Psychology Chapters 1-4 study guide Chapter 1 Mind, Behavior, and Psychological Science Key Words Psychology: broad

field with many specialties, but fundamentally psychology is the science of behavior and mental processes 1. Science comes from the Latin Scire to know 1. Science avoids mere opinions, intuitions and opinions guesses and instead attempts to nail down facts- to know them- by using objective evidence to answer questions like What makes the sun shine? What makes a successful athlete? And the example on the first page of your book DOES EATING SUGAR MAKE CHILDREN HYPERACTIVE? USING THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD WE USE LOGIC TO REASON ABOUT THE POSSIBLE CAUSES OF A PHENOMENON THEN DESIGNS A SCIENTIFIC STUDY TO TEST THESE IDEAS. 2. MENTAL PROCESSES what brain is doing not only when you engage in thinking activitieso storing memories, recognizing objects, talking to your friends but also when you feel depressed or happy. In the past in order to study mental processes, we looked at peoples behavior and inferred what was going on in their brain. Now, the latest technological advances allow us to see what is going on inside the our brain. In class we will talk about these new advances and how the brain works. 3. Behavior refers to the outwardly observable acts of a person either alone or in a group. When you think about a friends behavior you might wonder about his or her motivations why did she behave a particular way? What led her to make that decision? What is she trying to accomplish by acting like that? In these cases you are trying to DESCRIBE AND EXPLAIN YOUR FRIENDS BEHAVIOR. GENERALLY, WE USE COMMON SENSE TO DO THIS HOWEVER, IN THIS CLASS YOU WILL LEARN ABOUT HOW PSYCHOLOGISTS USE THE TOOLS OF SCIENCE TO UNDERSTAND HUMAN BEHAVIOR. Where does evidence come from? Authority Reason Deductive/inductive reasoning Observation All these ways of knowingauthority, reason, and observationare used by scientists, but observation must be the basis for knowledge that is scientific. Science puts greater emphasis on evidence provided by the senses than on authority of others or reasoning. Science relies on empirical evidence.

Problems in scientific thinking 1. theory influences observations we see what we want to see 2. equipment/technology influences reality DNA mapping -> genetic theory/explanation psychology Before DNA, everything explained by environment 3. anecdotes dont make science need controlled experiments (n of 1, only one person. N=1) 4. bold statements dont make claims true/heresy doesnt equal correctness 5. rumors dont equal reality 6. burden of proof 7. the unexplained is not inexplicable 8. after the fact reasoning basis for magical thinking human brain wants to connect events; see patterns in phenomenon 9. Coincidence, synchronizing, etc. But just b/c 2 things happen at same time doesnt mean theyre related We remember the hits, ignore the misses Need for Psychological science Intuition is limited Although intuition and common sense may aid queries, they are not free of error Himdsight bias- I knew it all along hindsight bias and judgmental overconfidence illustrate why we cannot rely solely on intuition and common sense Emotional Bias- tendency to make judgments based on attitudes and feelings rather than rational analysis Confirmation Bias-tendency to attend to evidence that complements and confirms our beliefs or expectations while ignoring evidence that doesnt Expectancy bias: observe what they expect to observe Placebo: substances that appear to be actual drug; may just contain sugar -> sugar pill Double blind study: both researchers and participants are uninformed about the nature of independent variable being administered Instead, you should use critical thinking: four basic criteria o few concepts that do not need to be tested o evidence can vary in quality o claims by experts and authorities do not automatically make something true o open mind Psychology is grouped into 3 major categories 1. Experimental (aka Research psych) 2. Teaching

