore bottled and
canned products also have a shelf life. The best method to evaluate shelf life is to do storage trials.
However, these are time consuming as the packed product must be kept in controlled environment
for the expected life and beyond, being evaluated periodically both organoleptically and
bacteriologically. This may take several months or even years for canned foods. An accelerated
test can be conducted at higher temperatures but its result must be interpreted carefully. A
mathematical method of predicting shelf life would be advantageous especially if it could be used
to predict the effect of changes in a material, or to compare alternate materials, but it cant replace
full scale testing.
Mathematical and computer modeling is being used to predict the shelf life of products. The issue
is complicated by the fact that the deterioration is generally by more than one factor. The accuracy
of the result will depend on the accuracy of the data known about the agents of deterioration. For
this purpose, we shall only consider the effect of moisture loss and gain on shelf life, as the
mathematical model is not too complicated and it demonstrates the principle.
In general, all the systems come to equilibrium with their surroundings. This applies to the
product which wants to come to equilibrium with the environment by the transfer of moisture
either to or from the product. The packaging opposes this tendency, i.e. it provides resistance
thereby retarding the deterioration. The shelf life will depend on the effectiveness of resistance.
Consider a packet of crisps containing 20 gm of potato, i.e. starch, which is hygroscopic, 10 gm of
oil which is hydrophobic, and about 0.3 gm of bound water in the product. The packaging must
keep out the moisture to prevent the crispness of the product but only for a reasonable amount of
109
time. It is technically possible to keep out the moisture for years but this type of packaging would
be excessively expensive for a simple packet of crisps. Management will decide the reasonable
shelf life to allow for the product to be produced, stored, sold and consumed before the quality
deteriorates. In general, for crisps this is 6-8 weeks.
Case I: Consider a simple case where the shelf life is known for a given material and it is
proposed to replace it with a new material to achieve a longer life (e.g. use a foil based laminate)
or to achieve a cost reduction (e.g. use a thinner gauge of material). The following equation can
be applied:
Shelf life for new material = shelf life for the old x

Case II: To estimate the shelf life based on the rate of permeation
The packaging technologist collects data to evaluate the performance of the material. The crisps
are packed in the proposed packaging material and weighed. They are stored in a controlled
atmosphere to prevent fluctuations that would affect the accuracy of the results and loose the
pattern in the graph. The packs are weighed daily and the increase in weight due to the permeation
of moisture is measured and graphed over time. The graph shows that the weight increases every
day but at a decreasing rate, until equilibrium has been attained. A point will be reached when the
product has absorbed so much moisture that it has lost its texture and become unacceptable. The
equilibrium moisture content can be found quickly by opening the packet and letting the contents
come to equilibrium.
Similar curves are found for other products, but in opposite direction for products like bread that
will dry out. However, by moving these to a common zero (by plotting the difference in weight
against time), it is found that the curves are very similar and can be plotted as the change in
weight to the change when the pack is opened.
Typical curves:

Fig: Crisps weight gain wrt time Fig: Crisps/Bread curves
The resultant curve is analogous to the curve representing the voltage rise across a capacitor with
a time constant CR.
Circuit diagram:

Here, CR represents the capacity of the pack for moisture gain in storage by the effective
resistance of the packaging. This curve is simplified by a binomial curve that corresponds to the
equation:
110
CR
t
=
C
d

d
C

Where d is the weight gain in time t by the sealed pack and c is the ultimate weight gain of the
pack on exposure to the atmosphere.
Consider the following examples:
1. A packet of biscuit gained 0.25 gm weight on day one, and when left open, it ultimately
gained 20 gm. It has been found that at a water gain of 5 gm, the product becomes
unacceptable. Calculate the shelf life of the biscuits in this material.
1
st
case, To calculate the effective resistance R,
d = 0.25, C = 20 and t = 1
We know,
CR
t
=
C
d

d
C

or,

.

.

or, R = 4
2
nd
case, To calculate the shelf life, let t be unknown
or,

.

.

or, t = 21.3 days.
Suppose these results are reported to the sales manager who insists on a six-week shelf life. How
can this be achieved?
There are several options, the material thickness could be increased, i.e. doubled, or a better
barrier material could be used, or the surface area of the pack could be reduced. The most
economic option is to be chosen.
2. A packet of cigarettes was exposed to a dry atmosphere where it lost 0.3 gm in 7 days. The
pack was then opened and came to equilibrium losing 2.7 gm. If the maximum loss than can
be tolerated by the product is 1 gm, find the shelf life.
1
st
case, To calculate the effective resistance R,
d = 0.3, t = 7 and C = 0.3 + 2.7 = 3
We know,
CR
t
=
C
d

d
C

or,

.

.

or, R = 23.1
2
nd
case, To calculate the shelf life, let t be unknown
or,
.

or, t = 25.98 days.
\ t 26 days.
Real life complications arise due to the fluctuations in temperature and humidity, secondary
causes of deterioration like oxidation, and the effect of secondary packaging that can reduce the
rate of moisture penetration. The theoretical results should be checked by a storage trail. Changes
111
in weight, colour, odour, taint, and cracks should be noted. Conditions of storage should be
representative of expected market conditions. Product should be periodically purchased from
shops and checked to see if it has performed satisfactorily. Seal integrity is also critical as if it is a
poor seal then the thickness of the material will be irrelevant and the calculated shelf life will be
meaningless.
Packing equipment should be kept in good condition, well maintained and must be regularly
checked.
Sensory evaluation
Regardless of the methods chosen or the reasons for its choice, sensory evaluation of the product
is likely to be used either alone or in combinations with instrumental or chemical analyses to
determine the quality of the product. The instrumental and chemical analyses are neither prone to
fatigue nor subject to the physiological and psychological functions that characterize human
performance. However, because human judgment is the ultimate arbiter of food acceptability, it is
essential that the results obtained from any instrumental or chemical analysis correlate closely
with the sensory judgments for which they are to substitute. Other problems with sensory
evaluation are high cost of using large testing panels and the ethics of asking panelists to taste
spoiled or potentially hazardous samples.
Three experimental designs are commonly used for the purpose of shelf life estimation: the paired
comparison test, the duo-trio test, and the triangle test. Descriptive methods are used to measure
quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the products and require specially trained panelists.
Affective methods are used to evaluate preference, acceptance or opinions of products and do not
require trained panelists.
The selection of a particular sensory evaluation procedure for evaluating products undergoing
shelf life testing is dependent on the purpose of the test. Acceptability assessments by untrained
panelists are essential to an open dating program, while discrimination testing with expert panels
might be used to determine effect of a new packaging material on product stability. However, an
expert panel is not necessarily representative of consumers, much less different consumer
segments. Even if that assumption can be made, a cutoff level of acceptability has to be decided.
The time at which a large (but predetermined) percentage of panelists judge the food to be at or
beyond that level is the end of shelf life.

112
EVALUATION OF PACKAGING MATERIALS
Introduction
The main functions of package are:
Protection of the product
Safety in storage and handling
Sales appeal by creating a brand image
The various BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards), BS (British Standards), ASTM (American Society
for Testing Materials), ISO (International Organization for Standardization), and institutions like
IIP (Indian Institute of Packaging , NCL, and the CFTRI (Central Food Technology Research
Institute) provide guidelines for the development and testing of package suitable for any particular
product. This field is continuously enlarging with respect to polymers, conversion methods, forms
and applications. Therefore, it is necessary to continuously upgrade the test methods, and design
tailor-made methods for each new end-use. Naturally all the test methods evolved for testing of
packages and packaging materials need to be precisely taken care of for the above mentioned
functions of a package.
Materials and Package Testing
Testing is necessary at different stages, especially before the product can be launched onto the
market, to ensure that it will be satisfactory. Tests help to reveal how the pack will perform in
practice, and also help to evaluate the alternatives. It can be decided what quality is required, for
e.g., what grade of board or gauge of plastic is required. Routine tests are carried out to check the
quality of new deliveries of material to ensure that it complies with the specification. The test
condition must be realistic as possible to ensure a good correlation between the test results and
actual performance. To achieve this, the test material should be conditioned (brought into
equilibrium) with the conditions of use. For e.g., a corrugated box being stored in the dry raw
materials store will behave differently in the humid atmosphere of a finished goods refrigerated
store. Similarly, the permeability of a plastic film is dependent on the temperature and relative
humidity. Therefore, tests should be carried out under known conditions & to approved standards
that can be repeated for testing.
Methods of Evaluation
Evaluation may be carried out on complete packs (filled or empty), on pack components or
materials, or on the product to be carried. The methods of testing can be classified as:
Physical tests: Physical tests look at factors such as puncture resistance, tear resistance,
stretch, shrinkage, impact, density, tensile and compression strength, coefficient of friction,
fragility factor, thermal shock, etc
Biological tests: Biological tests consider resistance to microbial attack, pests and rodents, etc
Chemical tests: chemical tests consider the effect of the pack on the product and of the
product on the pack. Therefore, it looks at corrosion and migration issues, and chemical
resistances to acids, alkalis, oils, solvents, etc. Also, GTR and WVTR are measured.
Visual tests: Visual tests look at issues such as clarity, print quality, gloss, haze, shape and
electrostatic attraction which can cause problems with dust clinging to the pack.
Some of these tests are carried out on the finished pack while others will be on the packaging
material. The type of test carried out and the quantity of frequency will depend on the situation,
and the degree of confidence that there is in the quality of the supplier. A manual packaging line
will have fewer critical parameters than an automated one.
113
Classifying methods of evaluation in another way, there are basically four avenues of approach:
Comparative testing: To compare the unknown pack, component, material or product with one
whose performance is known. This is the simplest approach and can determine not only
whether the unknown is better or worse than the known but also provide a measure of the
degree of difference.
Assessment testing: To simulate the events likely to be experienced in service and deduce,
from the results, what may happen.
Investigational testing: To determine whether the strength or weakness of the packaged
product lie.
Observational testing: To observe and/or record the performance in field trials or actual
distribution.
Purposes of Testing
Generally, the testing is carried out for the following purposes:
1. Selection of packaging material
2. Comparison of two or more different packaging materials
3. As an aid in designing of package
4. Assure quality and conform specification
Test Procedures
There are different tests and procedures based on different packaging materials used.
A. Paper Testing
The test of paper and paperboards can be divided into two groups, viz., (i) mechanical properties
and (ii) physicochemical properties. A summary of tests is outlined as follows:
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES (STRENGTH)
PHYSCOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Tensile strenght
Elongation
Bursting strength
Tear resistance
Puncture resistance
Abrasion resistance
Thickness
Basis weight
Water absorptiveness
Chloride content
pH
Moisture content
Alkali staining
Wax coverage
Grease resistance
Resistance to insect penetration
Flute height
Flat crush test
Static bending test
Resistance to glue bond to water
Gas transmission rate (GTR)
Water vapor transmission rate (WVTR)
TEST OF PAPER AND PAPERBOARDS
Static tensile strength
Dynamic tensile strength
Edge tearing resistance
Internal tearing resistance

