OUTLINE OF BASIC PRONOMINAL FORMS IN CHEROKEE: One of the essential, yet most difficult, aspects of learning Cherokee relates

to mastering the complex pronoun system. This is because this system has several different sets that are used to create specific meanings on verbs, and some of which will be used on nouns, adjectives, and adverbs.. This is further complicated by the fact that some of the pronoun forms in one set have one meaning on type of verb, but when used on a different verb, they can create completely different meanings on those verbs. To learn this system you have to understand what the basic sets are, the types of verbs they apply to, which sets can be used on a specific verb (or not), and what the resultant meaning will be on the verb. For nonverbs, the system is easier since you will not use the whole range of pronoun forms but rather two basic sets. This outline will also provide information regarding basic sound rules as they apply to the pronominal system. The information on sound rules, though, will not be comprehensive, but will rather just address the most common sound rules that occur. The main intention in this outline is to give the learner of Cherokee an initial understanding on the myriad of forms and ways that pronouns are expressed in Cherokee along with any information necessary to those ideas. This means that certain concepts and ideas, though crucial in learning Cherokee, will not be covered nor addressed in this paper. Specifically, pre-pronoun prefixes, infixes, and suffixes that are common on Cherokee verbs are not provided as any part of this specific analysis. Those will require their own study. Throughout this sketch, two terms are used that the reader should know Pronominal and Verb Stem. A pronominal is just a linguistic term meaning pronoun. These two terms, pronominal and pronoun, are used inter-changeably in this document. Thus, on one page you may read the term Pronominal Prefix while later on the same page you will read Pronoun Prefix. These are one and the same. Although Pronoun Prefix does adequately capture the idea, the various resources on the Cherokee language that discuss the pronoun system typically use the term pronominal instead. For this reason, the word pronominal is used here as well. The other term, Verb Stem, refers to that part of the Cherokee verb that comes after the pronoun prefix. This is the part of the verb that indicates what the action of the verb. Cherokee verbs have three basic parts to them: Pronoun Prefix Verb Stem Tense Marker. This means that a Cherokee verb tells you WHO is doing the action (the Pronoun Prefix), WHAT the action is (the Verb Stem), and WHEN they are doing it (the Tense Marker). One final note regarding the patterns outlined here, as with any language the real truth regarding the usefulness of a given form comes from how certain ideas are actually expressed by the speakers of that language. This means that to really know how to say an idea in Cherokee requires access to someone who is a speaker of Cherokee. In some cases, the grammatical form is not representative of the spoken one. However, knowing the system within the language is essential since it allows the learner to understand how the language works and allows the student to create in the language accurate forms without having to rely upon a speaker.

BASIC PRONOMINAL SETS: Set A Forms ji- / ghi- / hga- OR a- / x OR gani- / anidi- / idini- / inosdi- / osdoji- / ojsdi- / sdiji- / ijPronoun I You S/he They All of Us You & I He & I They & I You Two You All Set B Forms agi- / agwja- / ju- / uw- OR u-a uni- / unigi- / iggini- / ginogini- / oginogi- / ogsdi- / sdiji- / ijPronoun I You S/he They All of Us You & I He & I They & I You Two You All Person Forms ji- / jiyhi- / hiyCan be Set A or Set B Can be Set A or Set B edi- / edeni- / enCan be Set A or Set B Can be Set A or Set B esdi- / esdeji- / ejPronoun I-S/he You-S/he S/he-S/he They-S/he We All-S/he You & I-S/he He & I-S/he They & I-S/he You Two-S/he You All-S/he Passive Forms vgi- / vgweja- / ejaji- / aggeji- / gegegi- / egegini- / eginogini- / oginogi- / ogesdi- / esdeji- / ejPronoun I You S/he They We All You & I He & I They & I You Two You All

ji-woniha / g-ega I am speaking / I am going hi-woniha / h-ega You are speaking / You are going ga-woniha / e-ga S/he is speaking / S/he is going ani-woniha / an-ega They are speaking / They are going idi-woniha / id-ega We all are speaking / We all are going ini-woniha / in-ega You & I are speaking / You & I are going osdi-woniha / osd-ega He & I are speaking / He & I are going oji-woniha / oj-ega They & I are speaking / They & I are going sdi-woniha / sd-ega You two are speaking / You two are going iji-woniha / ij-ega You all are speaking / You all are going

agi-naa / agw-ehluga I have it / I am yelling ja-naa / j-ehluga You have it / You are yelling u-naa / uw-ehluga S/he has it / S/he is yelling uni-naa / un-ehluga They have it / They are yelling igi-naa / ig-ehluga We all have it / We all are yelling gini-naa / gin-ehluga You & I have it / You & I are yelling ogini-naa / ogin-ehluga He & I have it / He & I are yelling ogi-naa / og-ehluga They & I have it / They & I are yelling sdi-naa / sd-ehluga You two have it / You two are yelling iji-naa / ij-ehluga You all have it / You all are yelling

ji-watvhidoha / jiy-oseha I am visiting him / I am saying to him hi-hwatvhidoha / hiy-oseha You are visiting him / You are saying to him a-hwatvhidoha / g-oseha S/he is visiting him / S/he is saying to him ani-hwatvhidoha / an-oseha They are visiting him / They are saying to him edi-hwatvhidoha / ed-oseha We all are visiting him / We all are saying to him eni-hwatvhidoha / en-oseha You & I are visiting him / You & I are saying to him osdi-hwatvhidoha / osd-oseha He & I are visiting him / He & I are saying to him oji-hwatvhidoha / oj-oseha They & I are visiting him / They & I are saying to him esdi-hwatvhidoha / esd-oseha You two are visiting him / You two are saying to him eji-hwatvhidoha / ej-oseha You all are visiting him / You all are saying to him

vgi-hwatvhidoha / vgw-oseha I am being visited / I am being said to eja-hwatvhidoha / ej-oseha You are being visited / You are being said to aji-hwatvhidoha / ag-oseha S/he is being visited / S/he is being said to geji-hwatvhidoha / geg-oseha They are being visited / They are being said to egi-hwatvhidoha / eg-oseha We all are being visited / We all are being said to egini-hwatvhidoha / egin-oseha You & I are being visited / We all are being said to ogini-hwatvhidoha / ogin-oseha He & I are being visited / He & I are being said to ogi-hwatvhidoha / og-oseha They & I are being visited / They & I are being said to esdi-hwatvhidoha / esd-oseha You two are being visited / You two are being said to eji-hwatvhidoha / ej-oseha You all are being visited / You all are being said to

