Grammar Lesson: Can and Cannot This Grammar Lesson covers the concept of expression can and cannot

using a specific process and verb form. Though the base construction of both forms is not overly difficult, the issue of sound rules affects several forms (especially in the cannot patterns) such that several patterns related to specific forms will need to be learned as part of the overall process. The Verb: Immediate Aspect Stem The most important part of these constructions is the proper use and identification of the verb for these processes. Linguistically we label the verb we use here as the Immediate Aspect Stem. This is the verb form that corresponds to the idea of either just having done the action or as a command with the action to be done immediately (Immediate Command). Note that not all verbs have an Immediate Aspect Stem, but most do. On the Verb Reference Book the Immediate form can be found in the third column under the heading of Imperative (Future editions of the VRB will use the term Immediate). The easiest way to choose the proper form is to use the idea of just having done the action or state. Examples of Can Forms: /Eligwu yi-jigowata/ I can see it /Eligwu yi-gena/ I can go /Eligwu yi-dehanelohvga/ You can play /Eligwu yi-dulvhwisdasi/ S/he can work Pattern of Construction: /Eligwu yi-VERB/ or /Eligwu y-VERB/ Use the word /eligwu/ can with the pre-pronominal prefix /yi-/ or /y-/ on the Immediate Verb form. /yi-/ is used before verbs beginning with a consonant while /y-/ comes before vowel initial verbs. The process for making can expressions is much simpler and straightforward than with the cannot forms so you should not have too much difficulty in making these types of statements. Sound Rule Patterns for Can Forms: Only one sound rule affects the can process, and this sound rule is a general rule related to the pronominal prefix /hi-/ or /h-/ You Set A and not specific to the can construction patterns. /Eligwu h-y-/ Patterns: /hi-/ or /h-/ Verbs, Set A You Second Person Singular Set A You Singular verbs beginning with /hi-/ or /h-/ will move in front of the /yi-/ or /y-/ creating the pattern of /h-yi-/ or /h-y-/ on all verbs of this type (also called metathesis). /Eligwu h-y-alena/ You can start /Eligwu h-yi-wonihi/ You can speak /Eligwu h-y-ena/ You can go /Eligwu yu-w-hena/ You can go /Eligwu h-yi-gowata/ You can see it /Eligwu h-y-ahnigi/ You can leave /halena/ You just started /hiwonihi/ You just spoke /hena/ You just went /h-w-ena/ You just went /higowata/ You just saw it /hahnigi/ You just left

Examples of Cannot Forms: /Tla yi-ga-hena/ You cannot go /Tla yi-ga-jiwata/ I cannot find it /Tla yi-g-v-nigowata/ They cannot see it /Tla yi-ga-gawonihi/ S/he cannot speak Pattern of Construction: /Tla yi-ga-VERB/ /Tla yi-di-ga-VERB/ /Tla yi-gay-VERB/ /Tla yi-gv-VERB/ Cannot expressions use the basic model of /Tla/ not and /yi-ga-/ unable attached to the verb. However, verbs of different types will require slightly different constructions as the above four different models show. These will be explained in the following section on Sound Rules. Sound Rule Patterns for Cannot Forms: There are four basic patterns dealing with sound rules for cannot based constructions. /Tla yi-gv-/ Patterns: Verbs that Begin with the Vowel /a-/ Verbs that begin with the vowel /a-/ will merge with the /a/ of /ga-/ to make /v/. This is a general sound rule that occurs anytime the two vowels /a/ and /a/ come together. The general expressions for this is: /a/ + /a/ = /v/. The types of verbs that this will occur are: /agi-/ or /agw-/ Set B I forms /a-/ Set A S/he forms /ani-/ Set A They forms /Tla yi-gv-giyhga/ I cant look for it /Tla yi-gv-gwaduga/ I cant throw it /Tla yi-gv-gowata/ S/he cant see it /Tla yi-gv-niga/ They cant eat it /Tla yi-gv-dasdayvhvga/ S/he cant cook /Tla yi-gv-nigowata/ They cant see it /Tla yi-gv-gigohniyogi/ I cant be late /Tla yi-gv-sdela/ S/he cant help him /Tla yi-gv-nahnigi/ They cant leave /Tla yi-di-ga-/ Patterns: Verbs that Begin with /de-/ When the verb begins the pre-pronominal prefix /de-/, the /de-/ prefix changes to /di-/ and goes between the /yi-/ and /-ga-/ prefixes. The result is the string of /yi-di-ga-/. Verbs that innately begin with /de-/ that fit this pattern are: /dagilvwhisdasi/ I just worked /Tla yi-di-gv-gilvhwisdasi/ I cant work *Note: /a/ + /a/ = /v/ is part of this form as well. /deganelohvga/ I just played /degalitaduga/ I just jumped /degadeyohvga/ I just taught /dejinogi/ I just sang /degasega/ I just counted /Tla yi-di-ga-ganelohvga/ I cant play /Tla yi-di-ga-galitaduga/ I cant jump /Tla yi-di-ga-gadeyohvga/ I cant teach /Tla yi-di-ga-jinogi/ I cant sing /Tla yi-di-ga-gasega/ I cant count