114
Static Tensile Strength
Tensile strength test gives an indication of the resistance of paper when subjected to a pulling
force applied parallel to the plane of the sample. The tensile strength is influenced by (a)
composition of material, (b) formation on the machine, (c) moisture content, and (d) other
parameters like coating, creeping and calendaring. The beating of the cellulose fibers during
pulping has a great effect on the tensile strength of paper. Excess beating will break the long
cellulose fibrils and weakens the paper. The relationship of beating time (and extent) with paper
properties like bursting strength, tensile strength, and tear resistance is shown below.
bursting strenght
tensile strength
tear resistance
Beating time

Tensile strength is important in tapes, wrapping paper, lining paper and bags.
Instrument
An instrument called Good Brand Tensile Tester is used for this purpose. The specimen is
clamped between jaws and pulling force is applied. The force at which the specimen breaks is
noted as kg/15mm.
A schematic diagram of the instrument is given below:
Paper specimen
2 inch length
15mm width
Elongation scale
Pullling jaw

Elongation is a strength property. It is the length at the breaking point over the original length
multiplied by 100%. It gives the % of change in length. The material should be tested in both the
machine and cross directions. It is measured by the same instrument on a calibrated scale (having
a pointer) and the result is expressed as:
% Elongation = (reading100) / (2 inch)
Dynamic Tensile Strength
This measures the energy required to break a specimen of specified dimension by subjecting it to
an impact stress. The paper is clamped in a sigmoid shape. A pendulum is released to cut the
paper. This test is important for construction of multiwall paper bags as it gives an index to the
capacity of the sample to absorb impact shock.
Instrument
Van der Korput Baarn Tensile Tester is used for this purpose. The specimen is clamped between
jaws in sigmoid shape. The pendulum is released and the impact (kg.cm) as registered on the scale
is noted.
Pendulum
Specimen

115
Bursting Strength Test
This test is also known as Muller test. It is the measure of the resistance offered by the material to
a steadily increasing pressure applied at right angles to its surface. The burst pressure is the
pressure at the point of rupture. The bursting strength test gives an indication of tensile strength
and stretch of paper. The instrument may use hydraulic or pneumatic pressure. This test is used as
a control test in the paper mill. The bursting strength is largely accepted as a specification for
boards used in container construction and also for all types of papers.
The specimen is fixed in the testing equipment and the pressure (pneumatic or hydraulic) is
applied. The pressure (psig or kg/cm
2
) at which the specimen ruptures is noted. The diameter of
the disc affects the results, a smaller one being more difficult to burst. This test is generally
carried out for paper, board and plastic packages. A high bursting strength is required for packing
products that can move inside the pack such as dried peas, which can apply a concentrated
pressure on a small area of material.
circular paper
pressure
bursting

Tear Resistance
There are two types of tear resistance tests, viz., edge tearing and internal tearing; the latter is
more widely used. Tear stain is usually measured in glassine, vegetable parchment paper, wax-
coated paper and kraft paper. The test is designed to determine the force (gm x cm) required to
continue, for a fixed distance, a tear already started. This is also known as internal tearing
resistance.
In edge tear resistance, the force needed to start a tear is measured. The tear resistance depends on
grain direction, fiber length, degree of beating, density, surface treatment, etc.
An instrument called Elmendorf Tearing Tester is used. A tear is made in the specimen and is
subjected to a pulling force that continues the tear for a fixed distance and the force is measured.
High tear resistance is useful for heavy packages and many industrial applications. A low tear
strength is beneficial in easy-opening packages.
Puncture Resistance Test
This is also called Beach Puncture Test. It is used in paperboards. Puncture occurs in
transportation, storage and handling due to nails, fork lift truck, lumber, etc. The test gives a
combined assessment of stiffness and tearing resistance of boards.
The instrument is called Beach Puncture Tester. The equipment is provided with different scales
containing weights. The specimen is clamped between jaws and the pendulum with sharp edge
pointer or head is released. The pointer is allowed to clearly and completely go through the
specimen. The energy required to make puncture is measured as inch-once per inch of tear as
shown on the scale or as Joule/m.
Weight
Pendulum
Sharp head
Specimen
Penetration

116
Abrasion Resistance
This test is designed to measure the ability to withstand surface wear during rubbing and friction.
The test consists in abrading the sample with a wheel of standard abradant for a definite number
of revolutions and finding the volume loss as:
Volume loss = weight loss/specific gravity
Specimen
Rubbing wheel

Caliper
Caliper is the term used to describe the thickness of the sample. It is measured with a micrometer
or vernier caliper. This should be tested, especially to check its uniformity throughout the sample.
For corrugated fiberboard, this figure will be reduced due to the compressibility of the material.
Yield
Yield should be calculated. This is the value that determines how many packages can be made
from a kilogram of material. It is measured in units of m
2
/kg.
Basis Weight
To calculate the grammage or gram per square meter (gsm), a known area is weighed and the
weight is divided by the area and converted to the standard units. For corrugated fiberboard, this
can be done for each component, i.e. for each liner & fluting medium & also for the total sample.
Density
It is the weight per unit volume, so it can be calculated from the gsm divided by the caliper.
Chloride Content
The standard method for the determination of sodium chloride is used. The sample is boiled in
water to prepare an aqueous extract, which is then neutralized with acid or base. Chloride content
is determined as NaCl by titrating with silver nitrate.
P
H

P
H
of the sample is measured by first preparing and aqueous extract as described before.
Alkali Staining
In order to qualitatively asses the degree of staining of paper by alkali, an alkaline extract of the
sample is prepared by boiling it with suitable alkali and the color formed is compared with
potassium dichromate-congo red standard.
Wax Coverage
This test is done for wax papers and is done to determine the amount of wax impregnated in the
given sample of paper.
Wax from the sample is first removed using suitable solvents and weighed. The difference in
weight between the original sample and the treated sample, expressed as percentage gives the wax
content in the sample.
Grease Resistance
It is determined by turpentine test. It gives an accelerated comparison of relative rates at which
ordinary oils and greases, commonly found in foodstuffs may be expected to diffuse or penetrate
through the papers like uncoated or unimpregnated greaseproof, glassine or vegetable parchment
paper. It is easier to see if a sheet of blotting paper is placed under the sample paper. A varnish on
board will increase its grease resistance so test a piece that is unvarnished.
117
The sample paper is placed on a sheet of book paper which is rested on a smooth glass surface,
below which an adjustable mirror is provided. A 1-inch glass capillary is allowed to stand on the
sample and filled with sand (5g). The capillary is removed after it has been filled with the sand.
With a dropping pipette 1.1ml colored turpentine (red) is poured over the sand and noted the first
time (transudation time) required to observe the first stain appearing in the book paper as seen
from the mirror.
Cobb Size Test
It is a way of evaluating how resistant a material is to ingress of moisture. This is very important
for packages intended for wet applications such as chilled and frozen products.
Take a 100 cm
2
circle of paper. Weigh it and expose it to 100 ml of water for 120 seconds. Blot
off the excess water and reweigh the sample. The better the sizing, the lower the weight increases.
Moisture Content
Moisture content determination is very important for printing, laminating, coating, curing,
machineability, conformance to the specification, etc. It can be determined by various methods,
including hot air oven, Infra Red moisture meter, and other methods.
Resistance to Insect Penetration
The test determines the strength of paper to resist insect penetration.
Two to three week old, as far as possible uniform size test insects (Sitophilus oryzae, Rhizopertha
dominica, Tribolium castanum, Oryzophilus surinamensis) are kept under starvation for 24 hr.
Place 5g food in a Petri dish 914.5cm dia) and cover it with the test packaging material. Put 100g
test insects and cover the dish. Place the dish under the test conditions (a) 25-28C and 50% RH,
(b) Room temperature and 505 RH, (c) 21.1C and 70% RH, and(d) 37.8C and 95% RH for 3
weeks.
The test material is examined every day for any penetration by the insects. The insects either die
or reach the food after chewing and penetrating the test packaging material.
Petri dish, 14.5cm dia
sample
Food
Insects
Inverted Petri dish

