Thermal Circuit

The process of energy transfer in the case of transformers and electro-mechanical energy conversion in the ease of rotating electrical machines involves currents in the conductors, and fluxes in the ferromagnetic parts. Therefore there are I2R losses in windings and core losses in the ferromagnetic cores. In addition losses occur in tank walls, end plates and covers on account of leakage flux. The losses appear as heat and therefore the temperature of every affected part of the machine rises above the ambient medium which is normally the surrounding air. The heated parts of an electrical machine dissipate heat into their surroundings by conduction, and convection assisted by radiation.
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 Conduction mode of dissipation of heat is important in the case of solid parts of machine like copper, iron and insulation. Consider two points in an electric circuit having potentials V1 and V2 the current flowing between them is where R is the electrical resistance of the conducting medium between them. Similarly, we can write the equation for heat flow for conduction between two surfaces separated by a heat conducting medium, as:

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Thermal Resistance. The thermal resistance is defined as the thermal resistance which causes a drop of 10 C per watt of heat flow. Equation permits heat conduction problems to be solved by methods of calculation similar to those used in electric circuits. The thermal resistance, like electrical resistance, can be written as

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Considering above Eqn we find that a material having a high value of thermal resistivity will dissipate less amount of heat or alternatively for the dissipation of same heat the temperature rise will be higher.
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Values of thermal resistivities of different materials.

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Temperature rise with time (Heating and Cooling curves) The temperature of a machine rises when it is run under steady load conditions starting from cold conditions. The temperature at first increases at a rate determined by power wasted.

As the temperature rises, the active parts of the machine dissipate heat partly by conduction, partly by radiation, and in most cases, largely by means of air cooling. The higher the temperature rise, the greater would be the effect of these methods of cooling. Therefore, as the temperature rises, its rate of increase falls of owing to better heat dissipating conditions. As shown later, the temperature-time curve is exponential in nature.

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 The temperature of any part of a machine, not only depends on the heat produced in itself but also on heat produced in other parts. This is because there is always a heat flow from one part to another for example, the heat produced in the part of the winding embedded in the slot flows partially through the insulation to the laminations partially to the end windings. Thus the end windings have to transfer to the air, not only the heat produced in them but also a part of the heat produced in the slot portion of the winding.

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 Electrical machines are not homogeneous bodies. Their parts are made up of different materials like copper, iron and insulation. These materials have different thermal resistivities and due to this, it is rather difficult to calculate the temperature of a part of a machine. However, it is worthwhile taking theory of heating of homogeneous bodies as the basis for analyzing the process of machine heating. The results obtained from such a theory are applicable to a certain degree, to the different parts of machine as a whole.

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Heating curve

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(Heat energy developed in the body)

( Heat energy stored in the body)

If in the process of heating, the temperature of the surface rises by over the ambient medium, at the instant considered.

The heat energy dissipated by the body into the ambient medium due to radiation, conduction and convection, (Heat energy dissipated by the body) As the heat developed in the machine is equal to the heat stored in the parts plus the heat dissipated.
def
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Solving the differential equation

where K is the constant of integration. The value of K is found by applying the boundary condition,

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Substituting this value of K in Eqn.

When the machine attains final steady temperature rise.

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The term

has the dimensions of time and is called the

heating time constant Th.

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If the machine starts from cold conditions,

Above relation is the equation of temperature rise with time. The temperature rise- time curve is exponential in nature as shown in Fig.

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Heating curve.

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Cooling Curve

The value of K is obtained by putting boundary conditions,

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If a machine is shut down, no heat is produced and so its final steady temperature rises when cooling is zero

It is clear from above Eqn. that the cooling curve is also exponential in nature as shown in Fig. above Eqn. is applicable to machines which are shut down.

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Cooling curve.

Thus we can define the cooling time constant as the time taken by the machine for its temperature rise to fall to 0.368 0f its initial value.
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Problem :

Loss in strips

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To evaluate total heat dissipating surface area we required length of Each strip l

There are 8 strips in parallel

Total heat dissipating surface

75

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Suppose t is the time required to reach 99 per cent of the final steady temperature.

