Chapter 6.

Digital Modulation Schemes (Chapter 7 in the text)

1. Coherent Binary PSK and FSK 2. Coherent Quadrature-Modulation Techniques 3. Noncoherent Binary Modulation Techniques 4. M-ary Modulation Techniques

5. Multi-carrier Modulation and OFDM Systems

6. Comparison of Digital Modulation Systems 7. Synchronization 8. Applications in Cellular Digital Communication Systems

Introduction
Modulation is a process by which some characteristics of a carrier (usually, a sinusoidal wave) is varied in accordance with a modulating wave. The information source that we consider here contains M symbols. We will first consider the binary signaling case, i.e. M = 2, and then the general case M > 2 . Three digital modulation schemes: Amplitude shift keying (ASK) Phase shift keying (PSK) Frequency shift keying (FSK)
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Approach:
We will focus on constant envelope signaling schemes. With a constant envelope, the amplitude of the signal carries no information; the information resides in either the phase or the frequency of the signal. In other words, we will focus on Phase shift keying (PSK) Frequency shift keying (FSK) Method for noise performance analysis: Procedure A in Chapter 5 (Chapter 3 in the text), i.e., the signal constellation method.
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Detection Schemes :
(i) Coherent detection: require knowledge of the carrier waves frequency and phase at the receiver (ii) Noncoherent detection: ignore the above information, much simpler.

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1. Coherent Binary PSK and FSK

1.1. Coherent Binary PSK (BPSK)
A. BPSK Scheme
For binary PSK, the binary signal set is represented as 2 Eb 2 Eb 1 s1 (t ) = cos(2f c t ), 0 s 2 (t ) = cos(2f c t + ) Tb Tb = 0t T 2 Eb cos(2f c t ) Tb

For a binary signal set, if s2 (t ) = s1 (t ) , these signals are said to be antipodal (i.e., they differ by sign.)

phase reversal binary signaling is equivalent to antipodal signaling

Thus binary PSK is equivalent to binary ASK.
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Carrier cycles:
Tb = bit interval Tb = nc / f c , f c = carrier frequency nc an integer

i.e., there are an integer number of carrier cycles in a bit interval. The energy per bit: note that each signal has equal energy. Thus we define this quantity as energy per bit:

Eb =

Tb

si2 (t )dt ,

i = 1, 2

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B. Signal Constellation For the orthonormal function, we choose

1 (t ) =

2 cos(2f ct ) Tb

(verify that it has unit energy!)

Then
s1 (t ) = s111 (t ), s 2 (t ) = s 211 (t ), s11 = s 21

=
0

Tb

s1 (t )1 (t )dt = Eb s 2 (t )1 (t )dt = Eb

Tb

In this case, s1(t) corresponds to the one-dimensional vector

Eb and s2 (t ), to Eb ,

i.e.,

s1 (t ) Eb and s2 (t ) Eb

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The signal space is one dimensional space (Recall that the vector representation of a signal under the orthonormal set is also called a message point.)
Decision boundary

Z2
Eb

Z1 0

1 (t )
Eb

Message point 2

Message point 1

(Reminding you something?)

Figure 1. Signal constellation and decision region of coherent BPSK

C. Probability of Error of BPSK Note that the signal constellation is the same as the signal constellation of the polar PAM signaling. Thus, the probability of error can be computed in the same way as we did for the polar case in Chapter 5. However, we will reproduce the process here for reviewing this approach.

Recall : message symbol 1 s1 (t ) message symbol 0 s2 (t )

Assuming s1 (t ) is sent. From the received signal r1 (t ), we construct x1 = r11 = r1 (t )1 (t )dt
0 T

The receiver obtains

x1 = s11 + n1
where the conditional pdf of X = x1 given that the signal s1(t) was transmitted is

f X|m ( x1 | 1) =

1 1 2 exp ( x1 s11 ) N 0 N0

and decides s1 (t ) was sent if x1 > 0 and s2 (t ) otherwise.

The receiver makes an error if s1 (t ) was sent and x1 < 0, i.e., x1 Z 2

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(Recall that the noise variable has zero - mean and variance N 0 /2.)

Thus the probability of error given that the message 1 was transmitted is 2 Eb = Q 2 Eb Pe (1) = P{ x1 < 0 | 1} = N N 0 0

2 Eb Pe = Pe (1) P (1) + Pe (0) P (0) = Q N 0

= Pe , BPSK

(1)

Note.