Flute Height
Increase in flute height gives increased stiffness and compression-bearing strength. The flute
height is measured by a traveling microscope.
Flute
Flute height

Flat Crush Test
This test is used for fiberboard. It is the measure of resistance of flutes in corrugated fiberboard to
a crushing force applied perpendicular to the surface. The test is useful for determining stacking
strength of corrugated fiberboard.
Force
Adhesive bond

Edge crush test
It measures the compression resistance in the opposite direction, i.e. at 90
o
. A small, vertically
placed sample of board is loaded and the force it can withstand is measured. Thus, the rigidity of
the board and its resistance to compression can be measured.
118
Static Bending Test
A plot of load versus bending (deflection) is made. It is the measure of stiffness of board and
gives indication of the quality of component and adhesive bond.
Load
Sample specimen bending

Load
90
60
30
0

Water Resistance of Glue Bond
The test determines water resistance of glue lines of corrugated fiberboard. This property is
particularly important where high degree of bond strength is required. Water makes the glue bond
weak.
Gas Transmission Rate (GTR)
O
2
, N
2
, and CO
2
are generally used for GTR studies. The test measures the permeability of gases
across the packaging material. This is an important test because penetration of O
2
is detrimental to
most foods. Permeability of CO
2
and N
2
is tested for material used in inert atmosphere packaging,
such as those used in meat products, milk products, fish, fats and oils, instant coffee, etc.
GTR is defined as the volume of gas flowing normal to two parallel surfaces at steady-state
conditions, through unit area of the material in unit time, under unit pressure differential and und
the conditions of the test.
The material being tested is arranged in a clamp so that it separates the test cell from an evacuated
manometer. The pressure across the film is one atmosphere. As gas penetrates the sample, the
mercury in the manometer is depressed. Conditions are controlled to give a constant rate. The
height of the mercury is plotted against time giving a straight line whose slope is the GTR for
those conditions of temperature and relative humidity.
Gas
Hg column
Pressure difference
Steel disc

Water Vapor Transmission Rate (WVTR)
This is a very important property. It decides the shelf life of foodstuffs. It is used for packaging
materials intended for packaging frozen foods, dehydrated foods, instant coffee, fresh food, etc.
The measurement is expressed as:
WVTR = gram of water permeated/day/m
2
at 37.8C and 90% RH
119
WVTR operator filled with known weight of desiccant (water absorbing material such as silica
gel or anhydrous calcium chloride) is taken. The packaging material is fixed on the dish. After the
weight is noted, it is placed in the test chamber at 37.8C (100F) and 90% RH for 24hr. the
weight is taken for some successive days. The weight gain (in gram) versus the number of days is
plotted and the slope is found. WVTR is given by:
WVTR = (average slope10
4
) / 50, where 50 denotes 50cm
2
, the area of the dish.