3. Applied a. Are the most common: i. Personnel selection and training; Employee Performance ii. Work Motivation iii. Use of reinforcement; Goal setting; Redesigning jobs to be more attractive iv. Job stress v. Work loadcan be too much or too little vi. Clarity of job description and evaluation criteria vii. Accountability (especially when much responsibility but little control) viii. Job status; Task variety ix. Human contact (amount must be matched to the person) x. Physical and mental challenges What perspectives do psychologists use today? *6 main perspectives Biological Cognitive Behavioral Whole-person Developmental Socio-cultural Differ on 3 key dimensions: 1. View of human nature 2. What determines behavior 3. Focus of study A. The Biological perspective :how bodily events affect behavior, feelings and thoughts. Electrical impulses shoot along pathways of the nervous system hormones flow through the bloodstream telling the internal organs to slow down or speed up; chemical substances flow across tiny gaps between one brain cell from another. study how physical events interact with the external environment to produce perception, memories and behavior. **They also investigate the contribution of genetics . Much of this work is done by RESEARCHERS WHO ARE evolutionary psychologists and neuroscientists B. Cognitive perspective : emphasizes what goes on in peoples heads; o reason, remember, understand language, solve problems, explain experiences, how thoughts and explanations of events affect their actions, feelings and choices. understand inner workings of the mind. **ALSO DONE BY RESEARCH PSYCHOLOGISTS C. The Behavioral Perspective : how the environment +experience affect ->persons actions.

o environmental rewards & punishments ~maintain or discourage specific behaviors. o They DO NOT focus on mental processes- and instead study only what is OBSERVABLE and they can measure directly. Also called learning perspective ->Watson in the (1920s) famous for focusing on the environment and learning give me a child and I can make him a rich man, beggarman, a thief Trading Places- Dan Akrooyd and Eddie Murphy. Skinner and his boxes; pavlovs dog studies etc. Skinner Watson D. The psychodynamic perspective : unconscious dynamics conflicts and instinctual energy. origins in Freuds theory of psychoanalysis. o Humanistic psychology also falls under this perspective: emphasizes free will personal growth and resilience the achievement of human potential study of happiness is one area positive psychology a branch. o Trait and temperament view also falls under this category differences between people based on inborn characteristics and dispositions referred to as traits and temperament this is apparent in judgments we make about peoples personalitieso i.e., introversion and extraversion- the big five personality characteristics. ----most commonly this perspective is grounded in Counseling and psychotherapy-or with researchers who study positive psychology. E. Developmental Perspective: changes in psychological functioning that take place across the lifespan. o develop from a bundle of cells at conception to an infant, toddler, preschooler, child, adolescent, adult and old age so forth. o involves not only physical changes, cognitive, social, emotional. All inter-related. o Big question: developmental psychologists examine is the contribution of genetics and the environment to these changes or the nature vs nurture issue. Premise: people undergo predictable patterns of change throughout their lives F. Socio-cultural perspective: social + cultural forces outside the individual-> shape human behavior. All humans are raised in a particular culture that shapes or mediates the environment in which genetics unfold or are expressed. All human behavior is embedded in a particular context or situation. behavior is determined by culture, social norms and expectations, social learning Social interaction, socialization, cross-cultural differences

We are social animals; human behavior must be interpreted in a social context. Rene Descartes made science of psychology possible when he suggested that: 00sensation and behaviors are the result of activity in the nervous system To which of the structuarlists and functionalists ideas did the behaviorists object? They objected to the concept of the mind as an object of scientific study Which of the whole person views focuses on understanding the unconscious mind? The psychodynamic view~ esp. psychoanalysis How do Psychologists develop new knowledge? Use empirical investigations or research studies to develop new knowledge. Empirical means experience based- an approach to research that relies on sensory experience and observation as research data contrasted with speculation or common sense. Investigating a question empirically means collecting evidence carefully and systematically develop comprehensive explanations for behavior and mental processes. Explanations -> theories Theory: testable explanation for s set of facts or observations. *Key word is testable. Empirical investigations use the scientific method which is a five step process Five steps of Scientific Method 1. Develop Hypothesis 2. Perform controlled test 3. Gather objective data 4. Analyze results 5. Publish findings/replicate results 1. Develop Hypothesis a Hypothesis: statement predicting outcome of a scientific study mini theory our hypothesis here is THAT SUGAR CAUSES CHILDREN TO BECOME HYPERACTIVE. b. NEXT DECIDE HOW TEST HYPOTHESISAND SPECIFY the procedures and operationalize or define what we mean by children. c. Operational definitions: exact procedures used in establishing experimental conditions and measurement of results (how will we know when we see) -so we pick say all the children in a third grade glass next we need to specify what we mean by sugar.in this case maybe we will use a sugary soda- but a caffeine free one right ? -We need to decide what we mean by hyperactive- how will we know it when we see it? So we need to define hyperactivity children running around in an uncontrolled fashion? Low activity rate to high activity rate. So we put forth our hypothesis that: children who drink a sugary soda will become very active than children who do not drink a sugary soda.