There are four basic pronominal sets, and those are the ones that appear on the previous page. These will be referred to as Set A, Set B, Person, and Passive. The pronominal set called Person is actually part of a much larger set that is known as the Combined Person forms, something which will be addressed later. So for now lets look at Set A, Set B, and the Base Person Pronominals first. Much later, well come back to the Passive Pronominals. Set A, Set B, and the Person pronominals are the Big 3 in terms of usage. These will be the forms you will use most often in Cherokee. Some verbs are even classified as Set A, Set B, or Person verbs. This does not mean that other pronominals can be used on them, just that the basic form of the verb follows one of the three patterns for the pronoun set. Another idea to note is that Set A and Set B are relatively complete in terms of the range of pronouns they use. The Person pronominals listed here, however, actually only have six forms instead of the ten found on Set A and Set B. On the other four forms (S/he, They, S/he & I, and They & I), you use the Set A pattern unless the verb is expressed in the Remote Past or in the Infinitive. In the Remote Past and Infinitive Tenses, you use Set B. *Note: The switching of pronoun prefixes for Set A and Person verbs to Set B in the tenses of Remote Past and Infinitive is important to learning, but the idea falls outside the scope of this particular document. For now, just learn the sets, and then work at the way Cherokee changes them based upon tense. Regarding whether or not a given verb will be Set A or Set B, there is no absolute rule. However, in general, one can say that action verbs, verbs of doing, will be Set A. Verbs that fall in this category are those like run, walk, do, jump, and play. So again, if the verb is an action you do, it will often be Set A. In contrast, Set B verbs are mostly stative or passive verbs. Verbs that fall under Set B are those such as want, have, sick, hurt, believe, know, and feel (emotion). There are, of course, verbs that do not fit these generalizations such as working which uses the Set B pattern. As well, there are certain ideas in Cherokee, specifically weather terms, that tend to fit this pattern as well. These terms do not use the full pronominal range in Sets A and B, only the form that corresponds to s/he. These are terms like raining, snowing, hailing, and freezing which use the Set A pattern. Those weather concepts that can be seen as more stative such as cold, hot, and cool use Set B. However, even some weather terms do not follow this general rule such as sunny which uses Set A. But as a general guide, the statements hold true. The Person Pronominals fall in a different category. We call this set the Person Prefixes because they specifically identify that a person is the subject and another person is the object. There are specific Person pronominal verbs that require you use the applicable Person pronouns on them (remembering that four of the pronoun forms will be Set A). These are identified as Person Verbs. Again, they explicitly identify a person as the object of the statement. In many cases, there will be two verbs that are used to express a given idea, one that is a generic form that uses Set A or Set B (most often Set A), and one that expressly identifies a person as the subject. Verbs such as visit, stop, talk, show, and tell have two verbs for each of these concepts. This idea is covered in more detail a little later since it is important to pronominal usage patterns. However, Person Pronominals extend beyond this range of usage. You can use them on Set A and Set B verbs IF the verb concept can apply the idea of person as object in the statement All of which means that you replace the Set A/B prefix with the appropriate Person Pronominal. Thus, there are many verbs in Set A and Set B that can use the Person Pronominals if you are specifically talking about a person. So again, Set A and Set B verbs will use the Person Pronominal if a living thing (especially a person) is the express object of the sentence. What one must know is whether or not the verb concept already has a specific Person verb or not. If it does not, then you will use the Person Pronominal forms on the verb to express the idea that someone is the object of the sentence. As a philosophical idea, this means that Cherokee makes it a point to state if someone is the object of the sentence or not. People are the most important thing, and as such, the language reflects that idea through the Person pronominal concept. One thing to know is that this application is not optional. If a person is the object of the sentence, and the Person Pronominal can apply, then you MUST use the relevant Person Pronominal on the verb. Once again, Person Pronouns are of a different nature than Set A and Set B. The Person Pronominals: (1) Are used on a specific range of verbs that are called Person Verbs, (2) Can replace a Set A or Set B pronominal on certain verbs, and (3) Clearly indicate the subject as a person, the object as a person, and who those persons are. The Person Pronominals listed on the following page are considered the basic range of forms as applied to verbs where they replace an existing Set A/B pronoun. The first column lists Set A forms and patterns, the middle column does the same with Set B, and the last column gives the Person Pronominals prefixes and then the use of these prefixes on the verbs listed in the Set A and Set B columns. *Keep in mind that this set is much larger and covers an extensive range of persons which are provided later in this document. 3

Set A Forms ji- / ghi- / hga- OR a- / x OR gani- / anidi- / idini- / inosdi- / osdoji- / ojsdi- / sdiji- / ij-

Pronoun I You S/he They All of Us You & I S/he & I They & I You Two You All

Set B Forms agi- / agwja- / ju- / uw- OR u-a uni- / unigi- / iggini- / ginogini- / oginogi- / ogsdi- / sdiji- / ij-

Pronoun I You S/he They All of Us You & I S/he & I They & I You Two You All

Person Forms ji- / jiyhi- / hiyCan be Set A or Set B Can be Set A or Set B edi- / edeni- / enCan be Set A or Set B Can be Set A or Set B esdi- / esdeji- / ej-