Specimen
Calcium chloride
Petri plate
Seal
Controlled condition

Days
Slope

This method is suitable for materials with a rate of at least 1gm/day/sq. m. Accuracy is 10%.
A more accurate method is required for high barrier materials. The film is clamped in a test cell.
One side is exposed to a high humidity atmosphere while the other is dry air. As moisture
permeates the film, it is detected by a resistor or an infra red absorption cell. The time taken for a
standard change in the RH on the dry side is measured.
B. Plastic Material Tests
Plastic Packages
Plastic packages can be broadly classified as:
Rigid packages: These include injection-moulded and blow-moulded containers and bottles as
well as those made by powder sintering and thermoforming processes.
Semi-rigid packages: These include mainly collapsible tubes and laminated tubes.
Flexible packages: This is a very wide field ranging from simple polyethylene bags to the heavy-
duty woven sacks, and includes laminates of PE to paper, PET/BOPP films, aluminium foil,
cellophane, strip packages, shrink packages, skin packages, multilayer films, etc.
Collect a variety of plastics packages and check to see if it is a single material or a composite one
by tearing it gently. A laminate will be obvious as the individual layers will tear at different rates.
Identification of Plastic
Infra red spectroscopy
It is the best method to use as each material has distinctive set of absorption peaks.
PE: Peaks at 3.4, 6.8, 7.4 and 14 mm
PP: Peaks at 3.4, 7.0, 8.0 and 12 mm
PS: Peaks at 7.0 and 9.5 mm
PVC has broad band at 14.5 mm, and PVdC peaks at 9.3 and 9.6 mm
However, spectroscopy equipment is not always available and alternate techniques are used.
Density tests
The material is placed into water to see if it floats. If it floats, then it is lighter in density than
water and must be a polyolefin. To decide the exact family of polyolefins, prepare solutions of
methyl alcohol to known densities as follows:
% Concentration of methyl alcohol Density
74 0.88
62 0.90
50 0.92
44 0.93
120
38 0.94
26 0.96
The sample is put into each solution and observed to see if it floats or sinks. Therefore, the density
can be found.
The sample may also be scratched with a fingernail. If it scratches easily, it is LDPE, a slight
scratch on a glossy surface suggests HDPE, whereas scratching PP will leave no mark.
Burning tests
The sample is held on a spatula in the flame of bunsen burner and the flame is observed for colour
and smell. When the sample is removed from the flame, it is observed to see if it continues to
burn.
If the material doesnt burn and retains its shape, then the presence of thermosetting resins, such
as phenol formaldehyde, urea formaldehyde, or melamine formaldehyde may be suspected. If the
substance burns in the flame but this flame is readily extinguished on removal from the flame,
then the substance suspected may be PVC and related polymers. If the substance continues to
burn after removal from the flame, then the colour of the flame should be observed for
identification.
The polyolefins burn with a yellow or orange flame, about which there is a blue mantle. PP will
burn and smell like paraffin wax. HDPE burns and drips like wax. PS burns with an orange flame
and lots of dark sooty smoke. A yellow flame may be nylon, which burns with the smell of
burning vegetation or hair, due to its nitrogen content. PET burns with a slightly sweet odour and
melts into pearls.
Halogenic materials such as PVC are readily identified by the copper wire test. A piece of copper
wire is placed in the flame of a bunsen burner until it glows. It is then contacted with the plastic
material before being returned to the flame. The colour of the flame will change to a blue/green if
halogen is present.
Solubility tests
Different types of plastics have various solubilities in various solvents and this property can be
used to identify them. Polystyrene is soluble in toluene, carbon tetrachloride, acetone and ethyl
acetate but not in methyl alcohol. Polyethylene is soluble in hot toluene and benzene. PVC is
soluble in cyclohexane, dioxane and tetrahydrofurane.
Put 15 ml of the required solvent into a 50 ml beaker and cut the material to be tested into
required size (6 mm x 6 mm x 1.5 mm thick). Other solvents can be used to double check the
result based on the polarity. For e.g. PA will also dissolve in formic acid. For polyolefins, the
toluene should be heated. Therefore, initially put the sample into water to see if it floats or sinks.
If it floats, it is likely to be polyolefin and so heat the toluene.
Heating tests
This test is carried out by heating the substance in a small dry test tube, at first over a small flame
and finally to ignition. Particular attention should be paid to the odour, acidity and alkalinity of
vapours that are given off. For e.g. PVC gives fish-like odour, nylon gives the odour of burning
vegetation, cellulose acetate butyrate gives the smell of rancid butter and so on.
General Test Methods
Testing of blown-moulded containers
Plastic bottles should be evaluated for the following in addition to other tests:
Stress Crack Resistance
It depends mainly on the container design, resin, processing conditions, post-treatment, etc.
121
The commonly used method is the Teepol method in which the test containers are filled, sealed
and stored at 80
o
C immersed in 10% solution of Teepol in water. The containers are checked
visually for cracks after 8 hours and then every 24 hours, for a period of 360 hours. Up to 50%
failure at the end of the test period is an acceptable level.
The probable causes of failure are:
Non-uniform wall thickness
Inadequate wall-thickness
Degradation of the polymer during processing
Poor container design
Improper polymer grade selection
Container Breakage
The test is intended to determine if the container finally designed has adequate strength to
withstand drop tests. A common test method consists of filling the container to shoulder level
with water at 27
o
C, capping and dropping it from a height of 1.5 m. The initial drop is on the
bottom edge of the container, the second drop on the wall, and the third drop so that the point of
impact is on the flat area on the bottom of the sample.
Container Collapse
It is caused by the loss of the product contained in the container leaving a vacuum which draws in
the container walls. This loss results initially from the absorption of the product into the container
wall, which on continued use cause the product to diffuse through the walls and finally evaporate
from the outside.
Another possibility is that the product is filled at a high temperature in liquid form the filled-
sealed containers are transferred to low temperature chambers for solidification in fine crystal
form. The reduction in volume on solidification creates a vacuum within, resulting in collapse,
called the panelling of containers.
Wall collapse is essentially a visual observation and is governed by factors like resin density, wall
thickness, container design, and filling techniques.
Neck and Thread Dimensions
The closure fittings must be correct and within close tolerances as they are produced separately
and from different polymers. As with the overall dimensions, these are checked manually on a
random sample basis, using maximum and minimum gauges for dimensions and templates for the
threaded profiles.
Weight and Material Distribution
The weight of the blown container and the uniformity of the wall thickness are important
considerations. The random samples must be checked for this factor.
Container Volume and Weight
These factors are important for confirming that the containers supplied pose no problem on the
production line. The weight determines the wall thickness which in turn affects the container
properties like strength, permeability, wall thickness, etc.
Testing of Heavy Duty Packages
The particular reference is to woven sacks, which are used for the packaging of fertilizers,
chemicals, animal feeds, etc. The important requirements are:
Fabric Strength
A piece of sample is cut from the sack and wrap-way and weft-way are tested on tensile testing
machine.
122
Seam Strength
A cut sample from the seam is tested on a tensile testing machine for the breaking strength.
Drop Test
A filled sack is dropped vertically on the bottom from a height of 1.5 m and there should be no
failure in three drops.
Testing of Laminates
The major problems with laminates generally are:
Delamination
Odour
Printing adhesion
Sealing properties
Type Tests
Storage Tests
The representative samples of the pouch material should be tested individually for storage
properties with the edible oil to be packed into them. The storage tests should be carried out both
at accelerated conditions (902% RH & 381
o
C) & standard conditions (652% RH & 271
o
C).
The change in free fatty acid (FFA) as a % of oleic acid, moisture content and rancidity of the
contents should be noted at intervals of 8 days and 15 days for testing under accelerated and
standard conditions respectively. The pouch material is acceptable if the edible oil doesnt show
rancidity or increase in the values of the moisture content and FFA above the permissible limits
specified at the end of 40 days storage period under accelerated conditions and 120 days under
standard conditions.
Overall Migration Tests
Representative samples of the pouch material are subjected to overall migration test with n-
heptane at 252
o
C for 30 minutes. The maximum extraction value for the material should not
exceed 10 mg/dm
2
.
Stack Load Test
Four pouches should be filled with the edible oil and sealed in the usual way. The pouches after
filling and sealing with edible oil should be allowed to cool down for at least 4 hours before
selecting them for this test. These pouches should be subjected to a uniformly distributed load for
72 hours at ambient temperature.
The pouches should be laid in flat position. The application of load should be through a flat
wooden plank or steel plate which should be placed on the pouches in such a way that load
distribution is equal on each pouch. After completion of the test, the pouches should be examined
for any leakages at the seams or bursting.
Drop Test
Ten pouches should be selected form 1 hour production or a lot of 100 pouches filled and sealed
in the usual way. The sample pouches should be allowed to cool down to ambient conditions for
at least 4 hours.
Five pouches should be tested first. Each pouch should be dropped 4 times, one drop on each flat
surface (upper and lower), and one drop on each longer side. The pouches should be dropped on a
flat, smooth, hard surface, such as a concrete floor or a steel plate, from a height of 1.2 m. Each
pouch should be examined for any leakages after the test. The lot can be considered as passing if
none of the five sample pouches fails in the drop. If any of the samples fails in the drop, then the
other set of five pouches should be tested in the similar way.
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Vibration Test
The vibration table should be of adequate size to accommodate 110 pouches kept in a single layer
and provided with an arrangement to prevent the falling down of the pouches during testing. The
amplitude and frequency of vibration should be 254 cm and 120 cycles per min respectively.
The pouches after filling with edible oil shall be left for at least 1 hour under ambient conditions
to attain the room temperature. The ambient condition is 655% RH & 272
o
C.
The operating table surface should be clean and dry. A sheet of blotting paper may be spread on
the surface and should be replaced after each test. The filled pouches are placed on the table in
single layer, touching each other. The samples are subjected to vibration test for 40 min by
running the motor. Observe any leakage of oil through the seams of the pouches during or after
the test.
The lot may be considered passing if not more than one pouch shows leakage in the test. In the
case of leakage from more than one pouch, retest must be carried out on a sample of another 10
pouches from the same lot. The lot may be considered passing if in the retest, not more than one
pouch shows leakage; otherwise, it should be rejected.
Optical Tests
One of the outstanding advantages of plastic film in packaging is its transparency. Hazy films
often are not aesthetically pleasing. A film exhibiting a significant degree of gloss may be
advantageous in certain packages and harmful in other applications.
Gloss
Gloss refers to transparency, shining or sparkle seen in the packaging material. High gloss is
desirable in most applications. The film exhibits consumer appeal due to its inherent sparkle.
Gloss is assessed subjectively or objectively with gloss meter. Gloss is the measure of the ability
of the material to reflect light and is expressed as the fraction of original light (white light) at an
angle of 45 falls on the surface of the test material. It is measure by gloss meter equipped with
photosensitive cell which measures the amount of reflected light. A high reading on the meter
indicates high amount of light reflected and the consequent increased gloss.
45
o
Photocell

Haze
The haze measurements are conducted on specially designed haze meter, which measures light
that is scattered from the incident beam. It consists of a light source and an integrating sphere
capable of detecting transmitted light. The sample is placed between the light source & the sphere.
By turning the sphere, a measure of scattered light is obtained. Percent haze at angles greater than
2.5
o
is obtained. Low readings indicate less scattered light and clear films.
Clarity
This is the see-through property of packaging material. This is a subjective test and based on
visual appearance. The specimen is compared with set of eight standard photographs for the
measurement of clarity. Objective tests are also done, using the clarity meter, in which the light is
allowed to pass through the sample and specular transmittance is measure using the expression:
T
s
= 100I
s
/ I
0