2. Perform a controlled testA. independent variable: variable manipulated by experimenter B. randomization: using chance alone to assign individuals to experimental conditions C. dependent variable: measured outcome of a study; responses of subjects in a study 3. Gather objective data: A. Data: pieces of info, especially info gathered by researcher to be used in testing a hypothesis 4. Analyze results and accept/reject hyp.: A. based on statistical analyses of results 5. Publish, criticize, replicate: A. write up results B. send paper off for publication in scientific journal C. peers review work D. when published. Other researchers can replicate work Need control group to talk about cause/effect Types of Psychological Research 1. Experiments- gold standard for showing cause and effect -Random sample: when each person in the population has equal chance of being chosen 2. Correlational studies: measure of the relationship between two variables (statistical technique) a. Positive correlation- variables related in same direction b. Negative correlation- variables related in opposite direction -scientists have no control over experiment; cannot randomly assign participants to groups -3rd variable might be causation- because the 2 initially studying: causation DOES NOT mean correlation 3. Surveys (questionnaires, interviews) ask how they feel about things; measure anxiety and depression using questionaires *Case studies, surveys, and naturalistic observation all describe behaviors. A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes, opinions or behaviors of people usually by questioning a representative, random sample of people. Advantage: Can collect information such as attitudes and beliefs large number of people Disadvantage: Subjects may lie or mislead/Social desirability Wording can change the results of a survey. 4. Naturalistic observations Observe behavior in natural setting~ avoid influence/control Advantage: collect normative data; only method appropriate for unusual cases Disadvantage: must wait for behavior to occur

5. Case studies a. One or a few individuals are studied in depth to reveal underlying principles b. Advantage the only method appropriate for very unusual cases, often over a long period of time c. Disadvantage- Lack of generalizability; very time consuming; highly subjective

CHAPTER 2 How are genes and behavior linked? Evolution- shaped psychological processes b/c favors genetic variations that produced adaptive behavior Natural selection: all creatures share common ancestry, individuals best adapted, survive Application to psychology Phobias Sleep Innate food preferences and disasters Human large brain evolved & adapted for language, social interaction, higher order thinking o Cerebral cortex Genes and Inheritance Pan human characteristics are encoded in our genes o Genes= instruction manual for human beings Genetic code inherited from our parents determines our individual inherited traits Genotype: genetic makeup; genes inherited from parent; largely invisible Phenotype: physical characteristics we see Genes DO NOT program all of the structures of the brain in advance Genome: complete set of genetic information contained within a cell Gene: segment of a chromosome that encodes directions for inherited physical and mental characteristics of an organism-> functional units of a chromosome Chromosome: tightly coiled threadlike structures along which genes are organized, like beads on a necklace -> primarily DNA How are genes and behavior linked? @ brith- reflexes brain not completely hardwired ~ may rewire itself in response to environment o plasticity Genes and Environment @ birth, far more connections; as interact with environment, certain neural connections used repeatedly are pruned/eliminated use it or lose it- factor of environment plasticity: brains ability to change with experience o allows environment to alter structures and functions determined by genetics