Pronoun I-S/he You-S/he S/he-S/he They-S/he We All-S/he You & I-S/he S/he & I-S/he They & I-S/he You Two-S/he You All-S/he

ji-gohwtiha I see / g-anvdadi I remember hi-gohwtiha / h-andadi You a-gohwtiha / -andadi S/he ani-gohwtiha /an-andadi They idi-gohwtiha / id-andadi All of us ini-gohwtiha / in-andadi You & I osdi-gohwtiha / osd-andadi S/he & I oji-gohwtiha / oj-andadi They & I sdi-gohwtiha / sd-andadi You two iji-gohwtiha / ij-andadi You all

agi-lvkwdi I like it / agw-vkewa I forgot it ja-lvkwdi / j-vkewa You u-lvkwdi /uw-akewa S/he uni-lvkwdi/ un-vkewa They igi-lvkwdi / ig-vkewa All of us gini-lvkwdi / gin-vkewa You & I ogini-lvkwdi / ogin-vkewa S/he & I ogi-lvkwdi / og-vkewa They & I sdi-lvkwdi / sd-vkewa You two iji-lvkwdi / ij-vkewa You all

ji-gohwtiha / jiy-anvdadi / ji-lvgwodi / jiy-vkewa hi-gohwtiha / hiy-andadi / hi-lvgwodi / hiy-vkewa a-gohwtiha / -andadi / u-lvkwdi / uw-akewa ani-gohwtiha / an-andadi / uni-lvkwdi / un-vkewa edi-gohwtiha / ed-andadi / edi-lvkwdi / ed-vkewa eni-gohwtiha / en-andadi / eni-lvgwodi / en-vkewa osdi-gohwtiha / osd-andadi / ogini-lvkwdi / ogin-vkewa oji-gohwtiha / oj-andadi / ogi-lvkwdi / og-vkewa esdi-gohwtiha / esd-andadi / esdi-lvkwdi / esd-vkewa eji-gohwtiha / ej-andadi / eji-lvkwdi / ej-vkewa

There are many verbs that fall in this category, especially in the Set A forms. A small sample of some of these verbs are: /g-atvgia/ I hear it /g-utea/ I am picking it up /g-agatosdi/ I am looking at it /ji-sadosga/ I am pushing it /jiy-atvgia/ I hear something living /jiy-utea/ I am picking something living up /jiy-agatosdi/ I am looking at him/her /jiy-asadosga/ I am pushing him/her /g-alewisdohdiha/ I am stopping it /g-atvdvhvsga/ I am asking it /g-akilvdiha/ I am riding it /de-g-anehldiha/ I am playing /jiy-alewisdohdiha/ I am stopping him/her /jiy-atvdvhvsga/ I am asking him/her /jiy-akilvdiha/ I am riding something living /de-jiy-anehldiha/ I am playing with him/her

Note again that a statement such as /osdi-gohwtiha/, since our pronominal is Set A because there is no Person pronoun for S/he & I, the translation can be S/he and I see him/her OR S/he and I see it. There is no way to distinguish on these forms other than by context. There are some other ideas relevant here to discuss and restate. 4

For Set A verbs that can use the Person Pronominals, if the verb stem begins with a consonant, then the distinction between living (animate) and non-living (inanimate) on the I and You form (/ji-/ and /hi-/ respectively) is expressed through VOWEL length. Living objects trigger a long vowel on /ji-/ I and /hi-/ You whereas the non-living objects will have a short /ji-/ and /hi-/ on the verb. Again, this only applies IF the verb stem begins with a consonant. If it begins with a vowel then the Person Pronominal of /jiy-/ I and /hiy-/ You will be used, and it will thus be distinguishable from the Set A form of /g-/ I and /h-/ You. In the Durbin Feeling/William Pulte Cherokee Dictionary, these forms are given in both the long and short vowel forms to indicate this idea. On the other forms, where specific Person Pronominals exist (/edi-/, /eni-/, /esdi-/, and /eji-/), those will be used in place of the Set A or Set B forms. On all other forms, the verb will use the same pronominal for both forms (Set A - /ga-/, /ani-/, /osdi-/, and /oji-/; Set B - /u-/, /uni-/, /ogini-/, and /ogi-/). Verb It as Object /ji-gohwtiha/ I see it (short vowel /ji-/) /hi-gohwtiha/ You see it (short vowel /hi-/) /idi-gohwtiha/ We all see it /ani-gohwtiha/ They see it /osdi-gohwtiha/ S/he & I see it Verb Something Living as Object /ji-gohwtiha/ I see something living (long vowel /ji-/) /hi-gohwtiha/ You see something living (long vowel /hi-/) /edi-gohwtiha/ We all see something living /ani-gohwtiha/ They see something living /osdi-gohwtiha/ S/he & I see something living On the I and You forms, the only difference is short versus long vowels on the prefix /ji-/ and /hi-/. On the All of us form, /ji-goliyea/ I am examining it (short vowel /ji-/) /hi-goliyea/ You are examining it (short vowel /hi-/) /idi-goliyea/ We all are examining it /ani-goliyea/ They are examining it /osdi-goliyea/ S/he & I are examining it /ji-goliyea/ I am examining something living (long vowel /ji-/) /hi-goliyea/ You are examining something living (long vowel /hi-/) /edi-goliyea/ We all are examining something living /ani-goliyea/ They are examining something living /osdi-goliyea/ S/he & I are examining something living the difference is /idi-/ for it and /edi-/ for living. With /ani-/ and /osdi-/, They and S/he & I, there is no difference on the forms they will be identical for it and living as /ji-nvgalia/ I am cleaning it (short vowel /ji-/) /hi-nvgaliha/ You are cleaning it (short vowel /hi-/) /idi-nvgaliha/ We all are cleaning it /ani-nvgaliha/ They are cleaning it /osdi-nvgaliha/ S/he & I are cleaning it /ji-nvgalia/ I am cleaning something living (long vowel /ji-/) /hi-nvgaliha/ You are cleaning something living (long vowel /hi-/) /edi-nvgaliha/ We all are cleaning something living /ani-nvgaliha/ They are cleaning something living /osdi-nvgaliha/ S/he & I are cleaning something living object. This means that these forms do not distinguish between living and non-living things.