Required volume of 8 strips

t = 170.4 s
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Problem :

When Heating :- Since the transformer starts from cold conditions therefore its temperature rise is given by Eqn.

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Problem :

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QUANTITY OF COOLING MEDIUM (COOLANT) The quantity of cooling medium required to absorb losses of machines can be calculated with the help of expressions derived below:

Air

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Volume of air under actual working conditions is therefore

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The values for day air are Substituting these values in above Eqn.

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Hydrogen

Proceeding as in the case of air :

H for hydrogen is 2000 2500 mm.

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Water

Oil

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Problem :

? Q
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Given :

volume of air

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Amount of water :

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Problem :

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Cooling of rotating machines

Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS 63621971) Designation of Methods of Cooling of Rotating Electrical Machines defines terms connected with cooling of Rotating Electrical Machines. Some of the commonly used terms are explained below : 1. Cooling. A process by means of which heat resulting from losses occurring in a machine is given up to a primary coolant by increasing its temperature. The heated primary coolant may be replaced by new coolant at lower temperature or may be cooled by a secondary coolant in some form of heat exchanger. 2. Primary Coolant. A medium (liquid or gas) which, by being at a lower temperature than a part of a machine and in contact with it, removes heat from that part.
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3. Secondary Coolant. A medium (liquid or gas) which, being at a lower temperature than the primary coolant, removes the heat from the primary coolant in a heat exchanger. 4. Heat Exchanger. A component intended to transfer heat from one coolant to another while keeping the two coolants separate (i.e. air cooled heat exchanger, water cooled heat exchanger, double wall, ribbed tubes, etc.). 5. Inner Cooled (Direct Cooled) Winding. A winding which has either hollow conductors or tubes which form an integral part of the winding, through which the coolant flows. 7. Closed Circuit Cooling System. A method of cooling in which a primary coolant is circulated in a dosed circuit through the machine, and if necessary through a heat exchanger. Heat is transferred from the primary coolant to the secondary coolant either through the structural parts or in the heat exchanger.
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8. Dependent Circulating Circuit Component. A separate component in the coolant circulating circuit which is dependent for its operation on the operation of the main machine. 9. Independent Circulating Circuit Component. A separate component in the coolant circulating circuit which is independent of the operation of the main machine. 10. Integral Circulating Circuit Component. A component, in the coolant circulating circuit which forms part of the machine, and which can be replaced only by partially dismantling the main machine. 11. Machine Mounted Circulating Circuit Component. A component in the coolant circulating circuit which is mounted on machine, and forms part of it, but which-can be replaced without disturbing the main machine. 12. separately Mounted Circulating Circuit Component. A component in the coolant circulating circuit which is associated with a machine, but which is not mounted on or integral with it.
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Cooling System
According to BIS 4722-1968 Specification for Rotating Electrical Machines the cooling systems are classified into three types depending upon the origin of cooling 1. Cooling System. The machine, is cooled by natural air currents set up either by rotating parts or due to temperature differences. The machine thus is cooled without the use of a fan by the movement of air and radiation. 2. Natural Cooling. The machine is cooled by cooling air driven by a fan mounted on the rotor or one driven by it. 3. Separate Cooling. The machine is cooled either by a fan not driven by its shaft, or it is cooled by a cooling medium other than air put into motion by means not belonging to the machine.
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Types of Enclosures
The problem of ventilation in rotating electrical machines is closely linked with the types of enclosures used. The various types of enclosures used are 1. Open Machine. One in which there is no restriction to ventilation other than that necessitated by good mechanical construction. 2. Open Pedestal Machine (OP). An open machine which has pedestal bearing supported independently of the machine frame. 3. Open End-Bracket Machine (OEB). An open machine having end-brackets of which the bearings form an integral part. 4. Protected Machine (P). A machine in which the internal rotating parts and live parts are protected mechanically from accidental or inadvertent contact, while ventilation is not materially impeded.
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5. Screen Protected Machine (SP). A protected machine in which the ventilating openings are not less than 64.5 mm in area. Such protection may be provided by screens of wire mesh, expanded metal, perforated metal or other suitable covers. The use of openings smaller than 64.5 mm is not recognized, as such openings are liable to become closed in service. 6. Drip-Proof Machine (DP). A protected machine in which the openings for ventilation are so protected as to exclude vertically falling water or dirt. 7. Splash-Proof Machine (SPLP). A protected machine in which the ventilating openings are so constructed that drops of liquid or solid particles falling on or reaching any part of them machine at any angle between the vertically downward direction and 1000 from that direction cannot enter the machine, whether the machine is running or at rest, by splashing, or otherwise, either directly or by striking and running along a surface.
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8. Hose-Proof Machine (HSP). A protected machine so enclosed as to exclude water whether the machine is running or at rest, when washed by a hose having a 9.5 mm diameter nozzle with a maximum pressure of 3.5 kg for a period not exceeding 30 seconds, from a minimum distance of 1.8 metres.