o cerebral cortex last part of brain to develop- most influenced by the environment Why are genes important? They influenceo Health and susceptibility to certain diseases and mental health issues o Physical characteristics o Psychological characteristics Temperament/personality Intelligence How does the body communicate internally? 2 systems work in tandem 1. Nervous system: carry message- electrical + chemical a. Central Nervous System i. Info carried by sensory neurons ii. Message relayed by interneurons to brain iii. Brains sensory cortex asses info iv. Responds by sending message to motor neurons o The neuron: fundamental processing unit in the brain Dendrites- receive messages from other cells Axon- passes messages away from cell body to other neurons, muscles, glands Terminal branches of axon Myelin Sheath- smoother transmission Cell body Synapse: acts as an electrical insulator; prevents charge from jumping from axon to next cell in circuit Terminal buttons: tiny bulblike structures at the end of axon that contain neurotransmitters that carry neurons message into synapse o Neurotransmitters Chemical messengers that relay neural messages across synapse to next neuron Reuptake: neurotransmitters dont find a matching receptor site; drawn back into vesicles; or broken down by specially matched enzymes *Action PotentialResting Potential: normal, resting state- ions inside have a negative charge Action Potential: cell body becomes excited, triggers a cascade of events~ temporarily reverses charge and causes electrical signal to race along axon Neurotransmitter Normal Function Substances that with Affect the Action of this Neurotransmitter -produces sensations Schizophrenia Cocaine (incr. dop) of pleasures and (excess) Amphetamine(incr. reward Parkinsons (lack) dop) Problems Associated Imbalance

Dopamine

-voluntary mvmt Serotonin Regulates sleep/dreaming Mood Pain Aggression Appetite Sexual behavior Autonomic nervous system -ctrls heart rate, sleep, stress, sexual response, vigilance, appetite -goosebumps= release of norepinephrine Efferent neuronscarrying messages frm CNS -learning/memory Depression Anxiety Disorders OCD

Methylphenidate Ritalin Alcohol Fluoxetine/Prozac Hallucinogenic (LCD)

Norepinephrine

High blood pressure Depression

Tricyclic antidepressants Beta-blockers

Acetylcholine

Muscular disorders Alzheimers disease

GABA

Glutamate Endorphins

Inhibitory Anxiety neurotrans. In CNS Epilepsy -keep emotions in balance Excitatory Excessive glutamateneurotrans. causes brain damage after stroke Pleasurable Opiate sensations addiction=lower + ctrl of pain levels ~ runners high

Nicotine Black widow spider venom Botulism toxin Curare Atropine Barbiturates minor tranquilizers valium, Librium Alcohol , Xanax PCP angel dust Opiates, opium, heroin, morphine, methadone

Nervous System: Central Nervous System- brain + spinal cord o Contralateral pathways-each side communicates primarily with opposite side Peripheral Nervous Systemo Autonomic vs Somatic Autonomic: communicates with internal organs and glands Sympathetic (arousing)- fight or flight

Glial cells form myelin sheath- fatty insulation covering many axons in brain and spinal cord provide structural support for neurons Endocrine System: slower acting; send follow up message ~ support + sustain response started by Nerv. System adrenaline/epinephrine sustain bodys fight or flight response Franz Joseph- phrenology Windows on the brain1. EEG-electroencephalograph, recording brain waves- not very precise 2. CT scans- use of x-rays that pass through brain; used during traumatic injuriesmay be harmful if used a lot 3. PET scans- shows brain activity rather than just structure; scan low radioactive sugar 4. MRI-relies on cells responses in high intensity magnetic field ; clear 3D images, no X-rays used 5. fMRI- records both brain activity and structure- monitor blood/oxygen flow in brain ; like PET, but more accurate Areas of Brain have specialized functions Amygdala: fear and apprehension Hippocampus: Learning and Memory Hypothalamus: Hunger/eating Example: Specialization and Integration 1. Hearing words- auditory cortex + Wernickes area 2. Seeing words: visual cortex+ angular gyrus 3. Speaking words: Brocas area + motor cortex More about the Brain: Contains millions of nerve cells Most activity takes place unconsciously Cerebral Dominance: Each hemisphere exerts control over different functions; 2 sides of brain specialize in different tasks o Frontal lobe damage: Aphasia Loss of speech o Right hemisphere damage: Spatial orientation Process of locating ones body or other objects in space