There are also some verbs that have two forms One that is an intransitive verb which takes Set A pronominals, and the Second that is a transitive verb with him/her as the object of the sentence (this idea was mentioned earlier). The transitive verb form will always use the Person Pronominal forms. Almost all of these forms are Set A verbs, but there are a few that are Set B. The few that are Set B forms may be transitive verbs, but the object is expressly understood to be non-living (inanimate). Set A Verb Intransitive Form Visiting g-adawahtvhidoha I am visiting (it) h-adawahtvhidoha You are visiting (it) id-adawahtvhidoha We all are visiting (it) in-adawahtvhidoha You & I are visiting (it) Teaching de-g-adeyohvsga I am teaching de-h-adehyohvsga You are teaching de-d-adehyohvsga We all are teaching de-n-adehyohvsga You & I are teaching Thankful g-alieliga I am thankful h-aliheliga You are thankful id-aliheliga We are all thankful in-aliheliga You & I are thankful Paying g-agwiyiha I am paying h-akwiyiha You are paying id-akwiyiha We are all paying in-akwiyiha You & I are paying Person Form Transitive Form Visiting Someone ji-watvhidoha I am visiting him hi-hwatvhidoha You are visiting him edi-hwatvhidoha We all are visiting him eni-hwatvhidoha You & I are visiting him Teaching Someone jiy-eyohvsga I am teaching her hiy-ehyohvsga You are teaching her ed-ehyohvsga We are all teaching her en-ehyohvsga You & I are teaching her Thankful to Someone jiy-alielicheha I am thankful to him hiy-alihelicheha You are thankful to him ed-alihelicheha We are all thankful to him en-alihelicheha You & I are thankful to him Paying Someone jiy-agwiyveha I am paying her hiy-akwiyveha You are paying her ed-akwiyveha We are all paying her en-akwiyveha You & I are paying her Set A Verb Intransitive Form Helping g-alisdeliha I am helping h-alsdeliha You are helping id-alsdeliha We are all helping in-alsdeliha You & I are helping Cooking g-adasdayvhvsga I am cooking h-adasdayvhvsga You are cooking id-adasdayvhvsga We are all cooking in-adasdayvhvsga You & I are cooking Waking ji-yega I am waking up hi-yega You are waking up idi-yega We are all waking up ini-yega You and I are waking up Looking for It (Set B) agi-hyoha I am looking for it ja-hyoha You are looking for it igi-hyoha We are all looking for it gini-hyoha You & I are looking for it Person Form Transitive Form Helping Someone ji-sdeliha I am helping him hi-sdeliha You are helping him edi-sdeliha We are all helping him eni-sdeliha You & I are helping him Cooking for Someone ji-dasdayvhvsga I am cooking for her hi-dasdayvhvsga You are cooking for her edi-dasdayvhvsga We are all cooking for her eni-dasdayvhvsga You & I are cooking for her Waking Someone ji-yesdiha I am waking him hi-yesdiha You are waking him edi-yesdiha We are all waking him eni-yesdiha You & I are waking him Looking for Someone ji-yoha I am looking for her hi-hyoha You are looking for her edi-hyoha We are all looking for her eni-hyoha You & I are looking for her

One of the related ideas given here is that Cherokee typically has two verb forms that are used to express a given idea one being an intransitive form of the verb (and in some cases, usually those associated with Set B forms, a transitive verb with an inanimate object), and the other being a transitive form of the verb. In cases where Cherokee uses a transitive verb that can have both meanings of it and something living as the object, the pattern as outlined regarding Set A or Set B forms and the use of Person Pronominals will be used. In these cases, the Person Pronoun forms can indicate a living object rather than specifically a person in its meaning. 6

Now, lets look in detail at the full range of the Person Pronominal Prefix System. These are often called combined person prefixes in the literature. This system provides the mechanism for stating concepts such like I can help you two or They taught me a lot or any idea which requires the subject ACTING on the object where both are people. Combined Person Pronoun ji- / jiygaji- / gajiygv- / gvysdv- / sdvyijv- / ijvyeni- / engeni- / genedi- / edgedi- / gedosdi- / osdgosdi- / gosdsdv- / sdvysdv- / sdvysdv- / sdvyoji- / ojgoji - / gojijv- / ijvyijv- / ijvyijv- / ijvySubject Object I Him I Them I You I You Two I You Two+ I, You Him I, You Them I, You, Him Him I, You, Him Them I, Him Him I, Him Them I, Him You I, Him You Two I, Him You Two+ I, They Him I, They Them I, They You I, They You Two I, They You Two+ Combined Person hi- / hiygahi- / gahiysgi - / sgwsgini- / sginisgi- / isgiysgini- / sginsgini- / sginisgi- / isgiyesdi- / esdisgi-/ isgiyisgi- / isgiyisgi- / isgiyeji- / ejgeji- / gejSubject Object You Him You Them You Me You Me, Him You Me, Them You Two Me You Two Me, Him You Two Me, Them You Two Him You Two+ Me You Two+ Me, Him You Two+ Me, Them You Two+ Him You Two+ Them Combined Person agi- / agwja- / jx degi- / deggini- / ginigi- / igsdi- / sdiji- / ijogini- / oginogi- / oggvgi- / gvgwgeji- / gejgesdi- / gesdgogi- / goggogini- / gogingeji- / gejgegi- / geggegini- / geginSubject Object S/he Me S/he You *No Form Him Him S/he Them S/he You, Me S/he You, Me, Them S/he You Two S/he You Two+ S/he Me, Him S/he Me, Them They Me They You They You Two They Me, Them They Me, Him They You Two+ They Me, You, Them They You, Me I Singular Subject Forms You Singular Subject Forms S/he Singular Subject Forms

I and You Subject Forms

You Two Subject Forms

I and Him/Her Subject Forms

You Three or More Subject Forms

They Subject Forms

I and They Subject Forms

Notice how some forms look identical to Set A or Set B Prefixes. Example /sdi-/ is Set A You Two but here it means S/he You Two.