Where, T
s
= specular transmittance; I
s
= T
s
with specimen; I
0
= T
s
without specimen
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Mechanical Tests
The mechanical tests relate to the basic characteristics of the film. Overall film performance and
strength are mechanical properties.
Tensile strength, Elongation, Tear resistance, Burst strength, Puncture resistance, Gauge or
Caliper, Yield, GTR and WVTR See test of paper packaging
Yield Strength
Yield strength is the tensile strength at the 1
st
point on non-elastic deformation, divided by area.
Impact Test
These tests are designed to measure the ability of films to withstand fracture by shock. The test is
a measure of toughness of the material. It is a combination of deformation and braking properties.
A dart is dropped vertically at the center of sample film which is held flat. The weight of dart can
be increased using attachable weights. The weight for with 50% of the specimens fail is reported
as impact failure weight.
Another test used is the pendulum impact tester. A hammer-pendulum is allowed to swing
through a sample. The difference in energy between the pendulum at maximum height and after
sample rupture is known as the impact strength.
Stress Flex
The ability of the film to be continually exposed to severe stresses is of great importance. Various
methods are available for the test and the suitable method is based on the end use.
A flex tester measures the folding of a film backwards and forwards at a given rate. A recording
of the number of cycles necessary for film fracture is obtained. Flex testing can be conducted in
freezing or humid environments.
Heat Seal Strength
It measures the strength of the welding of sealed points of heat sealable plastics and laminates.
This is the test of efficiency of heat sealing. The test can be done by tensile tester. The two sides
are clamped in jaws and the force that breaks the seal is noted.
Coefficient of Friction (COF)
Two pieces of films are placed on an inclined plane with a weight on top. The angle of inclination
is increased until one layer slips. The COF is the tangent of the angle of inclination at which this
occurs.
Softening Point
It is the temperature at which the plastic begins to flow or to be deformed, i.e. where it softens. It
is measured by the Vicat test which expresses the results as the temperature at which an
indentation of 1 mm occurs when the test specimen is subjected to pressure by a standard needle
with a 1 sq. mm surface area, under a standard load of 1 kg.
Melt Flow Index (MFI)
It is used instead of the molecular weight of the material as it is easier to measure. It is defined as
the rate of flow in grams of a thermoplastic material at a given temperature extruded in 10 min
under a constant pressure through an orifice of a set size. For a pressure of 300 KPa, a load of
2160 gm is used, whereas with a 700 KPa pressure, a load of 5000 gm is used. For polyethylene,
the given temperature is 190
o
C, whereas for polypropylene it is 230
o
C.
A high value of MFI means it flows easily. The MFI is inversely proportional to the molecular
weight. The test procedure involves placing a sample of the material in a cylinder, preheating it to
the required temperature and lowering a piston of the given weight then measuring the rate of
flow of the molten material. Typical values range from 0.1-50 gm in 10 minutes.
125
Test for Tinting (of Printing Inks)- product resistance to printed pouch
Tints can solubilize in fats and oils. The test is performed by smearing edible oil to be packed on
printed portion and rubbed firmly after one hour with tissue paper for 10 times. There shall be no
significance removal of print and the printed material shall still be readable.
Test for Ink Adhesion of Printed Pouches - Decoration
The test assesses the strength of ink adhesion on printed plastic or pouch. Apply two strips of 25
mm wide transparent pressure-sensitive tape or cellotape to the printed area of the pouch, one
piece down the length and the other along the width of the pouch. Press the tape firmly onto the
pouch and leave for at least 15 s.
Remove the tapes by pulling slowly at about 1 cm/s from one end at about 90
o
to the pouch
surface. There should not be significant removal of the print from the surface of the pouch and the
printed material should still be readable.
Chemical Resistance
Plastics have resistance to chemicals and solvents in varying degrees. This can be tested by
completely immersing a sample of plastic in the chemical or solvent. Any change in appearance
and other properties must be noted.
Environmental Stress Cracking
Cracks are sometimes found in plastic materials due to it being stressed in the presence of a
particular chemical environment, e.g. certain polar organic compounds. The polyolefin plastics
are particularly susceptible to this phenomenon.
For the test procedure, take a strip of plastic material, 3.8 x 1.3 x 0.32 cm thick. Score along the
central 1.9 cm to a depth of 0.05-0.064 cm. Bend the strip along its long axis through 180
o
with
the scored line on the outside and hold it in this position with a pin. Put it into a test-tube
containing the product and keep at 50
o
C. The time it takes until failure is noted and can be
compared to other grades of material.
C. Glass Testing
For adequate performance on fast filling machines, glass container dimensions are critical and
must fall within the set limits known as tolerance. The major dimensions to be measured are the
height, body diameter, wall thickness, capacity, bore diameter and the finish.
Thermal Shock
It can be tested by immersing the container in hot water and letting it come to equilibrium for
about half an hour before plunging it into cold water, for which the temperature difference of
45
o
C is recommended. The container should be emptied of any hot water before it is transferred to
the cold water to prevent rise in temperature. Thermal shock is important for containers that will
be retorted or heat processed.
Finish Details
Thread engagement is defined as the number of turns given to the lid from the point of first
engagement to the point where the sealing edge of the bottle makes contact with the liner. It is
greater than or equal to 1. It can be measured by marking the bottle neck and finish at the point of
initial engagement & then counting the number of revolutions until it reaches the sealing surface.
Thread pitch is the number of turns of thread per unit travelled in the transverse direction, i.e. per
cm. It measures the steepness or slope of the thread. A low number means that the thread is steep,
giving a more rapid screw on and off. This can be measured by a caliper and reported as the
vertical distance down travelled by the lid in one revolution of thread engagement.
The glass containers should also be observed for any defects, viz. critical, major and minor.
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D. Metal Testing
To determine the quantity of tin coating on a sample of tinplate
A sample of tinplate is cut out of the container and its area is measured and it is weighed. Take
250 ml of conc. HCl in a beaker and add 5 gm of antimony trioxide (Sb
2
O
3
) to it. Immerse the
metal sample in the solution and leave for at least 1 min after all the hydrogen gas has been given
off. This process may take several hours for completion.
The chemical reactions that occur are as follows:
Sb
2
O
3
+ 6 HCl 2SbCl
3
+ 3H2O
2Sn + HCl + 2SbCl
3
2SnCl
4
+ 2 Sb + H
2

The metal is then removed from the solution and washed carefully under the tap. The solution
should be disposed of carefully after neutralizing with sodium hydroxide. The surface of the metal
is carefully wiped with cotton wool or clean cloth to remove the loose antimony. Dry the sample
and reweigh it. The difference in weight so obtained is the weight of tin coating for that area of
metal. This should be converted to the standard units of grams per square meter.
An allowance should be made for the small amount of iron that is also dissolved. This is
recommended to be 0.33 gm for plate that has been electroplated with the same amount of tin on
each side and 0.67 gm for that which has been differentially electroplated. Alternatively, the edge
of the tinplate sample may be slightly dipped in wax to cover the exposed surface from where iron
may be dissolved in the solution.
Package Testing
Other tests include transit testing. This can be in a laboratory that simulates hazards such as
vibration, compression, impacts, etc. It is important that the package is tested on each face and
corner to find the worst possible case.
Shock is a stress induced by sudden deceleration, i.e. if the vehicle stops abruptly. The resistance
to shock is known as the fragility factor (ff). It is defined as the maximum deceleration that can be
tolerated under specific conditions. It is measured by putting the package on a shock testing
machine which drops it from a known height on a retarder which gives it a known deceleration.
The height is increased until failure occurs, and the ff is measured in g, i.e. acceleration due to
gravity. The test is repeated for each surface of the pack to ensure that the weakest point is found.
The compressive strength of the box depends on its cross sectional area over which the load is
distributed. This value is found by placing a box between two metal plates. The upper one
descends, subjecting the box to an increasing compressive force until it fails.
Impact testing of filled containers is used when testing a new design or material for plastic bottles.
It will reveal any weakness that could lead to leakage in transit. The bottles are filled with water
and dropped down an unplasticised PVC tube onto a level rigid base plate. The distance dropped
can be varied. The height at which half the samples fail is taken to be the maximum impact that
the bottle can sustain.
Compatibility Testing
One of the most important parameters in selecting a particular material for packaging of a product
is its compatibility with the product to be packaged.
The tests should be carried out by storing the products for the expected shelf-life to ensure that the
contents and the container have no adverse affects on each other. Accelerated tests are possible.
These are based on the theory that a rise in temperature of 18
o
F corresponds to a doubling of the
rate of reaction. An accelerated test is carried out at 50
o
C for 28 days. At the end of the test
period, the containers are examined for change in weight, leakage, cracks, panelling, etc. The
127
temperature and duration of a test has to be selected depending on the product and the product
requirement. This is useful to give an indication of the likelihood of a compatibility problem.
However, a long term test programme under standard conditions should be carried out to confirm
compliance with the regulations.
Migration of constituents of the packaging material into the product is important. An overall
migration limit has been set to ensure that the health of the consumer is not at risk. The overall
limit is that a maximum of 60 mg of constituents may be released per kg of food for plastic
containers. For film or packages that have a surface area that is easily measured, the overall limit
is 10 mg per square decimeter of the surface area of the material. The determination of these
minute quantities requires very specialist facilities. The results may be obtained by standard
methods so that they may be compared on an equal footing with others.
A schedule has been established, stating which solvents are to be used with each type of product.
In some cases, a reduction factor can be used. The test conditions must reflect the conditions of
use of the product. So, products cooked in contact with the material must be tested at high
temperatures. If the contact time with the material is more than 24 hours at temperatures less than
5
o
C, the test should be carried out for 10 days at 5
o
C. If the storage temperature is between 5 and
40
o
C, the test should be conducted at 40
o
C. A contact time of less than 2 hours at temperatures
between 100 and 121
o
C must be tested for 30 minutes at 121
o
C.
Shelf Life Testing
To estimate the shelf life based on the rate of permeation
The initial moisture content of the product is measured. The product is packaged in the proposed
packaging material and weighed. A control pack of the product in the standard packaging material
is also tested. They are stored in the controlled atmosphere. The packs are weighed daily and the
increase in the weight due to permeation of moisture is measured and graphed over time. The
graph shows that the weight increases everyday but at a decreasing rate, until equilibrium has
been attained. A point will be reached when the product has absorbed so much moisture that it has
lost its texture and become unacceptable. The equilibrium moisture content can be found quickly
by opening the packet and letting the contents come to equilibrium.
Plot the change in weight to the change when the pack is opened.
The typical curves are:

The general formula applicable is:

Where d is the weight gain in time t by the sealed pack and c is the ultimate weight gain of the
open pack on exposure to the atmosphere. A theoretical value for the shelf life may be calculated
by taking the standard for the maximum moisture content allowable for organoleptic or for legal
reasons. For e.g., in Nepal, the maximum moisture content of biscuits is 6%. This can be
substituted in the equation as the maximum d to calculate t.
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Other Tests
Product Change
Product evaluation for the expected storage life after packaging is necessary to ensure that the
product has remained unchanged. For e.g. tomato ketchup may turn blackish because of oxidation,
or an instant coffee powder may form lumps because of absorption of moisture.
Product Loss
During storage, there may be product loss due to permeation. Permeation is defined as the quality
of being penetrated or allowing other substances to pass or diffuse through. Product loss testing
can be carried out at room temperature and at elevated temperatures for accelerated test results.
The critical factor is to test for a sufficiently long period that product loss occurs at a constant rate
so that shelf-life calculation becomes meaningful.
A minimum of three containers (in the case of film and sealed bags) are weighed at room
temperature and filled up to 80% of the volume capacity with the test product, capped and
reweighed. The containers are exposed to the test temperature and inspected periodically to ensure
proper test environment and observe any changes. In addition, the samples are weighed every
other day to arrive at constant rate of weight loss per 48 hours. After the completion of the test,
containers are emptied, cleaned and dried, and the containers with caps (or bags) weighed again.
Product loss % =

x 100

Saturation solubility % =

x 100
Permeability factor = Weight loss in grams in 24 hours per 100 surface area per mm thickness.
Climatic testing
This test is designed to test the resistance of package to extreme climatic conditions. Some
specifications (ISO 2233 and British Standard 4826 pt. 2) are:
Extreme cold temperature: 50C and 40% RH
Very cold: -18C and 40% RH
Cold and dry: -10C and 40% RH
Hot and dry: 65C and 40% RH
Normal temperature, UK: 20C and 65% RH
Normal temperature, USA: 23C and 50% RH
Wet temperature: 20C and 85% RH
Warm and moist: 38C and 85% RH
Wet tropical: 38C and 95% RH
Water spray test
The test simulates rain and drain water. Water is sprayed on the package at a defined pressure,
time, drop size angle of cone, and position of package. Water consumed is noted and the strength
of package is noted before and after treatment. The strength properties related to this test are (i)
bursting strength, (ii) puncture resistance, and (iii) water absorptiveness.
Taste and Odour
It is important that no taste or odour is imparted to the contents by the plastic material from which
the container is produced. The only possible test is to smell the empty container before filling to
determine, if there exists any unpleasant odour.
Leakage
A package has to be tested for leakage through the seals or caps.
129
SPECIFICATIONS AND QUALITY CONTROL
Introduction
A specification is the document used to communicate the necessary information or details about a
product or a process, etc. According to the Oxford dictionary, it is a detailed description of
construction, workmanship, material, etc. of work to be undertaken. For e.g., it could detail the
various components of an item, the relevant performance parameters, or how a process should be
run, i.e. the time & temperature profile in a pasteurization process. In packaging, the specification
is used as the basis of a contract between the supplier and the consumer so that all are aware of
what is required.
The purpose of the specification is:
To inform all the relevant parties what has been agreed
To form a part of the contract, specifying what is required
To provide a checklist of data against which the supplied item can be tested for compliance
To prevent any misunderstandings
To provide a basis for settling any claims due to unacceptable quality
To provide a basis by which to compare the products offered from different suppliers
The specifications must be clear, concise and unambiguous. Test methods should be standard, i.e.
using international standards such as ISO methods and reproducible. Tolerances should be clearly
stated, e.g. reel width to be 5101 mm means that the reel width can only be between 509-511
mm, and a reel of width 508.8 mm is unacceptable. Where possible a plus and minus tolerance
should be given. All details should be discussed with the supplier and acceptable to him. If he is
incapable of meeting the requirements, he should state so. The tighter the tolerances (i.e. less
deviation, for e.g., 0.5 mm) allow the higher degree of control of the manufacturing conditions
and a corresponding higher level of rejects can be expected at the supplier in order to meet the
specifications. Hence, the product will be more expensive. However, modern packaging
equipment is highly automated and the machines will only accept a certain degree of variation in
the dimensions, reel widths, etc. So, a reasonable specification must be agreed.
For packaging materials, there are two main types of specifications, viz. material and performance
specification. The material specification describes in detail the material type needed to achieve the
required performance. For e.g. a glass bottle specification would specify the type of glass, its
colour, dimensions with tolerances, capacity, weight, and coatings required, etc. A performance
specification is less concerned with which type of material is used but more with how it performs.
It leaves to the supplier to choose the material and specifies the required strength or performance.
For e.g. in the case of corrugated box outer case, a compression strength of 300 kg is required.
The supplier can decide to use a high weight single walled board or thinner gauge double walled
board, to use A, B, or C fluting, etc. The decision is based on the cost of either option as well as
on the availability of the board.
Many companies use a combination of both types of specification, for e.g. a material specification
for the glass bottle (as above) with the performance parameters that it can withstand thermal
shock or a certain internal pressure, specified.
In general, the specifications must include the following information:
The type of the product and its characteristics, e.g. PH, carbonation pressure, etc
Quality or grade of raw material to be used in making the packaging material, e.g. food
grade or recycled
130
Quantity or volume to be packed
Relevant dimensions including tolerances, a drawing is often supplied to show the exact
shape required
Details of special features such as easy opening, peelability, tamper evidence, etc
Graphic design details such as the number of colours ad their pantone references
Details of packing methods, e.g. equipment used and conditions in the packing hall and in
storage such as temperature and RH
Delivery time, i.e. lead time and method of delivery, e.g. by truck, rail, etc. details such as
the quantity per reel, quantity per pallet, height and weight of pallet
Information to be supplied on the pallet label, delivery note, invoice, etc should be agreed
Quality control procedures, test methods and schedule of testing
Classification of defects and allowable levels
Price
Information specification
This is used internally in the factory detailing all the primary, secondary and tertiary components
necessary to make up the retail unit. For e.g. to make a case containing 12 packets of soup will
require 12 lengths of laminate to make the primary pack, plus the outer retail case plus the shrink-
wrap and label. Similarly, 12 cans of baked means require 12 can bodies, 24 ends, 12 labels, glue
to attach the labels, the outer case, its label and shrink-wrap.
This information is used by the storekeeper who issues the material to production, based on the
production schedule. It assists production who needs to know what to use in order to make the
product. The account department uses this information to produce a costing of how much it costs
to pack the product and hence to prepare budgets based on sales forecasts. The buying department
uses it to predict stock requirements and quality assurance uses it to check that all is in order on
the finished pack. The specification is usually originated by the packaging technologist and
approved by the buying manager, and the production, technical and marketing departments. It is
updated as necessary.
Grading of defects critical, major and minor
There always occurs a degree of variability in the quality of any mass produced item. In the
specification, these defects are classified as being critical, major or minor and an agreed level of
defects will be accepted. Otherwise, the supplier would have to carry out a 100% quality
inspection and this would be expensive resulting in more rejects and a more expensive product. A
critical defect is unacceptable in all instances. It means that the item is unsuitable for the required
purposes. A major defect is outside the agreed tolerances but could be used if the machine were
altered slightly or if not affecting too high proportion of the batch. A minor defect is aesthetically
unattractive but is usable. The end use will determine what is acceptable. For e.g. a glass bottle
intended for use for squash will have lower standards than one intended for an expensive bottle of
spirits. As it is not desirable to have too high quantity of defective material, an agreement is made.
The acceptance quality level (AQL) is set. By this method, each type of defect in a given sample
size is given a score and a maximum score is set as being allowable. If a critical defect is 10 on
such a score system and a major defect is 5 while a minor defect is 2, then it is possible to set the
AQL equal to 9 and say that if the sample contains any critical faults, 2 major faults, or 5 minor
faults, etc, the entire delivery will be rejected.
Examples of defects for various types of packaging:
Glass
Critical: broken, contaminated or cracked bottles
131
Major: dimensions outside tolerances but usable
Minor: rough mold marks, seeds, etc
Metal cans
Critical: incomplete lacquer, leaking seams
Major: out of round shape, dents > 25 mm
Minor: dents < 25 mm, scratches, etc
Labels
Critical: wrong colour, wrong text, serve curl
Major: print out of register, rough cut edges
Minor: slight curl, colour deviation from standard
PE bags
Critical: holes, tears, faulty seam
Major: gauge below specification, foggy film, poor print
Minor: rough cut edges, wrinkled appearance
A good inwards QC inspection is essential to prevent discovering that there is a problem only
when the defective material reaches the production line, causing downtime and high levels of
wastages and rejects. Records should be maintained of a supplier performance. It is important to
have a good working relationship with the suppliers, involving them in development programmes
looking at future requirements and investigating new materials and trends. The suppliers should
be of a high quality with their own effective quality programmes.
Verification Specifications
In order to ensure that the good supplied meet the requirements; there should be a verification
specification against which the various parameters should be checked. It should detail the
parameters to be checked, the test methods and the degree of variation allowable. It will also
include details of the AQL, and procedure to be followed if a problem is detected i.e. holding the
suspect batch or quarantining it and further steps to be taken.
Quality
Quality can be best defined in relation to perfection. Perfection is something which can be very
rarely, if ever, attained and the quality is the distance away from perfection that any particular
specimen happens to be. In simple words, quality is the measure of distance away from perfection
of an item. The level of quality must be determined by the particular product involved. It is not
necessary to produce a quality higher than that required to do the job. The second important
aspect of quality is the consistency of the quality throughout the job, and this is particularly
important inters of packaging standards.
It is of course; very important to realize that quality is something that is built in at the time of
manufacture. We must remember the two aspects of quality for which we must cater: first of all
the level of quality required, and secondly, the variation about that level throughout the batch.
Setting a level higher than necessary normally means that costs will be increased for two reasons;
firstly, the maintenance of the higher quality level on the production machines will mean that
more rejects will be produced, and secondly, the requirements for a higher quality level will
almost inevitably mean that the variation will become more obvious over a smaller range than if
the level were lower.
Quality Control
Quality control is the measurement of quality by statistical methods to assist the control of
production. Quality control involves deciding what is acceptable & how consistent are the results,
132
how much variation should be allowed. It is the application of statistical techniques as an aid to
the control of quality at the point and time of manufacture. It covers two aspects, that of the
product and of the process. This can also be applied to the goods inwards inspection procedures,
i.e. the inspection of incoming raw materials. The degree of inspection can range from 0-100%,
depending on how critical the application is.
Quality control is often known as Statistical quality control or even Q.C. Another term frequently
used, or misused is specification, and this also means different things to different people. There
are six possible motives for writing a specification, and each of these give a different result. The
six are:
To invite tenders on a like-for-like basis
To improve the product
To assist the supplier to judge what he has made
To allow the supplier to know more about what he should be trying to produce
To make ones own staff better judges of what they accept or use
For use in case there is an inquest later on.
However, the only valid use for a specification is as a document jointly drawn up by the user and
supplier so that each knows as clearly as possible what is required.
Sampling
As some quality control tests are destructive and most are expensive, it is not reasonable to
inspect every item and the principle for taking a representative sample has been established. The
art of sampling is to select a sample from a population so that the quality of the sample is
representative of the quality of the population from which it was taken. The sample should be
taken in as random a manner as possible to give each container an equal chance of being selected.
The larger the sample taken, the more representative it will be of the batch from which it is taken,
and hence the lower the risk of not detecting serious fault.
There are 3 methods of sampling. The first is called single sampling, because the result is decided
on the examination of a single sample. The second is called double sampling and the decision can
be reached following the examination of a smaller first sample, provided that the quality is either
very good or very bad. If the result is intermediate, this indicates borderline quality, and in this
case, a second sample is taken and the decision is based on the results of the combined sample.
The third type of sampling is called multiple sampling. This is an extension of double sampling
where successive samples are taken until a decision is finally reached to accept or reject.
Assessment of quality
Variability occurs in a batch due to factors such as lubrication, temperature, pressure, speed,
density variations, etc. in the production process. The quality assessment should be accurate. Very
accurate dimensional measurements are affected by surface texture variations. Similarly,
geometric shape, straightness, etc have to be taken into account.
Considerations of errors arising from measuring techniques points to the need to establish (a) the
appropriate number of significant figures for recording the test results, and (b) whether, in
determining the last figure, the result should be rounded up or down.
Despite taking every precaution with our measuring equipment and our techniques, there is no
such thing as a completely accurate measurement. It is possible, however, to find out by
experiment how accurate any measuring process is. This determination covers all the aspects, the
instrumentation deficiencies and observer errors. The measurement has to be repeated a number
of times with several different observers. From the results, it is possible to calculate a mean value
and a figure called the standard deviation. This is a measure of the variability of the results and is
133
designated s (sigma). When this has been determined for a given set of conditions, it is possible
to state the mathematical risk of inaccuracy of a particular measurement exceeding a certain
value. These chances are indicated by the normal distribution, as shown in the figure below:

As seen from the graph, in this pattern, there is a central value encountered most often with a
range on either side.
The Poisson distribution is a distribution of unlikely results which allows for the chance of a
rogue (one not following trend) result in the sample taken.
Variability can be taken as that between successive items, or over a longer period of time as a
trend or long term variation. There are two things which will be examined, namely the variables
of an item such as its colour, length and other measurable features, and its attributes which are
judged on a discrete scale such as odour, texture and flavour. A control chart is used to monitor
results. It reveals the operating level, the normal variability to either side, the trend and any freak
or rogue results. The size of the sample taken depends on the QC system. Four is a common size
but it must be remembered that if there are four sealing stations, then four samples should be
taken from each one. As the size of the sample taken increases, so does the cost of the quality
control system. On the control charts, the average is plotted to see the trend and if it is within
acceptable limits. Plotting the range will reveal the variation around the average value.
The maintenance of QC records is a legal requirement. These records should be maintained until
after the products shelf life has expired in case of customer complaints.
Factors affecting quality in packaging
Modern packaging lines, whether they are fully- or semi-automatic or manual, often contain
highly complex pieces of engineering equipment. It is important for packaging efficiency the
packaging material or containers to be processed are of right and consistent quality. Sub-standard
material or containers will cause hold-ups and reduce the speed of the packaging operation.
Nowadays, emphasis is placed on functional aspects, both during manufacture and in the
preceding design stage. There are four key decisions on controlling the quality of any packaging
or packaging container. They are:
What are the packages intended for?
What properties of the materials used control the requirements?
How can we measure these properties?
When and how will the operators of packaging machines use the measurements we have
made?
To summarize;
Measurement is needed to quantify quality
No measurement is completely accurate
Inaccuracies can be minimized by properly calibrated and sufficiently accurate equipment
used with a proper understanding of the inherent problems in measuring
The probable extent of inescapable inaccuracies can be calculated where necessary.
134
SAFETY AND LEGISLATIVE ASPECTS OF PACKAGING
Package selection criteria
A number of criteria must be considered when selecting a packaging system for a food. These
include:
The stability of the food with respect to the deteriorative chemical, biochemical and
microbiological reactions which can occur. The rates of these reactions depend on both
intrinsic (compositional) and extrinsic (environmental) factors.
The environmental conditions to which the food will be exposed during distribution and
storage. The ambient temperature and humidity are the two important environmental factors
and they dedicate the barrier properties required of the package.
The compatibility of the package with the method of preservation selected. For e.g. if the
food is being thermally processed after packing, then the packaging must be able to
withstand the thermal process.
The nature and composition of the specific packaging material and its potential effect on the
intrinsic quality and safety of the packaged food as a consequence of the migration of
components from the packaging material into the food. This is of major concern in the
selection and use of plastic materials for food packaging. However, migration of
components from the packaging to the food occurs with other materials as well.
Migration
The term migration is used to describe the mass transfer of substances from the package to the
food. Substances that are transferred to the food as a result of contact or interaction between the
food and the packaging material are known as migrants. Migration is a two way process because
constituents of the food can also migrate into the packaging material. In addition, compounds
present in the environment surrounding the packaged food can be absorbed by the packaging
material and migrate into the food. It depends on the nature of the packaging material and the time
of exposure.
It is important to distinguish between overall migration (OM) and specific migration (SM). OM,
also referred to as global migration is the sum of all (usually unknown) mobile packaging
components released per unit area of packaging material under defined test conditions, whereas
SM relates to an individual and identifiable compounds only. OM is therefore a measure of all
compounds transferred into the food whether they are of toxicological interest or not, and will
include substances that are physiologically harmless.
Although the transfer of substances from packaging materials into foods is undoubtedly a
complex process, diffusion resulting from the spontaneous natural molecular movements that
occur without the assistance of external forces such as shaking, mixing or even convection current
in liquids, is thought to be the main controlling mechanism.
Regulatory considerations
Concern about the wholesomeness and safety of foods has increased dramatically nowadays.
Increasing understanding of & interest in technological matters on the part of consumers and
organized consumer groups, coupled with a recognition that neither government nor industry can
guarantee the safety of food, have lent support to this concern.
Safety is an emotive issue, and because everyone must consume food to live, the safety of food is
especially emotive. Most concern usually focuses on food additives, both those added
intentionally to the food and those ending up in the food from processing equipments or others.
135
It is important to note that it is not the toxicity of the chemical at the concentration at which it
appears in the packaging material that is at issue here, but rather the toxicity of the chemical at the
concentration at which it appears in the food from the packaging material.
The toxicity of a substance is its inherent capacity to produce injury when tested by itself. A
chemical may be toxic (i.e. inherently capable of producing injury when tested by itself) without
being a hazard (i.e. likely to produce injury under the circumstances of exposure as in a diet). The
concern, therefore, is not directly with the intrinsic toxicity of a particular chemical component of
a food, but rather with the potential hazards of those materials when the foods in which they are
present are eaten.
Benefit can be defined as anything that contributes to an improvement in condition, which risk
can be subdivided into two categories; vital and non-vital. A vital risk is one essential to life,
while a non-vital risk usually doesnt involve a threat to life but may lead to injury, loss or
damage. Risks can also be divided into voluntary and involuntary risks. An example of voluntary
risk is cigarette smoking, where the risk of lung cancer is likely but no one is compelled to smoke.
An example of involuntary risk is a food additive in staple item of the diet, the additive having
being shown from animal tests to be carcinogenic. The consumption of a chemical that has
migrated from a packaging material into a food is classified as involuntary risk.
The toxicity assessment of the food additives usually follows a decision-tree approach. Acute,
subchronic and chronic toxicity tests are normally required. The final phase of toxicological
evaluation involves assessment of the potential risk to humans and, in particular, the extrapolation
of high-dose experiments with animals to low-dose risk assessments of humans.
Manufacturer package foods in a variety of packaging materials to achieve certain benefits such
as extending the shelf life of the food, making its storage and preparation for consumption more
convenient or reducing the cost of the food compared to its cost if another type of packaging
material were used. The fact that a component of the packaging material may migrate into the
food and pose a risk to the consumer requires that the benefits arising from the use of the
particular material be balanced against the risk arising from the consumption of the component.
Quantifying the risks and benefits and then arriving at a decision that a certain packaging material
should be permitted for use because the benefits outweigh the risks is extraordinarily complex,
and because it is ultimately subjective, there will always be some consumers (and manufacturers)
who will disagree with the final decision.
The way in which the decisions are made about the migration of components from food packaging
materials into foods differ to varying degrees in various countries around the world. The
legislations vary from one country to another with regard to developed and under-developed
countries.