SNR max =

2 Eb N0

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Important Remark. The probability of error may be expressed in

terms of the distance between the two signals s1 and s2. Let d12 be the distance between the signal point s1 and s2, i.e.,

d12 = ( s11 s 21 ) 2 =|| s11 s 21 || = 2 E b

2 Thus E b = d12 / 4 . By substituting it in (1), we obtain

d2 12 Pe = Q 2N0

(A)

It can be shown that (A) can be used for computing the error probability of any binary communication system with two equiprobable messages.

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D. Implementation Model Binary waveform polar

n(t )

si (t )

Eb

(BPSK)

ri (t )

1 (t ) =

Tb

dt

Decision device

1 (t ) =

2 cos(2f ct ) Tb

2 cos(2f ct ) Tb

Transmitter

Receiver: locally generated carrier

Remark. Coherent detection implies that the locally generated carrier is in phase and frequency lock with the incoming carrier . This is usually accomplished with some form of phase locked loop (PLL).

1.2. Coherent Binary FSK (BFSK)

A. BFSK Scheme

2 Eb si (t ) = cos(2f i t ), Tb

0 t Tb

i = 1, 2

Restriction : f i =

nc + i , Tb

nc = integer , i = 1, 2

Note that this choice makes the signals s1 (t ) and s2 (t ) are orthogonal, but not with unit energy.

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B. Signal Constellation Choose

1 (t ) =

s1 (t ) 2 = cos(2f1t ) s1 (t ) Tb s2 (t ) 2 = cos(2f 2t ) s2 (t ) Tb

f1 =

nc + 1 Tb

0 t Tb

2 (t ) =

f2 =

nc + 2 1 = f1 + Tb Tb

0 t Tb

2 1 = cos(2 ( f1 + )t ) Tb Tb
Then

Tb

1 (t )2 (t )dt = 0 and

Tb

i2 (t )dt = 1

i = 1,2

Thus {1 (t ), 2 (t )} is an orthonormal set. The signal space of BFSK is a 2-dimensional space.

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The signal vectors are

s1 = [ Eb ,0],
x = [ x1 , x2 ]

s 2 = [0, Eb ]

The received signal is x(t ) = ri (t ) with observation vector

N where x j = ri (t ) j (t )dt = sij + n j and x j | si (t ) ~ N sij , 0 , j = 1, 2 0 2
Tb

(See Sec. 4 in Chapter 5.) In detail,

N N x1 | s1 (t ) ~ N s11 , 0 = N Eb , 0 2 2
N N x1 | s2 (t ) ~ N s21 , 0 = N 0, 0 2 2
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N N x2 | s1 (t ) ~ N s12 , 0 = N 0, 0 2 2
N N x2 | s2 (t ) ~ N s22 , 0 = N Eb , 0 2 2
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 2 (t )
( x1 , x2 )
s2 = [0, Eb ]

Z2
s1 = [ Eb ,0]

Z1
1 (t )

Figure 2. Signal constellation and decision region for BFSK

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C. Probability of Error of BFSK Method 1. Directly using the signal constellation in Figure 2

Assume symbol 1 or equivalently s1 (t ) was sent. An error will be made at the receiver if x2 > x1. With the two variables x1 and x2 , this appears to be a two - dimensional problem. Since x1 and x2 are independent random variables, we can define a new random variables
l = x1 x2

Recall the approach in Sec. 4 in Chapter 5. We write X = ri = ( X1, X 2 ) and x = ( x1, x2 ) is a sample of X. Let L be a random variable where l is a sample of L.
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Note that X1 and X2 given that si (t ) is sent are independent gaussian random variables, thus L given that si (t ) is sent is also a gaussian random variable. Thus we only need to find the mean and variance of L given than si (t ) is sent.

E[ L | 1] = E[ X1 | 1] E[ X 2 | 1] = s11 s12 = Eb 0 = Eb

Var ( L) = Var ( x1 | 1) + Var( x2 | 1) =

N0 N0 + = N0 2 2

L | 1 ~ N ( Eb , N 0 )
0 Eb Pe (1) = P{( x1 , x2 ) Z 2 | 1} = P(l < 0 | 1 ) = N0
Eb = Q N 0
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Similarly, we can get

Eb Pe (0) = Q N 0

Eb 1 1 = Pe , BFSK Pe = Pe (1) + Pe (0) = Q N 2 2 0

(2)