Although there are many forms here, you should notice right away that many of these are the same. Thus a form such as /sdv-gowhtiha/ can mean any of the following: I and HIM see YOU I and HIM see YOU TWO I and HIM see YOU THREE (Or more) The exact meaning is often understood by context. 7

To really understand these forms, you need to see them on some verbs. Here are some of the Person Prefixes or Combined Person Prefixes on the verb see. ji-gowhtiha I see Him gaji-gowhtiha I see Them gv-gowhtiha I see YOU sdv-gowhtiha I see YOU TWO ijv-gowhtiha I see YOU THREE (Or more) eni-gowhtiha I and YOU see HIM geni-gowhtiha I and YOU see THEM edi-gowhtiha I, YOU, and HIM see HIM gedi-gowhtiha I, YOU, and HIM see THEM osdi-gowhtiha I and HIM see HIM gosdi-gowhtiha I and HIM see THEM sdv-gowhtiha I and HIM see YOU sdv-gowhtiha I and HIM see YOU TWO sdv-gowhtiha I and HIM see YOU THREE (Or more) oji-gowhtiha I and THEY see HIM goji-gowhtiha I and THEY see THEM The Combined Person prefixes listed here are essential forms to know since you cannot express some ideas without using them. To say I will call you later requires the use of the /gv-/ I You Combined Person prefix, and there is no other way this could be stated other than with this prefix - /wi-gv-yvdanelvi/. These pronoun prefixes, however, are not so much a set in the sense of those like the Set A, Set B, or even Passive Pronoun Prefixes. Instead, they are a group of pronoun prefixes that are used when you make statements that involve a person or persons as the subject(s) and a person or persons as the object(s). These person or persons can be you or me or s/he or any combination of people as either the subject or the object. The Combined Person prefixes can be used on many, but not all verbs. They can be used on Set A and Set B Verbs, depending upon the meaning and whether or not another verb exists to convey the person idea already. The one set of verbs that the Combined Person Prefixes can always be used on will be the Person verbs since those verbs, by their very nature, are actually verbs that require the use of Combined Person Prefixes as their basic form In fact, the Person Pronominal Set is actually the Combined Person Pronominal Set. The basis for determining whether you may use these on a verb is often based upon (1) Whether the idea makes sense or not, and (2) Whether or not the verb you want to use is the proper verb for the idea. For example, you would not use these on something like /gv-yosia/ I hunger you because the idea does not make any sense. And you would not say /gvy-anhta/ I know you because, although the idea makes sense, there is another verb that you use with the Combined Prefix to express this idea, /gvy-oliga/ I recognize you or I know you. 8 ijv-gowhtiha I and THEY see YOU ijv-gowhtiha I and THEY see YOU TWO ijv-gowhtiha I and THEY see YOU THREE (Or more) hi-gowhtiha YOU see HIM gahi-gowhtiha YOU see THEM sgi-gowhtiha YOU see ME sgini-gowhtiha YOU see ME and HIM isgi-gowhtiha YOU see ME and THEM sgini-gowhtiha YOU TWO see ME sgini-gowhtiha YOU TWO see ME and HIM isgi-gowhtiha YOU TWO see ME and THEM isgi-gowhtiha YOU THREE (Or more) see ME isgi-gowhtiha YOU THREE (Or more) see ME and HIM isgi-gowhtiha YOU THREE (Or more) see ME and HIM geji-gowhtiha YOU THREE (Or more) see THEM agi-gowhtiha HE sees ME ja-gowhtiha HE sees YOU degi-gowhtiha HE sees THEM gini-gowhtiha HE sees YOU and ME igi-gowhtiha HE sees YOU, ME, and HIM ogini-gowhtiha HE sees ME and HIM ogi-gowhtiha HE sees ME and THEM gvgi-gowhtiha THEY see ME geji-gowhtiha THEY see YOU gesdi-gowhtiha THEY see YOU TWO gogini-gowhtiha THEY see ME and HIM gogi-gowhtiha THEY see ME and THEM geji-gowhtiha THEY see YOU THREE (Or more) gegi-gowhtiha THEY see ME, YOU, and THEM gegini-gowhtiha THEY see YOU and ME

While there are many forms here, the one thing that should stand out is that several are repetitive. /sdv-/ for example has three different meanings depending upon situational context. Though this may seem confusing, the repetitive forms are uncommon, and as such, Cherokee has grouped them under one prefix rather than giving each concept its own individual prefix. The more important prefixes which are commonly used have their own individual prefix form such as /gv-/ I You and /sgi-/ You Me. One other aspect of this system obscured by the number of forms and their meaning is that the Set B pronoun prefixes can be used on Set A verbs to create an almost inverted meaning. Thus, to use /agi-/ on see makes it mean s/he sees me /agi-gohwtiha/. One consistent aspect of this particular usage pattern, using Set B prefixes on Set A verbs, is that the subject on all forms is either s/he or they. The two Set B pronouns NOT USED in this pattern are /u-/ S/he and /uni-/ They because here we use the regular Set A markers. agijaginige-giniagi-gohwtiha s/he sees me ja-gohwtiha s/he sees you gini-gohwtiha s/he sees you & me ge-gini-gohwtiha they see you & me oginig-oginiogig-ogiogini-gohwtiha s/he sees me & him g-ogini-gohwtiha they see me & him ogi-gohwtiha s/he sees me & them g-ogi-gohwtiha they see me & them igige-(i)giigi-gohwtiha s/he sees me, you, & them ge-(i)gi-gohwtiha they see me, you, & them

The Set B pronominal prefixes of /u-/ and /uni-/ can actually be used on Set A verbs, but not as Combined Person Prefix forms like those just listed. Instead, using either of these two Set B forms on a Set A verb makes it a PASSIVE SENTENCE. /u-gohwtiha/ S/he is being seen by someone /uni-gohwtiha/ S/he is being seen by them /u-tvgia/ S/he is being heard by someone /uni-tvgia/ S/he is being heard by them /d-u-gohwtiha/ They are being seen by someone /d-uni-gohwtiha/ They are being seen by them /d-u-tvgia/ They are being heard by someone /d-uni-tvgia/ They are being heard by them