136
ECONOMICS OF PACKAGING
Introduction
The packaging cost must be minimized within reason as it is the product which is being bought
and not the package. However, it is the benefit to be optimized. It is responsible for protecting and
preserving the product and helps it to sell it. Inferior packaging will make a product look cheap
and unattractive, and it may mean that the product is damaged. Some products are sold as
commodities and do not need fancy packaging, others such as expensive confectionary or
premium spirits need to be packed in material suggesting that it contains a premium exclusive
product. Hence, the packaging selected should be appropriate.
Minimising the packaging to such an extent that the product is damaged is meaningless and false
economy. Likewise, using excessive packaging to protect the product from all the conceivable
hazards is wasteful and uneconomical. The resulting product will be so expensive that no one will
buy it. A low level of damaged goods is acceptable for most food items.
Costs
Cost comparison is a major exercise to set out, quantify and cost all the factors relating to a
packaging system. Costs which must be considered include the actual materials used, the labour
and equipment costs, services and overheads.
Savings can often be made on material costs due to the technical improvements being made in
materials science, especially with the application of computers to optimize the design. Thinner
gauges of materials can achieve better results than traditionally. Comparing materials on the basis
of yield may lead to cost savings. There are different barriers available and different combinations
of materials to achieve the required performance at optimum cost. The combinations can be
achieved by laminations and coextrusions. Reuse of packaging material also leads to cost saving.
The labour cost will depend on the degree of automation in the packing line, which in turn
depends on the volume of production, the cost of equipment and the labour charge. The efficiency
of the machinery in converting the packaging material into containers with minimum waste and
rejects is an important factor.
Storage and distribution costs must be considered. Fireboard cases can be stored flat, taking up
less space than fabricated wooden boxes. Plastic polymer pellets or reels of sheet which can be
moulded or thermoformed, take up less space than preformed bottles and containers. Plastic
bottles are lighter than wood and this leads to cost savings in the distribution of the product. The
damage caused in distribution must be assessed to decide on the level of protection required, both
for primary and secondary packs. In export packaging, the volume of the material can have a large
affect on the costs as space is at a premium.
Overheads include the rent, heating costs, administration, storage, waste, R&D, etc. Services
required can include vacuum, gases such as nitrogen for gas flushing, power, water for cooling,
etc. Depreciation affects the stocks of materials that are being held and the minimum order
quantity. Once the material is purchased and in store it ties up money that could otherwise be used
or invested, to earn interest for the company. Depreciation also applies to the buildings and
equipment, etc.
Contract packaging is an option to be considered, which involves sending the product in bulk to
another company to be packed for retail. It is useful for test market production trials, for coping
with seasonal demand, lack of production capacity, or if there is a labour dispute at the factory.
Quite often, the contract packer employs casual labour and thus has lower labour costs.
137
Principles of good management
1. Correct specifications help to minimize costs.
2. Good quality suppliers should be used where possible.
3. Economic order quantities (EOQ) should be placed and advantage taken where appropriate of
bulk discounts.
4. The number of colours used in printed design should not be excessive as this will lead to
higher costs.
5. Where possible, standardization of pack sizes can lead to the use of standard boxes and reel
widths, which reduces the number of different items to be stored and enables the bulk buying
of standard items.
6. Stock rotation must be enforced to ensure that the material is used on a first in, first out
basis and doesnt sit in the store deteriorating.
7. Size the pack carefully, and do not use excessive material. This involves minimizing scrap
such as in the trim and in the seal width.
8. Over-packaging should be avoided.
9. The environmental impacts of packaging cannot be ignored. Recycle and reuse the packaging
materials where possible.
10. Finally, the equipment must be well maintained to achieve optimum performance.
Finally, to reinforce the above views, a quote from John Ruskin:
It is unwise to pay too much but it is worse to pay too little. When you pay too much you lose a
little money, thats all. When you pay too little you sometimes lose everything, because the thing
that you bought is inadequate of doing the thing it was bought to do.
The law of business balance prohibits you paying a little and getting a lot....it cant be done.
If you deal with the lowest bidder, its well to add something for risk you run, and if you do that
you will have enough for something better.

138
THE MARKETING ROLE OF PACKAGING
Introduction
Marketing is a very important function in every business. The marketing department is
responsible for identifying, anticipating and satisfying customer requirements, profitably. It is the
marketing department who determine the market requirements, by market research and analyzing
the supply & demand equation. They are responsible for informing consumers about the products
virtues and persuading them to buy the product. Advertising, publicity in the form of positive
public relations (PR), organizing sales promotion and motivating the sales force, are all part of the
marketing department activities.
The supply and Demand Equation
In a demand oriented or consumer driven marketplace, it is necessary for each company to try to
supply what is required by the consumer. The goods must be available in a huge variety of sizes,
shapes and with different features. Mass production makes the product cheaper but it is useless
unless there is also mass consumption. It is the marketing department who analyze the demand,
determine what is required, in what form, by whom, when, where, at what price, and how it
should appear and be packaged. Then it will be considered if this can be achieved at profit. If the
product goes into production, the marketing department will use the mass media to inform the
consumers. The advertising campaign will inform the consumers of the products existence, its
features, applications and advantages over the other products. Then try to influence the consumers
buying habits, persuading them about the needs of the product and to try to buy it.
Role of packaging
Packaging plays a major role in the marketing process as it acts as an oh-shelf advertisement for
the product in the shop and in the home, reminding the consumer of the brand. It must attract
attention to itself and be distinctive, outstanding from other packages on the shelf by its strong
graphics, imagery, shape, etc. The packaging identifies the product and must reinforce the image
of it given in the advertisements. Graphics are not only feature that is important. The shape of the
pack, the materials used, the convenience it offers in terms of ease of holding, dispensing, closing,
etc. are all important. Features such as reusability may make it appeal to the consumer, for e.g. the
horlicks jug or coffee jars being reusable as storage containers. Sales promotion, such as money
off coupons, competitions, new improved product, extra product free offers, etc. are advertised on
the packaging. Sometimes the packaging has to be returned as proof of purchase, e.g. crown caps
from coke. The packaging draws attention to the promotion and gives details about it.
Brand names
In todays marketplace, there is intense competition between products & the consumer is confused
over which one to choose. Each company tries to gain sales volume. A brandname is a valuable
asset to a company as it enables their products to be distinguished. A brand is a form of identity of
a product, and can be protected by the copyright or trademark. There are some unbranded
products that are generic, often commodity products such as sugar, salt, etc. Cola is a generic
name while Coca Cola and Pepsi are brand names. Other examples include Cadburys & Nescafe.
Brand identity is a vital asset to a company. A good brand is respected by the consumers who
associate it with quality.
The brand consists of the product, the packaging, the name, the advertising and its overall
presentation. It is a combination of the physical, aesthetical, rational and emotional aspects as
perceived by the consumer.
139
Checklists of Marketing Considerations
Market Analysis Factors
What is the size of the market, its volume, value and trends?
Competition what other producers are there, what is their share of the volume?
Is the market regional, urban/rural, north/south, etc?
Is it seasonal dependent on weather, holidays, festivals, etc?
Who are the consumers age, sex, socio-economic group?
Product Factors
What is a suitable size or range of sizes of retail pack?
What is the price range in the market currently?
What advantages/disadvantages does our proposed product have over the opposition?
What levels of advertising will be required?
Packaging Factors
What style, shape, colour, texture are suitable?
Is visibility necessary, does the consumer need to be able to inspect the product?
Does it maximize the shelf restrictions, optimizing storage requirements?
Is it easy to open, dispense, close and reuse?
Is it environmentally acceptable, recyclable, etc?
What shelf life is required?
How does the product deteriorate what protection is required?
What are the likely distribution hazards?
Should this product be packed on existing equipment or can new formats be considered?
Graphic/copy Factors
What are the legal restrictions weight, sell by date, nutrition declarations, etc? This will
affect size and location of some information.
What instructions are required storage, cooking, serving, etc?
Does this design have to blend in with other varieties in the product range?
How many colours are to be used?
Are there special colours to be used, i.e. for the logo, trademark, etc?
In a varnish to be included?
Which print process is suitable, i.e. high quality gravure print or flexographic which is
adequate for simpler designs?
If date/price coding is to be applied by another machine, what are the restrictions on size and
location of coding boxes?

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