Parasympathetic (calming) Somatic: communicates with sense organs and voluntary muscles Afferent: sensory system Efferent: motor system

Right Hemisphere 1. Logical thinking 2. Language ability 3. Writing 4. Science/math Left Hemisphere 1. Musical + artistic ability 2. Perception of space 3. Imagination and fantasizing 4. Body control/ awareness Summary Scientists use scans as a window into the brain o Brain is organized in 3 integrated layers Brain stem Limbic system Cerebral cortex Within the cerebral cortex are specialized lobes o Motor function, speech o Vision o Facial recognition o Touch, body position Parts of the Brain- 3 main layers Brain stem: most primitive of layers, in charge of basic functions Limbic system: regulates emotion/motivation Cerebrum: thick outer layer of brain; divided into 2 hemispheres ~ takes longer to developadapt to environment 1. Cerebral cortex-complex mental processes 2. Thalamus-relays sensory information 3. Medulla-autonomic functions (breathing, heart rate) 4. Frontal cortex- involved in complex thinking 5. Cerebellum-coordinated movement Limbic system a. Emotions, complex motives b. Pleasure centers- drugs, sex, food, etc c. humor d. Includes hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus 6. Hypothalamus- manages body internal state a. Blood-testing lab to maintain state b. therefore influence on pituitary gland c. link nervous system + endocrine system d. reward circuits- food, sex, thirst 7. Hippocampus-involved in memory a. Not the storage for memory, but responsible for creating new memories 8. Amygdala-emotion/memory

a. Involved in fear/aggression b. Proximity to hippocampus-> uses memories to aid in emotional responses Wernickes are: interprets spoken/written language Brocas area: vital for formation of speech Parietal lobe: cortical areas lying towards back and top of brain; involved in touch sensation and in perceiving spatial relationships Somatosensory cortex: primary processing area of the sensations of touch, temperature, pain, and pressure Relates information to a mental map of body to help us locate source of sensations Chapter 3 Sensation and Perception Basic Definitions 1. Sensation-stimulation of sensory receptor produces neural impulses- create internal pattern 2. Perception-interpretation of selection of sensory input ~attach meaning *brain NEVER receives stimulation directly from outside world- always converted to neural messages 3. Transduction- sensory process that converts information carried by physical stimulus (i.e. light or sound waves) into the form of neural messages. 4. Absolute Threshold- minimum amt. of physical energy needed to produce sensory experience (varies from person to person) 5. Difference threshold- (just noticeable difference)- smallest physical difference between 2 stimuli that a person can reliably detect 6. Webers law- size of JND is proportional to intensity of stimulus (volume= high, turn it down a lot to make a noticeable difference; volume= low turn it a little down- noticeable difference already) 7. Signal detection theory- sensation depends on characteristics of the stimulus, the background stimulation, and the detector a means to quantify the ability to discern between information 8. Sensory adaptation- our sense organs are change detectors; diminishing responsiveness of sensory systems to prolonged stimulation~ adapt to feel of swimming in cool water Core concept 3.2: senses all operate in much the same way, but each extracts different information and sends it to its own specialized processing region in the brain 9. Top-down processing- goals, past experience, knowledge, expectations, memory, motivations, or cultural background guide our perceptions of objects/events o Not being driven by characteristics of stimulus o Standing on top of the perceptual processing system 10. Bottom-Up processing-characteristics of the stimulus (rather than concept in our minds) drives influence on our perceptions o rely on brains feature detectors to sense stimulus characteristics: stimulus driven process 11. Retina: transduction happens in retina; light sensitive layer of cells at back of eye 12. Inattentional blindness failure to notice changes occurring in ones visual field; apparently caused by narrowing the focus of ones attention