This process ONLY works on the s/he and they Set B pronominal forms of /u-/ and /uni-/. PASSIVE PRONOMINAL PREFIXES: This brings us to the Passive Pronoun Prefixes. These prefixes are a Set of forms that attach to certain verbs which make the subject a passive recipient of the verbs action. The emphasis shifts to the person being done to. The passive forms are as follows: I Passive vgi- / vgwegini- / eginogini- / oginI I and You I and S/he egi- / egogi- / ogI, You, and S/he I and They eja- / ejesdi- / esdeji- / ejvgw-vhniha Im being hit egin-vniha You & I are being hit ogin-vhniha S/he & I are being hit eg-vniha I, You, & S/he are being hit og-vhniha I & They are being hit You Passive You You Two You All aji- / aggeji- / gegej-vhniha Youre being hit esd-vhniha You two are being hit ej-vhniha You all are being hit 9 S/he Passive S/he They ag-vniha S/hes being hit geg-vniha They are being hit

*Note: on You are being hit /e1jv2hni3ha/ and You all are being hit /e1jv1hni3ha/, the forms look the same but have different tones to distinguish meaning between the two. Even so, they are worth noting, albeit in much briefer detail. Rather than go over an extensive range of forms for this idea, we will focus upon one of the Passive Pronominals and its usage on various verbs. The Passive Pronoun we will use will be the I related form which will be /vgi-/ or /vgw-/ depending upon the verb stem. /vgi-gohwtiha/ I am being seen /vgw-atvgvga/ I was heard /vgw-tvdasda/ I was listened to In many respects these forms resemble the Combined Person Prefixes, but instead of indicating specific pronoun forms as subject and object, the Passive Pronoun Prefixes maintain a focus on the person as a passive recipient or doer of the action. It is understood that on these forms another person or persons are involved, but they are de-emphasized. One could just as easily translate the form /vgigohwtiha/ as I am being seen by someone. In most cases, the Passives just provide a richer way of expressing things or they allow for emphasizing the receiver of the action instead of the doer. There are a few situations where if the doer is not known, you could use the Passive Pronominal to indicate that idea. Even in these scenarios, however, you could also use the Combined Person prefixes. Thus one could have said /agigohwtiha/ S/he sees me with the added word /kilo/ someone to express uncertainty as to the identity of the person who sees. But there are a few verbs that use the Passive Pronominal Prefixes as part of their base form. There are not many of these verbs, but they are worth noting. These verbs are isolates in that there is no apparent reason why they have the Passive on them. Furthermore, one of these verbs only uses the Passive on ONE pronoun forms, the s/he of the verb, and not any of the other possible pronoun statements. The other verb uses the Passive on all of its forms. The verbs that this applies to are: /ajihneha/ s/hes giving it to him or hes being given it by him/her /vgw-tlohi/ I was beaten by him/her or I lost /eji-tlohi/ You were beaten by him/her or You lost On the verb /aji-hneha/, we actually have two meanings for the statement. Some reference sources list /a-hneha/ as the form for s/hes giving it to him, but many speakers do not recognize that as the valid form, and they use /aji-hneha/ instead. It is unclear as to why this occurs on only the s/he form of the idea. Furthermore, if you were just saying S/hes giving it then you could say /a-hneha/. The use of /aji-/ on the verb seems to be triggered when a receiver of giving is stated. There may be more to this concept, and it requires further research before it is fully understood. The other verb operates on a different level. What we see here is not so much an unknown usage pattern, but the application of the Passive Pronominals to state an idea in Cherokee that has no other verb to do so. The basic concept we are dealing with is losing a game. In other words, Cherokee does not have a form that simply means I lost the game. Rather, you express this idea by literally saying I was beaten by someone. This concept carries over into all tense forms for the verb so if you said I am losing you use the present tense forms of the verb with the Passive Pronoun I giving you /vgw-tlosga/, and if you said I will lose you use the future tense form /dvgwtlosi/. This verb is interesting by itself since you can use the Set A or Person forms on it to give you two basic meanings. /ji-hlosga/ Im beating him/her at a game /vgw-tlosga/ Im losing Use /ji-/ I Person Prefix on the verb stem /-hlosga/ Use /vgw-/ I Passive Pronominal on the verb stem /-tlosga/ Use /agi-/ S/he - Me Combined Person Pronominal

/vgw-tlosga/ literally means I am being beaten by him/her at a game /agi-tlosga/ S/he is beating me at a game Again, the reason the Passive Pronominals are used relates to the fact that Cherokee does not have another verb to say I lost. So to express this concept, speakers use the reverse concept and invert it you take I am beating someone (at a game) and make it I am being beaten by someone. Note that we can also use the Combined Person prefix of /agi-/ on 10