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Comparing Pe, BFSK

Eb 2 Eb P Q = Q = to e BPSK , N N 0 0

it can be seen that BPSK is a more efficient system . For BFSK to match the performance of BPSK , we need to increase the energy Eb in BFSK by a factor of 2 or 3 dB.
Note: The distance between the signal points characterizes the noise immunity:

d12, BPSK = 2 Eb and d12, BFSK = 2 Eb

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Method 2. Rotating the signal constellation By rotation of Figure 2, we obtain the signal constellation of BFSK illustrated in in Figure 3. Since these two signal points are equiprobable with the distance d12 = 2 Eb , applying (A) in Sec. 1 (with a little effort), we have

Pe , BFSK

d2 12 = Q 2N0

2 Eb = Q 2N 0

Eb = Q N 0

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BPSK
Z2
Eb

Z1 0

1 (t )
Eb

BFSK
s2 = [0, Eb ]

2 (t )
d12 = 2 Eb

rotation

Z2
s1 = [ Eb ,0]

Z1
1 (t )

Eb 2

Eb 2

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Figure 3. The signal constellation of BFSK after rotation

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D. Implementation of BFSK System (Coherent Case)

Transmitter Binary 1 , 0
[ Eb ,0]

1 (t )

+ +

si (t )

inverter

[0, Eb ]
2 (t )

Binary FSK wave

1 (t ) = 2 (t ) =
2 cos( 2 f 1t ) Tb 2 cos( 2 f 2 t ) Tb

Receiver
ri (t )

1 (t )

Tb

dt

2 (t )

Tb

dt

Decision device

1 if l > 0 choose 0 if l < 0

2. Coherent Quadrature-Modulation Techniques

2. 1. Quadriphase shift keying (QPSK)
A. QPSK Scheme
2E cos 2 f c t + ( 2 i 1) , si (t ) = T 4 0 0 t T , i = 1, 2 ,3 , 4 elsewhere

(1)

where E is the transmitted signal energy per symbol, T is the symbol duration

fc =
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nc , T

nc

an

integer

25

B. Signal Constellation Using the trigonometric identity

cos( A + B ) = cos A cos B sin A sin B

We can rewrite (1) as
2E 2E cos (2i 1) cos 2f c t sin (2i 1) sin 2f c t , 0 t T si (t ) = T 4 T 4 0 elsewhere

Set Then

1 (t ) =

2 2 cos(2f c t ) and 2 (t ) = sin(2f c t ) T T

(2)

cos ( 2 1 ) ( ) sin ( 2 1 ) E i t E i 2 (t ), 1 si (t ) = 4 4 0
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0t T elsewhere
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Thats

si (t ) = sij j (t ) = si11 (t ) + si 22 (t ), i = 1,2,3,4

j =1

where

si1 (t ) = E cos (2i 1) , si 2 (t ) = E sin (2i 1) 4 4

and

s i = [ si1 , si 2 ] = E cos (2i 1) , E sin (2i 1) 4 4

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2. Coherent Quadrature-Modulation Techniques

2. 1. Quadriphase shift keying (QPSK) (Cont.) 2 1

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Let i = (2i 1) / 4
The following table lists the corresponding phases and the messages. (Note that the third column together with the last column represent dibits for four messages.)
i i /4 3/4 5/4 7/4 bit in phase 1 2 3 4 1 0 0 1 cos(i) sin(i) 1 / 1 / bit quad.

1/ 2
1 / 1 /

2 2

0 0 1 1

2 2

1/ 2

1/ 2

1/ 2

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Table 1

29

The corresponding phases and the signal points:

symbol i

i /4 3/4 5/4 7/4

si 1

si2
E /2

Gray code

1 2 3 4

E /2
E /2

10 00 01 11

E /2

E /2
E /2

E /2
E /2

Table 2
s1 =

s3

[ E / 2, = [ E / 2 ,

E/2

] E / 2]

s2 = E / 2, E / 2
s4 E / 2, E/2

[ =[

Z3 s3 01

E/2

Z4 s4 11

E/2

E/2

Z2 s2 00 E / 2 s1 10 Z1 Figure 1. Signal constellation of QPSK under the Gray code (Recall: this is the same signal constellation as that of 4-ary QAM in Section 5 of Chapter 5.)
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C. Probability of Error of QPSK The average probability of error of QPSK is given by

1 4 Pe = Pe (mi ) 4 i =1

Note that the decision regions are equal and the signal points are symmetric. Hence all Pe(mi) are equal. In the following, we give the result on m1 = 10. We will use the Procedure A in Sec. 6 of Chapter 5. For m1 = 10, Pe (10) = 1 Pc (10)
Pc (10) = P ( x = ( x1 , x2 ) Z1 | 10) = P{0 < x1 < , < x2 < 0 | 10}

where

x j | 10 N ( s 1 j , N 0 / 2 ), j = 1, 2

and these two gaussian random variables are independent. Thus

Pc (10) = P{x1 > 0 | 10}P{x2 < 0 | 10}

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E / 2 = 1 N / 2 0

E/2 N0 / 2

E N0

32

 = 1 Q
where

E N0

= 1 2 P1 + P12 = Pe , BPSK (E = 2Eb).