13. Change blindness- a perceptual failure to notice that a visual scene has changed from the way it had appeared previously. Unlike inattentional blindness, change blindness requires comparing a current scene to one form the past, stored in memory 14. Illusion-interpreting a stimulus pattern incorrectly a. Theoretical explanation: i. Gestalt theory-(nature) much of perception is shaped by innate factors built into the brain 1. Figure-commands attention 2. Ground- background 3. Closure- tendency to fill in gaps ii. Learning-based inference (nurture) 1. Perceptual set: readiness to detect a particular stimulus in a given context 2. Cultural influences 15. synesthesia: mixing of sensations across sensory modalities (tasting shapes/seeing color associated with numbers) 16. parallel processing: processing of several aspects of stimulus simultaneously a. color b. depth c. form d. movement 17. Shape detection: specific combinations of temporal lobe activity Chapter 4: Learning What is learning o Process through which experience produces lasting change in behavior/ mental processes Habituation learning not to respond to stimulation Mere exposure effect- learned preference for stimuli to which we have been previously exposed Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov Watson: emotional conditioning Little Albert Classical conditioning is a basic form of learning o Produces innate reflex becomes associated with a previously neutral stimulus ~ acquires the power to elicit essentially same response o UCS (unconditioned stimulus) elicits unconditioned response o NS + UCS -> UCR o CS-> CR o Extinction: weakening of conditioned response in absence of unconditioned response

o Spontaneous recovery: occurs when the CR reappears after extinction and after a period without exposure to the CS o Stimulus generalization: giving conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the CS o Stimulus discrimination: learning to respond to particular stimulus and not anything thats similar Operant Conditioning Consequences of behavior (rewards/punishments) influence probability that behavior will occur Accounts for much wider spectrum of behavior than does classical conditioning Explains new and voluntary behaviors (not just reflexive) Skinners radical behaviorism o Father of operant conditioning o Most powerful influence= consequences- what happens immediately after behavior o Law of effect: animals behavior leads to pleasant or unpleasant results that influence whether the animals behavior leads to pleasant/ unpleasant results o Reward- pleasure assuming organisms inner experience; forbidden ground o Positive reinforcement: stimulus presented after a response and incr. the probability of that response happening again o Negative reinforcement: removal of an unpleasant or aversive stimuluscontingent on particular behavior *not punishment- remember reinforcement always strengthens behavior Skinner Box Simple device for studying effects of reinforces Operant chamber: boxlike apparatus that can be programmed to deliver reinforces and punishers contingent on animals behavior (aka Skinner box) Reinforcement contingencies: relationships between a response and the changes in stimulation that follow the response Continuous Reinforcement o all correct responses are reinforced Shaping o Operant technique- new behavior is produced by reinforcing responses that are similar to desired responses Intermittent reinforcement o Some but not all correct responses are reinforced (aka partial reinforcement) Extinction (in operant conditioning) o Response that is learned has been weakened by absence or removal of reinforcement Schedule of reinforcement o Ratio schedule- program by which reinforcement depends on number of correct responses

Fixed Ratio Schedules- reinforcement is contingent on certain, unvarying number of responses Variable Ratio Schedules- number of responses required for reinforcement varies from trial to trial o Interval Schedule time is essence ; depends on responses made in certain time period o Fixed IS-usually low response rate; reinforcement is contingent upon certain, fixed time period ~ comparatively low response rate; most widely adopted by businesses o Variable IS- most unpredictable of all; until the specified amount of time has passed, you will not receive your reward Types of Reinforces Primary Reinforceso Reinforcer (such as food or sex, that has an innate basis because of its biological value to an organism ) Conditioned Reinforcer or Secondary Reinforcer o Neutral stimuli, such as money/grades, acquire a reinforcing effect by association with primary reinforces Operant Conditioning is not pure learning, built on a biological base Instinctive drift: tendency for innate response tendencies to interfere with learned behavior (i.e. temptation for junk food) Token Economy: individuals are rewarded with tokens~ becomes secondary reinforcers Preferred Activities as Reinforcers: Premack Principle- more preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less preferred activity Reinforcement Across Cultures Culture shapes preferences in reinforcement, but reinforcement also shapes culture In this sense culture is a set of behaviors originally learned by operant conditioning and shared by a group of people Problem of Punishment Punishment: aversive consequence which occurring after a response Positive punishment: application of aversive stimulus after response (ex: electric shock) Negative punishment: removal of an attractive stimulus after a response Punishment and negative reinforcement lead to opposite effects on behavior. Punishment decreases a behavior or reduces its probability of recurring In contrast, negative reinforcement- like positive reinforcement- always increases a responses probability of occurring again Negative reinforcement and negative punishment always involve withholding or removing a stimulus