this idea to indicate that s/he is beating me, /agi-tlosga/. The use of the passive as the basic means to express Im losing rather than the Person Prefixes relates to the emphasis on me losing which is best conveyed by the Passive construction. Other than this one verb, this process is not used or needed on other verbs (though since the research on all verbs is not complete, other verbs may emerge that follow this same basic pattern). PLURALIZATION: There is another related aspect to the pronominal system relevant to discuss pluralization. While pluralization of Cherokee verbs in some instances is not part of the pronominal system, in some specific cases it is. Cherokee pluralizes certain verbs in two different ways. The most common way is to use /de-/, /d-/, /di-/, or /j-/ on a verb when there is more than one object to the verb. The exact form depends on the aspect and tense of the verb. We havent discussed aspect here because that is not part of the pronoun system under review, and that information isnt necessary to understand the points about to be made. To pluralize the verb /agwaduliha/ I want it requires the use of the marker /d-/ on the front. Thus /dagw-aduliha/ I want those things. This usage pattern is not part of the pronoun system. However, you can also use this same basic concept to say I see those people over there /Age aniyvwi de-ji-gohwtiha/. In this sentence, /de-/ is indicated that I see more than one person. In this case, /de-/ can be part of the pronoun system since it indicates information relevant to the pronoun set, namely that I see plural things. Although /de-/ does not indicate whether the objects are living or not, the pronominal prefix /ji-/ will be long for living things and short for non-living. Thus, you will know if the things are living or not based on the pronominal prefix vowel length. This distinction is lost, however, in those forms that do not distinguish between living and non-living forms those pronoun statements that do not have a Person Prefix form that can be used on them. However, there is another pluralization marker that exists which specifically provides the information that living things are the objects. This plural marker is ONLY used when applied to living things and, in most cases, specifically to people. This plural prefix is /ga-/ or /g-/ (it is /ga-/ before a consonant and /g-/ before a vowel). The previous sentence could be rewritten as /Age aniyvwi ga-ji-gohwtiha/ where the /ga-/ provides the information that indicates plural people are being seen. /ga-/ is used on Set A verbs and Person Pronoun forms to pluralize the animate object (again, in most cases, specifically humans). This form is not needed on some forms since those forms are already marked for this idea forms such as the Combined Person Pronominal prefixes /g-egi-/ and /g-ogini-/ which were given earlier. /ga-/ is considered part of the pronominal system since it is part of the basic form on several pronominal forms such as /gegi-/. Those verbs that are Person verbs require the use of /ga-/ on most of its forms In fact, you cannot use /de-/ or /d-/ on these forms for the simple reason that they are person forms that require this specific prefix. /jisdelia/ Im helping him /ga-jisdelia/ Im helping THEM /jiwatvhidoha/ Im visiting him /ga-jiwatvhidoha/ Im visiting THEM HOWEVER, you can use the /de-/ plural marker if the ACTION spoken about or there are plural OBJECTS of the sentence involved. In these cases, the /de-/ or /d-/ plural marker goes in front of the plural person /ga-/ marker. /de-ga-jisdelia/ Im helping them do those things BASIC SOUND RULES: There is another aspect to the pronominal system that is relevant for the learner, that of sound rules. Although sound rules are not directly linked to which pronominals are used on a given verb, they do come into play in terms of how those pronominals actually SOUND. This piece does not cover all the sound rules, but instead, only covers those that are most common in Cherokee as they relate to pronoun prefixes. The first concept related to sound rules relates to the verb stem. Certain verb stems trigger these sound rules on pronominal prefixes. These sound rules cause sounds to contract on the pronominal, or they may even alter what the verb stem looks like. These are crucial concepts to acquire in the learning process, especially when applied to the pronominal prefix system as well as the entire system of Cherokee. Here are the ones you need to know most: 11 BUT NOT: /de-ga-jiwatvhidoha/ Im visiting them ??? *The use of /de-/ makes no sense in the statement.

/agi-/ I Set B contracts to just /ak-/ before the consonants /t/, /s/, and /d/. This can be stated as: /agi-/ + /t/ or /s/ or /d/ = /ak-/. /ak-tvdasdi/ I am listening /ak-tadegia/ I am thirsty /ad-dlvga/ I am sick /ak-suhdi/ for me to fish /ja-/ You Set B contracts to just /ts-/ before the consonants /t/, /s/, and /d/. This can be stated as: /ja-/ + /t/ or /s/ or /d/ = /ts-/. /ts-tvdasdi/ You are listening /ts-tadegia/ You are thirsty /ts-dlvga/ You are sick /ts-suhdi/ for you to fish /uw-/ S/he Set B form that appears before a vowel verb stem deletes /a/ on the verb, creating only /u-/. This can be stated as: /uw-/ + /a/ = /u-/. /u-duliha/ S/he wants it /u-nhta/ S/he knows it /u-danhta/ S/he feels /u-hnigisvi/ S/he left (Remote Past) /ji-/ I Set A or Person Pronominal deletes the first /h/ in verb stem. This can be stated as: /ji-/ + /-h-/ = /-/ or //. /ji-yeha/ I have it /hi-hyeha/ You have it /ji-watvhida/ I am visiting him/her /hi-hwatvhida/ You are visiting him/her /a/ as the initial sound on a verb stem is often deleted when /n/ precedes it. This can be stated as: /n/ + /a/ = /n/. /n-an-dvneha/ They are doing it /un-duliha/ They want it /d-an-dlosga/ They are meeting /an-datlosga/ They are winning *Note that this process specifically applies to certain prefix forms. Any pronoun prefix that has /n/ before a vowel stem will utilize this basic rule. This includes the Set A Pronoun Prefixes /an-/ They and /in-/ You and I, and the Set B Pronoun Prefixes /un-/ They, /gin-/ You and I, and /ogin-/ S/he and I. There are a few verbs that do not delete /a/ as part of this process, and these verbs all have Tone (Tone 3) on this initial /a/. /h-/ You Set A moves in front of any of the prefixes /ni-/, /wi-/, and /yi-/. This can be stated as: /ni-/ or /wi-/ or /yi-/ + /h-/ = /hn-/ or /hw-/ or /hy-/. /h-n-advneha/ You are doing it /h-wi-gi/ Get it /h-y-ega/ If you are going /h-ni-wi/ Say it /h-/ You Set A contracts with future prefix /da-/ and with command plural /di-/. This can be stated as: /da-/ or /di-/ + /h-/ = /t-/. /ti-wonisi/ You will speak /t-utagi/ Pick those up /ti-noseli/ You will tell him/her /ti-sduhvga/ Close them PRONOMINAL SYSTEM ON NON-VERBS NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, AND ADVERBS: To this point, we have only addressed how the pronominal system applies to verbs. But the importance of this system extends to their use on all forms of Cherokee, not just verbs. They are used, even required, on nouns, adjectives, and adverbs when certain ideas are meant to be expressed. On non-verbs, the pronominal system used is actually easier because we will actually only deal, with a few exceptions, with Set A and Set B patterns. This is another reason why the Set A and Set B pronominals are often the first sets learned in Cherokee because they are the most common and the most used in the language in all its forms. The key to understanding whether or not to use Set A or Set B on nouns, adjectives, and adverbs relates to the base form of the word. If it begins with any consonant other than /u/ then you typically treat it as Set A when you apply the pronoun prefix to it. If it begins with the vowel /u/ then you use Set B pronoun prefixes. If the word is derived from a verb, then you use the pronoun set, either A or B, that is used on the verb in its PRESENT TENSE form. 12