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9. Pipe-Ventilated or Duct-Ventilated Machine. A machine in which there is a continuous supply or fresh ventilating air, the frame being so arranged that the ventilating air may be conveyed to and/or from the machine through pipes or ducts attached to the enclosing case (a) A pipe- or duct-ventilated machine may be one of the following three types: i) With provision for inlet duct only. (ii) With provision for inlet and outlet ducts. (iii) With provision for outlet duct only. (b) A pipe-ventilated or duct-ventilated machine may be cooled by one of the following means (i) Self-ventilation (PV). (ii) Forced-draught with air supplied by external pressure (PVFD). (iii) Induced draught with air drawn through the machine by external means (PVID).
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10. Totally Enclosed Machine (TE). A machine so constructed that the enclosed air has no connection with the external air but is not necessarily air-tight. 11. Totally Enclosed Fan-Cooled Machine (TEFC). A totally enclosed machine with cooling augmented by a fan, driven by the motor itself, blowing external air over the cooling surface and/or through the cooling passages, if any, incorporated in the machine. 12. Totally Enclosed Separately Air-Cooled Machine (TESAC). A totally-enclosed machine with cooling augmented by a separatelydriven fan blowing external air over the cooling surface and/or through the cooling passages, if any, incorporated in the machine. 13. Totally Enclosed Water or other Liquid-Cooled Machine (TEWC). A totally enclosed machine with cooling augmented by water-cooled or other liquid-cooled surfaces embodied in the machine itself. 10/28/2010 9:52 AM M.V.Ramana Rao EMD

14. A Totally Enclosed Closed Air Circuit Machine. A totally enclosed machine having special provision for cooling the enclosed air by passing it through its own cooler, usually external to the machine. The cooler may be of any recognized form using (i) Air (ii) Water (iii) Other suitable cooling medium. 15. Totally Enclosed Closed Gas Circuit Machine (CGGW). A totally enclosed machine cooled by gas other than air, the cooling gas being circulated through associated water- cooled gas coolers. 16. Weather-Proof Machine (WP). A machine so constructed that it can work without further protection from weather conditions specified by the purchaser.

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17. Watertight Machine (WT). A machine so constructed that it will withstand, without damage or sign of leakage, complete immersion in water to a depth of not less than 1 rn, or subjection to an external water pressure of 0.1 kg/cm for a period of one hour. The test for watertightness shall be made with the machine stationary and the temperature of the machine shall not exceed the temperature of the water in which it is immersed. 18. Submersible Machine. A machine capable of working for an indefinitely long period when -submerged under a specified head of water.

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INDUCED AND FORCED VENTILATION

Both self ventilation and separate ventilation may be subdivided into two categories (i) Induced ventilation, (ii) Forced ventilation.

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RADIAL AND AXIAL VENTILATION

The ventilating systems can be classified into three types depending upon how the air passes over the heated machine parts, as (i) Radial, (ii) Axial, (iii) Combined Radial and Axial.