Probability increases

of

Probability decreases

of

Remove (subtract) Stimulus (negative) behavior POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT Employee gets bonus for Take aspirin for headache, good work take aspirin next time you Do good, get good do more have headache good Take away bad, to reinforce good behavior POSITIVE PUNISHMENT NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT Speeder gets traffic ticket and Child who has stayed out late slows down misses dinner comes home Add punishment early next time Take away needed which = the punishment

Add Stimulus (Positive)

Uses and Abuses of Punishment 1. Punishment unlike reinforcement must be administered consistently 2. Lure of rewards may make the possibility of punishment seem worth the price 3. Punishment triggers escape or aggression 4. Punishment makes the learner fearful or apprehensive, which inhibits learning new and more desirable responses Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Behavior is controlled by stimuli that Behavior is controlled by consequences preceded the response ( by the CS and UCS) (rewards, punishments, etc) that follow the response No reward or punishment is involved ~ Often involves reward stimuli may be used reinforcement/punishment Through conditioning, new stimulus, (CS) Through conditioning, a new stimulus (a comes to produce the old (reflexive) Reinforcer) produces new behavior behavior Extinction is produced by withholding the Extinction is produced by withholding UCS reinforcement Learner is passive (responds reflexively): Learner is active (operant behavior ): responses are involuntary- behavior is responses are voluntary- behavior is emitted elicited by stimulation by organism Core Concept 4.3 According to cognitive psychology some forms of learning must be explained as changes in mental processes rather than as changes in behavior alone Insight learning: Kohler In a series of famous studies, Kohler showed that chimps could learn to solve complex problems, not just by trial and error by flashes of insight that combined simpler responses learned previously.

Evidence- animals were not just mindlessly using conditioned Reponses but were learning by insight: by reorganizing their perceptions of problems Solve problems by suddenly perceiving familiar objects in new forms or relationships Cognitive Maps Mental image an organism uses to navigate through a familiar environment Latent learning: Mice learned the maze during exploratory period, even through no hint of learning could be see in behavior at the time Banduras Challenge to Behaviorism Learning by observation and imitation can affect our behavior ~ when we have no personal experience Psychologists call this observational learning- form of cognitive learning in which new responses are acquired after watching others behavior and the consequence of that behavior Summary: Cognitive Learning Involves the acquisition of information that may be used in planning, evaluating, and other forms of thinking: not necessarily acted on immediately Latent learning: occurs w/o behavioral signs Insight learning: suddenly grasping what something means, and incorporating NEW knowledge into OLD knowledge Observational learning: involves learning by watching others. More you pay attn.. to the model the more you are likely to learn. Behavioral Learning Cognitive Learning Focus is on observable events (stimuli and Inferences are made about mental processes responses) only that are not directly observable Learning consists of association among Learning as information processing: learner stimuli and responses seeks useful information from stimuli Main forms of learning are habituation, Learning also involves insight, observational classical conditioning, and operant learning, cognitive maps, and other more conditioning, complex forms of learning Developed as a rebellion against the Developed as rebellion against narrow subjective methods of structuralism and perspective of behaviorism: cognitive functionalism. Behaviorism became the psychology became the dominant perspective th dominant perspective for much of 20 cent. end of 20th cent. Big names include Pavlov, Thorndike, Big names: Kohler, Tolman Bandura Watson, Skinner