Nouns Jalagi Cherokee gawonisgi speaker asgaya man askoli His/Her head uwoyena His/Her hand uhnawo His/Her shirt julvhwisdanhdi His/Her work Adjectives Adverbs asamadi smart ayanuli fast usdi small utana big ulsgeda important ji-samadi I am smart ji-yanuli I am fast ak-sdi I am small agw-atana I am big agw-alsgeda I am important hi-samadi You are smart hi-yanuli You are fast ts-sdi You are small j-atana You are big j-alsgeda You are important ani-samadi They are smart ani-yanuli They are fast j-un-sdi They are small j-un-tana They are big un-alsgeda They are important Ji-jalagi I am Cherokee ji-wonisgi I am a speaker ji-sgaya I am a man ji-skoli My head agw-oyena My hand agw-ahnawo My shirt di-(a)gi-lvhwisdanhdi My work Hi-jalagi You are Cherokee hi-wonisgi You are a speaker hi-sgaya You are a man hi-sgoli Your head j-oyena Your hand j-ahnawo Your shirt di-ja-lvhwisdanhdi Your work Ani-jalagi They are Cherokee ani-wonisgi They are speakers ani-sgaya They are men ani-skoli Their heads j-un-oyena Their hands j-un-ahnawo Their shirts j-uni-lvwhisdanhdi Their work

Note that one of the characteristics of Cherokee is that simple words, even when given alone, can be verbal statements. This is something you will see quite often in Cherokee. Regarding the use of the pronominals on some of these forms, you need to know that using pronominals on forms such as these is not only the preferred way you express these ideas, it is also the required way to do so. In other words, the way you say I am a Cherokee is to say /Jijalagi/ and not something like /Aya Jalagi/. Although /Aya Jalagi/ would be understood, no speaker would say that in expressing this idea. One other thing to note is the use of /j-/ on /usdi/ along with /un-/. Instead of just /un-sdi/ you have /junsdi/ for They are small. We wont go into this in any detail since this really deals with plrualization on certain adjectives and adverbs, but just know that certain adjectives and adverbs, especially those that begin with /u/ will almost always pluralize with /j-/. This pluralization is required if there is more than one object related to the adjective or adverb. This means that you will always use either the /j-/ or /di-/ plural marker with the idea of small if there is more than one person being involved in the statement. So if you said S/he and I are small you have /j-ogini-sdi/. So youll know, you use /j-/ when the first sound of the word is either /j-/ or /o-/, but you use /di-/ if its anything else. For You and I are small, then you say /di-gini-sdi/. This process of double marking only happens on those adjectives and adverbs that begin with /u-/. Any other adjective or adverb will use Set A, and for some reason, these do not pluralize using /j-/ or /di-/. Another thing you should know is that certain concepts in Cherokee are innately prefixed. Body parts, for example, are only given as pronoun prefixed ideas. There are forms that are not prefixed, but these indicate that the body part is detached from the body so to say /uskoli/ head means that the head is not attached to the body. While most body parts use Set B, there are several that use Set A. A good list that provides these terms is found in Durbin Feeling and William Pultes Cherokee Dictionary in the grammatical sketch of the book. This section also contains a good listing of adjectives and adverbs with pronoun prefixes (specifically the I form) attached to them. This list is fairly extensive, and it should give the student the basic pattern for knowing how to use the pronoun prefixes on almost any adjective and adverb. The only thing not provided are those that may require the plural marker /j-/ or /di-/ on them. 13

Note that the same sound rules that applied to verbs are in effect with non-verbs as well. So the sound rules apply to the language, and not just specific parts or forms of the language. This is important to note since many of the nouns, adjectives, and adverbs you will need to modify with pronominals will cause these sound rules to occur. This is seen on small where /agi-/ before /s/ makes /ak-/ and on /ja-/ before /s/ makes /ts-/. There are other sound rules seen on these forms as well, but these will not be discussed here. If you want to know more about the various important sound rules found in Cherokee, read the lesson on Basic Sound Rules in Cherokee. One thing about the description given here, it does not provide all the details needed in expressing a given statement, though knowing the basic pronominal sets is the first step in this process. Some of the basic ideas related to the prefix were provided in this sketch such as pluralization, sound rules, and unusual verb forms. Yet, there are additional semantic (meaning how the language is used, how it is actually spoken) and basic grammatical concepts that were not provided here. These basic grammatical ideas deal with things such as Tone and Vowel length, Negation, Pluralization patterns (the exact patterns and rules that cover the idea of pluralization), and verb aspect. All of these are ideas that the student learner needs to know, but they fall well outside this sketch. Again, knowing the basic pronominal forms is but one step in this process. The final note regarding the pronominal system relates to the fact that a given verb can utilize many, if not all, of the pronoun sets given here. The verb see was used extensively within this outline to illustrate this particular point. This verb can use Set A, Set B, Person, Passive, and Combined Person pronominal prefixes. Note that not all verbs will be so flexible. In some cases, Cherokee will use two or more verbs to express a given idea with the distinction being one of animacy, classification (meaning the extensive range of classification verbs within the language), or even context. The only way to make this determination is through trial and error with assistance from someone who is knowledgeable enough about the language to help the learner when these forms arise. To understand this better, we can take the verb see and various pronoun prefixes can be applied to it. /ji-gohwtiha/ I see it /ji-gohwtiha/ I see him/her /ga-ji-gohwtiha/ I see them (people) /vgi-gohwtiha/ I am being seen by someone /gv-gohwtiha/ I see you One of the basic points of this outline was to show how a given verb can be altered in meaning by using these various pronominal prefixes. To express certain ideas, you have to know and be able to use these prefixes. There is no other way to say I see you than to use /gv-/ on the verb stem /-gohwtiha/ - /gv-gohwtiha/. The concept of using a particular pronominal prefix on the verb to give it a slightly different meaning is the point of having such a wide range of forms the idea that you can express yourself in a very specific way by using a different pronoun prefix on the verb. This is at its most essential level how Cherokee tends to create meaning and nuance within the language; this is at the heart of what makes Cherokee the language that it is. *Final Note: Cherokee does have two stand alone pronoun prefixes, /aya/ or /ayv/ which means I and /nihi/ which means You. These forms are not prefixes, but function as specific pronoun indicators for I and You which allow speakers to express ideas without using a verb or when expressing emphasis. There are certain constructions that will use /aya/ or /nihi/ with verbs, but these are more isolated and will be learned on a case by case basis. When using basic verbs, /aya/ and /nihi/ will not be necessary, and in some cases, will be seen as incorrect.

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