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Rating of Machines
The rating of machines refer to the whole of the numerical values of electrical and mechanical quantities with their duration and sequences as signed to the machines by the manufactures and stated on the rating plate, the machine complying with the specified conditions. The duration of the sequence may be indicated by the qualifying term. The assignment of the rating is to be made by the manufacturer to specify the capabilities of the machine. Irrespective of whether the machine carries an indication of the duty type, it shall carry a plate giving the values of quantities assigned to it by the machine manufacturer.

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Selection of Motor Power Ratings

The selection of power ratings of motors for electric drives is a matter of economic and operational interest in any industry. This is because the proper selection of motor has a predominant effect on both capital and running costs of electric drives.

A motor of insufficient capacity does not operate the drive satisfactorily on account of low output and efficiency. Since the motor is overloaded, it has a shorter life span and also a possibility of burn out on account of excessive temperature rise.

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 On the other hand, if a motor of higher power rating is used, the motor is under utilized and therefore the economic efficiency of the installation is reduced and the drive becomes expensive and has large energy losses. Over motoring (using a motor of higher rating than is required by load) leads to higher capital costs and increased losses because of lower efficiency at reduced load. In ac. drives, motors working at reduced loads lead to poor power factor leading to uneconomic loading of supply circuits and apparatus. In order to select the motor power rating properly, it is not only necessary to know the load under steady state conditions but also the loads that are met with under transient conditions. For this purpose use is made of Load Diagrams (Time sequence graphs) which show the variation of motor torque, power and load current as function of time.
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TYPES OF DUTIES AND RATINGS

The following are the types of duty as per IS 4722-1968 Specification for Rotating Electric Machinery

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)

continuous duty short time duty Intermittent periodic duty Intermittent periodic duty with starting Intermittent periodic duty with starting and braking (vi) S6 Continuous duty with intermittent periodic loading (vii) S7 Continuous duty with starting and braking (viii) S8 Continuous duty with periodic speed changes.
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S1 S2 S3 S4 S5

Continuous Duty (Duty S1) On this duty the duration of load is

for a sufficiently long time such that all the parts of the motor attain thermal equilibrium i.e. the motor attains its maximum final steady temperature rise. Examples : Running fans, pumps and other equipment which operate for several hours and even days at a time.
The continuous rating of a motor may be defined as the load that may be carried by the machine for an indefinite time without The temperature rise of any part exceeding the maximum permissible M.V.Ramana Rao value. EMD

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Short Time Duty (Duty Type S2) The motor operates at a constant load for some specified time which is then followed by a period of rest. The period for load is to short that the machine cannot reach its thermal equilibrium i.e. steady temperature rise while the period for rest is so long that the motor temperature drops to the ambient temperature. Railway turntable, navigation lock gates are some examples of the drives which operate on short time duty. Standard short time ratings are 10, 30, 60 and 90 minutes. Back
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Intermittent Periodic Duty (Duty Type S3) On intermittent duty the periods of constant load and rest with machine deenergized alternate.
The load periods are too short to allow the motor to reach its final steady state value while periods of rest are also too small to allow the motor to cool down to the ambient temperature.

This type of duty cycle is encountered in cranes, lifts and certain metal cutting machine tool drives.
The simplified load for this type of duty is shown in Fig.

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The duty factor is determined on the basis of a cycle 10 minutes long.

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The Intermittent Rating of a motor applies to an operating condition during which short time load periods alternate with periods of rest or no load without the motor reaching the thermal equilibrium and without the maximum temperature rising above the maximum permissible value. In this duty the current does not significantly affect the temperature rise. The duty factor for this operation is

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Intermittent Periodic Duty with Starting (Duty Type S4)

This type of duty consists of a sequence of identical duty cycles each consisting of a period of starting, a period of operation at constant load and a rest period, the operating and rest periods are too short to obtain thermal equilibrium during one duty as shown in Fig.
In this duty the stopping of the motor is obtained either by natural deceleration after disconnection of the electric supply or by means of breaking such as mechanical brake which does not cause additional heating of windings.