(2)

P1 = Q

E N0

2 Pe (10) = 2 P 1P 1

Pe =
Remark. For

1 2 2 4( 2 P 1P 1 ) = 2P 1P 1 4
E >>1 , the second term can be ignored so N0

that for the coherent QPSK, the average probability of symbol error is
E Pe 2Q N 0
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D. Implementation: the QPSK Transmitter and Receiver

From the signal representation si (t ) = 2E 2E cos (2i 1) cos 2f c t sin (2i 1) sin 2f c t 4 T 4 T

and the signal space diagram consideration, it is clear that the QPSK is actually the interleaved version of two BPSK bit streams that are independent of each other, i.e.,

E E 2 (t ) + si (t ) = si11 (t ) + si 2 2 (t ) = ( t ) 1 2 2
where the orthonormal functions 1(t) and 2(t) are the same ones defined by (2). The bit represented by the coefficient of 1 (t ) can be modulated and demodulated separated from that of 2 (t ) .
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b1 (t )

Input binary wave b(t )

b2 (t )

1 (t ) = 2 / T cos 2f c t

Demultipliexer

QPSK wave

2 (t ) = 2 / T sin 2 f c t

(a)

In - phase channel
received signal x(t )

1 (t )

dt

x1

Decision device

Mux
T 0

Output binary wave

dt

Decision device

(b)

2 (t )

Quadrature channel x2

Figure 2. (a) QPSK Transmitter; (b) QPSK Receiver

E. Comparison of error probability between BPSK and QPSK

Recall
Pe , BPSK = Q 2 Eb N0

Pe , QPSK

= 2Q

E N0

Q2

E N0

(1) For QPSK, E = 2Eb, since it transmits 2 bits. (2) Pe,BPSK measures a bit error while Pe,QPSK measures a symbol error. since it is transmitting 2 bits, i.e., at least one of the 2 bits is in error. (3) The probability of error of QPSK can also be computed for transmitting 2 bits by BPSK. In this way, we would have
Pe , QPSK = 1 P ( both bits correct ) = 1 1 Q Eb N0
2

Remark. Similar approach can be applied to M-ary PSK, FSK, etc..

Example 1. Generate a QPSK signal for the input binary sequence

0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0.

Solution.
1 (t )

We may assume that

2 (t )

Interleaving:0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 into the in-phase sequence and the quadrature sequence. The sum of these two waveforms is the QPSK signal.
Bit 0 1 Polarity +

(The following figures are not the exact waveforms, which are just for explanation of the effect of the sum of the in-phase and the quadrature phase channel)

In-phase sequence: Polarity of si1:

si11 (t )

0 -

1 +

1 +

0 -

BPSK

Quadrature sequence: 1 Polarity of si 2: +

si 22 (t )

0 -

0 -

0 -

BPSK

s(t )

QPSK

Example 2. A 1 Mbps bit stream is to be transmitted using QPSK. Even and odd-indexed bits are associated with b1 (t ) and b2 (t ) , respectively. (a) What is the symbol rate? (b) What is the symbol error probability if the carrier power is 4mW and N 0 = 10 9 W/Hz?

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2.2. Minimum Shift Keying (MSK)

A. MSK Scheme Objective: Try to use the information of phase in the BFSK. Consider a continuous-phase frequency-shift keying (CPFSK):
s (t ) = 2Eb cos [2 f 1 t + ( 0 ) ], Tb 2Eb cos [2 f 2 t + ( 0 ) ], Tb

for symbol 1 for symbol 0

(1)

where Eb is the transmitted signal energy per bit, Tb is the bit duration, and (0), the value of the phase at t = 0.
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We can write (1) as

s (t ) = 2Eb cos [2 f c t + ( t ) ] Tb

(2)

where (t) is the phase of s(t) given by

(t ) = ( 0 ) h
Tb t , 0 t Tb
+ 1 and 0

(3)

From (1) - (3), we have

h f f = + 1 c 2T b h f2 = fc 2T b
fc = h = Tb ( f 2 f1 ) 1 ( f1 + f 2 ) 2

and

(T b ) ( 0 ) =

h h

1 0

The case h = 1/2 is the minimum number such that

cos(2f1t ) and cos(2f 2t )

are orthogonal, i.e.,
f = 1 2Tb

is the minimum frequency spacing

f = f 2 f1

for the above two signals to be orthogonal (note

).