But there are some verbs that use /de-/ as a plural marker that will be affected by this process as well. Some of these verbs are: 2

/dejigowata/ I just saw those /dejiwata/ I just found those

/Tla yi-di-ga-jigowata/ I cant see those /Tla yi-di-ga-jiwata/ I cant find those

/Tla yi-gay-/ Patterns: Verbs that Begin with the Vowels /o-/, /e-/, and /u-/ Verbs beginning with any of the vowels /o/, /e/, or /u/ will use /yi-gay-/ in front. Note that this pattern will emerge even if the verb begins with /de-/ or /d-/ because the /de-/ or /d-/ becomes /di-/ and moves between /yi-/ and /ga-/. /Tla yi-gay-osdigowata/ S/he & I cant see it /Tla yi-gay-ena/ S/he cant go /Tla yi-gay-enigowata/ You & I cant see him /Tla yi-gay-edihwatvhida/ S/he, You, & I cant visit him /Tla yi-gay-uduga/ S/he cant throw /Tla yi-gay-unaduga/ They cant throw /Tla yi-di-gay-ojanelohvga/ They & I cant play /Tla yi-di-gay-osdaltaduga/ S/he & I cant jump /Tla yi-di-gay-ulvhwisdasi/ S/he cant work /Tla yi-di-gay-oginilvhwisdasi/ S/he & I cant work /Tla yi-di-gay-uliyesulvga/ S/he cant wear gloves /Tla yi-ga-/ Patterns: Verbs that Begin with the Vowel /i-/ Verbs beginning with the vowel /i/ simply use the normal pattern of /yi-ga-/ before it, but the /i/ disappears and merges with /ga-/. /ga-/ will raise from Tone 2 to Tone 3 in pitch. /inena/ You & I just went /idena/ We all just went /inigowata/ You & I just saw it Various Can and Cannot Sentence Examples: /Eligwu yi-nigadvga/ I can do it /Eligwu y-ojisdela/ I & They can help him /Eligwu yi-dagilvhwisdasi/ I can work /Eligwu yi-dulvhwisdasi/ S/he can work /Eligwu osda yi-nigvga/ I can fix it /Eligwu yi-dehanehlda/ You can play with it /Eligwu yi-(i)jahnigi/ You all can leave /Eligwu y-ojigowata/ They & I can see it /Eligwu yi-dosdaltaduga/ You & I can jump /Eligwu y-ojvhnisda/ They & I can cook it /Eligwu y-adawoja/ S/he can swim /Eligwu yi-danasehga/ They can count /Tla yi-ni-ga-gadvga/ I cannot do it /Tla yi-gay-ojisdela/ I & They cannot help him /Tla yi-di-g-v-gilvhwisdasi/ I cannot work /Tla yi-di-gay-ulvhwisdasi/ S/he cannot work /Tla osda yi-ni-ga-gvga/ I cant fix it /Tla yi-di-ga-hanehld/ You cant play with it /Tla yi-ga-(i)jahnigi/ You all cant leave /Tla yi-gay-ojigowata/ They & I cant see it /Tla yi-di-gay-osdaltaduga/ You & I cant jump /Tla yi-gay-ojvhnisda/ They & I cant cook it /Tla yi-g-v-dawoja/ S/he cant swim /Tla yi-di-g-v-nasehga/ They cant count 3 /Tla yi-ga-nena/ You & I cant go /Tla yi-ga-dena/ We cant go /Tla yi-ga-nigowata/ You & cant see it /Tla yi-gay-ojiga/ They & I cant eat it /Tla yi-gay-eda/ S/he cant be here

Summary Can Process: /Eligwu yi-VERB/ where Verb begins with consonant /Eligwu yi-gatvgvga/ I can hear it /Eligwu y-VERB/ where Verb begins with vowel /Eligwu y-atvgvga/ S/he can hear it Cannot: Process: /Tla yi-ga-VERB/ where Verb begins with consonant or vowel /i/ /Tla yi-ga-hatvgvga/ You cant hear it /Tla yi-ga-(i)natvgvga/ You & I cant hear it /Tla yi-gay-VERB/ where Verb begins with vowels /o/, /u/, or /e/ /Tla yi-gay-ojatvgvga/ They & I cant hear it /Tla yi-gay-uhesdi/ S/he cant have it /Tla yi-gay-edatvgvga/ S/he, You, & I cant hear him /Tla yi-gv-VERB/ where Verb begins with vowel /a/ /Tla yi-g-v-tvgvga/ S/he cant hear it /Tla yi-di-ga-VERB/ where Verb begins with /de-/ or /d-/ /Tla yi-di-ga-sdigoliya/ You two cant read those /Tla yi-di-gv-VERB/ where Verb has vowel /a/ after /de-/ or /d-/ /Tla yi-di-g-v-nigoliya/ They cant read those /Tla yi-di-gay-VERB/ where Verb has vowels /o/, /u/, or /e/ after /de-/ or /d-/ /Tla yi-di-gay-ojigoliya/ They & I cant read those VERB: Immediate Verb Form Best seen as the form just did.