LaboratoryManualinCollege Physics (Volume 1- Mechanics) Graphs andEquations

LaboratoryGroup # & Name:

DatePerformed:
CourseCode& Section:
Group Members:
OBJECTIVES:
.:. Toapplytherulesinplottingthenumericalresultsofanexperiment.
.:. Tolinearizeparabolicand hyperbolicgraphswhichwillverifYtheactual relationship
betweentwophysicalquantities..
:. Tointerpretthegraphsand determinetherelationshipbetweentwophysical quantities.
:. Formulatean equationrelatingtwoorthreequantitiesbasedonthedataandthe
graphs.
THEORY:
Agraphical presentationis oftenused as an effectivetool to show explicitly how one
variable varies with another. By plotting the numerical results of an experiment and
observing the shape ofthe resulting graph, a relationship between two quantities can be
established. The shape ofthe graph gives us a clue ofthe relationship ofthe variables
involved. Someofthecommononesarethefollowing:
* Astraight-line graphindicateslinearordirect relationshipbetweentwoquantities.
* Ahyperbolic graphindicatesan inverse relationship.
* Aparabolic graphtellsus ofaspecifickind oflinearordirectrelationship.
The specific equation relating the two variables ofthe graph can only be formulated
when the graph is linearized. We will see how this can be done in the succeeding
discussion.
Laboratory Manual in College Physics (Volume 1 - Mechanics) Graphs and Equations
A. Straight Line Graphs
A. 1 Linear Relationship
Figure 1 shows a straight-line graph that does not pass through the origin. This is a
linear graph. It shows a linear relationship between the two variables. It means that there
is a first-degree relationship between the Celsius readings and the Fahrenheit readings. The
general equation for a linear graph is
y= mx + b
Equation (1)
where m and b are constants; m is the slope of the line and b is the y-intercept. The
y-intercept of the line is the value ofy when x is zero. Ifwe take y = 68 , x = 20, and b
= 32 in graph #1, the slope can be obtained using Eq. (1):
Equation (2)
Fahrenheit Celcius
(OF)
COG)
32 o
68 20
104 40
140 60
176 80
Substituting the value of the slope obtained in Eq. (2) to Eq. (1) and considering that the
y-axis is OF and the x-axis is c, the equation relating Fahrenheit reading and Celsius
reading is therefore:
Equation (3)
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Laboratory Manual inCollege Physics (Volume 1 - Mechanics) Graphs and Equations
We can also extrapolate values from the graph. If we extend the line downward until the
temperature is OaF, we get the corresponding value in Celsius which is 17.8 Dc. By
interpolation, we get values within the line such as 50C for the corresponding Fahrenheit
reading of 122F.
A.2Direct Proportionality
Graph #2 shows a straight line passing through the origin. The zero values for
both variables simultaneously occur. When time is doubled the distance is also doubled.
In this case, we say that distance is directly proportional to time. In general, when two
variables x and yare directly proportional to each other, the equation relating them is:
y a x y = kx or
k=y
Equation (4)
x
where k is the constant of proportionality. This equation shows that the quotient of the
two variables is always equal to a constant.
Distance
(m)
o
20
40
60
80
100
120
Time
(s)
o
1
2
3
4
5
6
140
120
-
100
E
W 80
u
I:
C'll
60
....

'0
40
20
DistanceVS. Time
--------------------------------------_.
In graph #2, the physical slope represents the constant k:
slope = 4Y = Y2 - yl tJ.d
Equation (5)
Ax X2-Xl M
The physical slope is always our concern in graphical analysis. The value is independent
of the choice of scales and it expresses a significant fact about the relationship between the
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Laboratory Manual in College Physics (Volume 1 - Mechanics) Graphs and Equations
plotted variables. For example, the slope of the distance vs. time graph represents the
average speed of the object.
On the other hand, the geometrical slope which is defined to be tan e, (where eis
the angle between the straight line connecting the points and the x-axis) depends on the
inclination of the line and hence, on the choice of scales.
B. Parabolic Graphs
In general, a parabolic graph passing through the origin can be obtained for the
quantities x and y obeying the following equations:
y = ld, y = kx
3
, Y = kx
4
, .... , Y = kxn. Equation (6)
The relationship between x and y can be expressed as y a x
n
. Rewriting Eq. (6),
L
n
= k(constant)
x
The ratio ofy and x
n
is a constant. To verifY the actual relationship, one has to linearize
the graph, i.e., plot y vs. x
n
, where n= 2,3,4...
250
T
.""
I,.
200
:.
:.', ....
J

-
..
150
.c
.2'
-
Q)
100
:I:


50

il
o
o 5 10 15
Time(s)
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LaboratoryManualin College Physics (Volume 1- Mechanics) Graphs andEquations
Graph # 3 shows a parabolic graph. FromEq. (6), the value ofn determines the
specific equation relating x and y. By inspection, squaring the time in the data yields a
direct square relationship between height and time. Thus we say, "height is directly
proportional tothe square oftime". To verify this relationship, plot height vs. square of
time. Theresultis shownin Graph#4.
Height(y) Time(t) Time squared(f)
(m) (5)
(52)
o o o
1 1 1
4 2 4
9 3 9
16 4 16
25 5 25
36 6 36
49 7 49
64 8 64
81 9 81
100 10 100
121 11 121
144 12 144
169 13 169
196 14 196
225 15 225
Height(y) vs. Square oflime(t
2
)
250
I 150
.s::.
-
Cl
'iii 100
:J:

o 50 100 150 200 250
Time Squared
In general, ifone quantity (y) varies directly with the square ofanother quantity (x") we
write, ya x
2
. In this case n = 2. Thus the equation that correctly expresses the
relationship of height(h) andtime(t) inthedatais:
h k() h-_ kt
2
2 = constant =>
t
wheretheconstantkrepresentstheslopeofheightvs. time squaredgraph.
C.HyperbolicGraphs
Hyperbolicgraphscanbeobtainedfor quantitiesobeyingthefollowing equations:
y = k/x,Y= klx", Y= k/x
3
.... Y= k/X'. Equation(7)
A hyperbolic graph indicates an inverse relationship between two quantities i.e.,
y a _1_
n
.Thespecificequationcanbeverifiedbydeterminingthevalue ofn.Forn= 1,
x
theequationisy k/x.
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LaboratoryManualinCollege Physics (Volume 1- Mechanics)
Graphs andEquations
y X
200 1
100 2
67 3
50 4
40 5
33 6
o 2 4 6 8
x

C.lInverse Proportionality
Graph # 5 shows ahyperbolic graph. To linearize it, tryn = 1suchthaty = Ix.
Plottingy Ys. iiX yields a straight-line graph as shown in Graph # 6. Hencey is directly
proportionalto 1/x ory is inversely proportional to x. Inequationform:
1 k
y a-=> y =- => or k =xy Equation(8)
x x
wherek is aconstantwhichis equaltotheslope ofy Ys. i/x graph.
y x 1/x
200 1 1
100 2 0.5
67 3 0.33
50 4 0.15
40 5 0.2
33 6 0.16
yvs1/x
2:l
11111111I'llll
i
I:II!11 iillI:I.lll
i
llll:/:.I:!:!ili!!:
200
.11:11::.!:ll.i:I:i::.'.'III:.
150
>.
100
..IIIIII:llill!
iII.1111::::l
i
lllllll:
50
:..

0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20
1/x
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Laboratory Manual in College Physics (Volume 1 - Mechanics) Graphs and Equations
C.2 Inverse Square Proportionality
Sometimes, plotting y vs. l/x will not yield a straight line but plotting y vs. l/r will
yield one. This kind of relationship is called inverse square proportionality. The variable
(y) is inversely proportional to the square ofx. Graph #7 illustrates such a case.
y V5. X
: . .

y , x
1fi:7"!6:6i

r .. :
;- .. 1:4,... 2.1,
; , - .
0.8 2.8
................
0.5 3.4
,,(,-.-4 -. -.-
6:3,.. 4.4
L- _
x
The linearized graph is shown in Graph # 8. This can only be obtained if n = 2 such
k
that y=-
2
x
y x
16.7 0.6
9.4 0.8
4.2 1.2
1.4 2.1
0.8 2.8
0.5 3.4
0.4 3.9
0.3 4.4
0.2 4.8
1/x?
2.78
1.56
0.69
0.23
0.13
0.09
0.07
0.05
0.04
yvs:2
"I""":mw.:l>::::iMilll
:::iriiI:iIii::::i :iii:mmmm :IttMl' t!:iitttI:!
@::::m:::I:1l:l@!liI:::
10 !:I:trmm::mmtti!!:: ::::miiIIII::iImlMll:
>.
8 ::i:t::fim:::' ':i:::@M:::!I: Hii'It:lI:

0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00
1/x
2
'-- ...J
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Laboratory Manual in College Physics (Volume 1 - Mechanics) Graphs and Equations
D. Method of Least Squares
The method of least squares is a statistical way of determining the best-fitting
curve for a given set of data. If the set of data given does not yield any of the given
relationships above, then the best way to plot the results would be through the application
of the method ofleast squares.
The method of least squares usually yields a straight line whose slope and whose y-
intercepts can be solved by applying the following equations:
The slope (m) is:
n{t,(X,y;)} t,(x;)t,(y;)
m = Equation (9)
n{t, x,x}t.(x,)t,(x,)
The y-intercept is:
b= {t,(X,x,l}nv,l- t,(X;)t,(X,y;)
Equation (10)
t,(x;)t,(X,l
where n represents the number of samples. After determining the slope (m) and the y-
intercept, the equation for the best line is determined by:
y =mx+b
It is important that experimental data be plotted correctly for accurate graphical
interpretation. To achieve this, the rules enumerated below can be of help. For Microsoft
Excel users, the software provides almost all the necessary tools. All you need to do is
enter the values needed and select the appropriate command.
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Laboratory Manual in College Physics (Volume 1 - Mechanics) Graphs and Equations
1. Determination of Coordinates.
Determine which of the quantities to be graphed is the dependent variable and
which one is the independent variable. The independent variable is the quantity, which
controls or causes a change in the other quantity (dependent variable) whenever it is
increased or decreased. By convention, plot the independent variable along the x-axis and
dependent variable on the y-axis.
2. Labeling the axes.
Label each axis with the name of the quantity being plotted and its corresponding unit.
Abbreviate all units in standard form.
3. Choosing the Scale.
Choose scales that are easy to plot and read. In general, choose scales for the
coordinate axes so that the curve extends over most of the graph sheet. The same scale
need not be used for both axes. In many cases it is not necessary that the intersection of
the two axes represent the zero values of both variables. The number should increase from
left to right and from bottom to top. In cases where the values to be plotted are
exceptionally large or small, rewrite the numbers in scientific notation. Place the
coefficients on the coordinate scale and the multiplying factor beside the unit used.
4. Location of Points.
Encircle each point plotted on the graph to indicate that the value lies anywhere close
to that point. Draw the curve up to the circle on one side. If several curves appear on the
same sheet and the points might interfere, use squares and triangles to surround the dots
of the second and third curves, respectively.
5. Drawing the curve.
When the points are plotted, draw a smooth line connecting the points; ignore any
points that are obviously erratic. "Smooth" suggests that the line does not have to pass
exactly through each point but connects the general areas of significance. If there is a clue
that the quantities are linear, then a straight line representing an average value should be
used. There should be more or less equal number of points above and below the line. For
nonlinear curves, points should be connected with a smooth curve so that the points
average around the line. For Microsoft Excel users, this procedure is automatically done
by a specific command.
6. Title of the Graph
At an open space near the top of the paper, state the title of the graph in the form of
the dependent variable 6J) vs. the independent variable (x).
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LaboratoryManualinCollege Physics (Volume 1- Mechanics) GraphsandEquations
APPARATUSIMATERIALS:
Graphingpaper, penciland pen, ruler, Computerwith:tvficrosoftExcel
EXERCISES:
1. Thefollowing datawere obtained in an experiment relating time (t) (the independent
variable)tothespeed(v) ofan acceleratingobject.
! .... __
Plot these data on rectangular coordinate paper. For those with computers, use
McrosoftExcel.
(a)Determinetheslope ofthegraph
(b) Whatphysicalquantitydoesthesloperepresent?
(c)Determinethey-interceptofthegraph. Whatdoesitrepresent?
(d)Whatis theequationofthe curve?
2. Theheating effectofan electric currentin arheostat is found tovary directlywith
thesquare of the current. What typeofgraphis obtainedwhenthe heatis plotted as
afunction ofcurrent? Howcould the variables be adjusted so that a linear relation
wouldbeobtained?
3. Thecurrentin avariable resistortowhich agiven voltageis applied is found to vary
inversely with the resistance. What is the shape ofthe current resistance curve?
How could these variables be changed in order for a straight-line graph to be
obtained?
Dothefollowingforexercises#4to#8:
(a) Plot the given values (y vs. x). Select proper coordinate scales, label plot
points, drawasmoothcurvethroughpoints.
(b) Linearize the graph. Ifnecessary, compute different powers ofvariables and
plotuntilyougeta straightline.
(c) Determine the equation of the line obtained. Indicate the value ofn, k, and
otherconstantsorinterceptspresentinthegraph.
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LaboratoryManualin CollegePhysics (Volume 1- Mechanics) Graphs andEquations
4. Thedatabelowshowshowtheelectricfield(E) duetoapointchargevarieswith
distance(r).
5. Thefollowingvaluesrepresentaparticlewithanx-coordinatethatvariesintime.
3
65
4 I 5 I 6 1
7
1
-120 I -425 I -880 I -1515 I
6. Thefollowingvaluesrepresentthemotionofaparticlewithay-coordinatethat
variesintime.
7. Potentialenergy(Us) as afunction ofx-coordinateforthemass-springsystem.
8. Thevaluesbelowareunknownvariablesxandywithacharacteristicbehavior.
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Laboratory Manual in College Physics (Volume 1- Mechanics) Graphs and Equations
9. Detennine the equation, which will represent the best line for the following set of data
and plot the graph of the equation.
Method ofLeast Squares
1 o 4.6 o
2 1 7.1 1 7.1
3 2 9.5 4 19.1
4 3 11.5 9 34.5
5 4 13.7 16 54.8
6 5 15.9 25 79.8
7 6 18.6 36 111.6
8 7 20.9 49 146.3
9 8 23.5 64 188.0
10 9 25.4 81 228.6
n = __(number of samples)
n
L(x.x.) =
~ l 1 I -------
The slope is:
The y-intercept is:
n
L(X) -
~ j --------
n
L(xy) =
i=l l 1 -------
n
L(yJ = ~ _
~ l
The equation of the best line for the data is: y=mx+b=_._x + __
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