The duty factor is given by

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Intermittent Periodic Duty with Starting and Braking (Duty Type S5) This type of duty consists of a sequence of identical duty cycles each consisting of a period of starting, a period of operation at constant load, a period of braking and a rest period. The operating and rest periods are too short to obtain thermal equilibrium during one duty cycle as shown in Fig. In this duty braking is rapid and is, carried out by electrical means. The duty factor is
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Continuous Duty with Intermittent Periodic Duty (Duty type S6) This type of duty consists of a sequence of identical duty cycles each consisting of a period of operation at constant load and period of operation at no load. The machines with excited windings have normal no load voltage excitation during the load period. The operation and no load periods are too short to attain thermal equilibrium during one cycle as shown in Fig. The duty factor is given by

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Continuous Duty with Starting and Braking (Duty Type S7) This type of duty consists of sequence of identical duty cycles each having a period of starting, a period of operation at con load and a period of electric braking. There is no rest or de-energized period. The load diagram is shown in Fig.

The duty factor for this duty cycle : 1.

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Continuous Duty with Periodic Speed Changes (Duty Type S8) This type of duty consists of a sequence of identical duty cycles each consisting of a period of operation at constant load corresponding to a determined speed of rotation, followed immediately by a period of operation at another load corresponding to a different speed of operation.
The operating period is too short to attain thermal equilibrium during one duty cycle there being no rest and de-energized period. This duty cycle is shown in Fig.

The various duty factors are

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Methods Used for Determination of Motor Rating for Variable Load Drives :It is clear from the above discussion that it is necessary to use suitable methods to calculate the proper rating of motors for variable load drives. The four commonly used methods are (i) method of average losses (ii) equivalent current method (iii) equivalent torque method (iv) equivalent power method.

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Method of Average Losses

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The average losses are given by

The method of average losses does not take into account the maximum temperature rise under variable load conditions. However, this method is accurate and reliable for determining the average temperature rise of the motor during one work cycle. No doubt the motor is subject to short time
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Equivalent Current Method

This method also assumes that the constant losses are independent of the load.

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The equivalent current may not by easy to calculate especially in cases where the current load diagram is irregular as shown in Fig. The equivalent current in such cases is calculated from the following expression The value of the integral may be found with the help of an integrator. An easier way is to break up the current load diagram into a series of straight line geometrical figures.

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The above method allows the equivalent current values to be calculated with accuracy sufficient for practical purposes.
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Equivalent Torque and Equivalent Power Methods

The torque is directly proportional to current (assuming constant flux and constant power factor) and therefore the equivalent torque is

The equation for equivalent power follows directly from above Eqn. as power is directly proportional to the torque. At constant speed or where the changes in speed are small, the equivalent power is given by the following relationship

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Problem : An induction motor has to perform the following duty cycle 75 kW for 10 minutes, No load for 5 minutes, 45 kW for 8 minutes, No load for 4 minutes, which is repeated indefinitely. Determine a suitable capacity of a continuously rated motor to perform the aforesaid duty. Motors of standard (continuous) ratings of 45, 55. 75 kW are available. The ratio of maximum torque to nominal torque should be less than 1.8. Solution. The capacity of continuously rated motor to perform the above duty cycle can be found by using equivalent power method.

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= 51.8 KW A motor with a standard rating of 55 kW is selected. Since the induction motor is practically a constant speed motor, the ratio of maximum torque to nominal torque is equal to the ratio maximum power to nominal power.

which is less than the maximum allowable value of 1.8.

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Example : Determine the rated current of a transformer for the following duty cycle 500 A for 3 minutes, a sharp increase 1000 A and constant at this value for 1 minute, gradually decreasing for 2 minutes to 200 A and constant at this value for 2 minutes, gradually increasing to 500 A during 2 minutes and the repetition of the cycle. Solution.

The load diagram is plotted in Fig.

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The load diagram can be divided into rectangles and trapeziums (in this case) with the help of line segments. The equivalent current with sides I1 and I2 is :

Equivalent current for the entire cycle is :

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= 528.835 A

Temperature Rise With Short Time Ratings

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