A CPFSK for h = 1/2 is called minimum shift keying (MSK) B. Signal Constellation of MSK Similarly as we did for QPSK, by using the trigonometric identity, from (2), we have

s (t ) = s11 (t ) + s 2 2 (t ), 0 t Tb where the orthonormal basis functions are given by 2 1 (t ) = cos 2T Tb b 2 2 (t ) = sin 2T Tb b t cos 2ft c , Tb t Tb t sin 2ft c , 0 t 2Tb

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Thus
s1 = Eb cos[ (0)] s 2 = Eb sin[ (Tb )]

where (0) can only take values 0 and . Therefore, (Tb) takes values +/2 and /2. The corresponding relation with the symbols are as follows.
(0) 0 0 (Tb) /2 /2 /2 /2 bit 1 0 1 0

si1

si2 Eb Eb

Eb
Eb Eb

s i = ( si1 , si 2 ) i = 1,2,3,4

Eb Eb

Eb

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Z3 s3 1

Eb

Z4 s4 0

Eb

Eb

Z2 s2 0
Eb

s1 1 Z1

Figure 2. Signal constellation of MSK

This is an identical signal constellation as that of QPSK for the case of an AWGN channel.
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C. Probability of Error of MSK

From the signal constellation of MSK, we have

Pe , MSK = Pe , QPSK = 2 Q 2 Eb N0 Q2 2 Eb N0 2Q = erfc 2 Eb N0 Eb N0

Thus for the high value of Eb/N0, the average probability of error for an MSK system is approximately the same as that for a coherent binary PSK system (ignore the scale factor 2). This is paid at the expense of increased receiver complexity. Note. Another modulation scheme, called Gaussian MSK (GMSK), is to add a pre-modulated pulse shape which is Gaussian distributed.
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2.3. Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

We will directly introduce M-ary quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) for M = 2k, k > 1.
QAM scheme: Let an orthonormal set with two functions be
1 (t ) =
2 2 cos(2f c t ) and 2 (t ) = sin(2f c t ) T T
0t T

and
si (t ) = Ai1 (t ) Bi2 (t ), 0 t T , i = 0,..., M 1

where {Ai} and {Bi} are integers given by

Ai , Bi = a, 3a, ..., ( M 1)a, M = 2 k where k even

in which a is a parameter. Let Es be the average energy per symbol by assuming that all amplitudes occur equally likely.
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Then we have

a=

3Es 2( M 1)

(verify this by using

the definition of the average energy in Section 2 of Chapter 5!) The signal constellations are shown in Example 2 in Section 5 of Chapter 5 for M = 4 and M = 16. We reproduce them here to associate with the Gray codes.
Z2
s1 00

2 (t)

Z1
s4 01
a
1(t)

-a s2 10

-a

s3 11

Z3

Z4

Figure 1. 4-QAM with Gray Code

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 2 (t )
00 00 0001 3a 0011 0010

10 00 -3a 11 00

1001 1101 0101 -a

a a -a -3a

1011 1111 0111

1010 3a 1110 0110

1 (t )

01 00

Figure 2. 16-QAM with Gray Code

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For 4-ary QAM, it has the identical signal constellation as that of QPSK, therefore it has the same probability of error for an AWGN channel. Thus there is no advantage of the 4-ary QAM over the QPSK.

For 16-ary QAM, a binary representation has been associated with each point by labeling the in-phase (I) and the quadrature (Q) locations according to a Gray code with the first two digits denoting I and the second two Q. This guarantees that a single bit error occurs if a nearest-neighbor symbol error occurs. Computation of the symbol error probability is omitted here (It is encouraged to try this by noticing that there are three different shapes of decision regions. )

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receive signal x(t)

1 (t )

dt

I
decision device

decision

(b)
2 (t )

dt

Figure 3. Detector structure for 16-ary QAM Note. Comparison with M-ary PSK and FSK will be discussed in Section 5 in which these modulation schemes will be introduced. Remark. QPSK (or offset QPSK), MSK and 16-QAM are commonly used modulation schemes in practice. All of them have a 2-dimentional signal space.