Thermodynamics 2: EG40JK

Dr Yakun Guo
y.guo@abdn.ac.uk, ! 2"#
$ourse arrangemen%: &ec%ures: e'ery Tuesday: (()(2*m: !2+ (2)(,*m: -T4. Tu%oria. /%o%a.
" one)hour %u%oria.0: week 14 (15 October), week 16 (29 October), week 17 (5 November), week
18 (12 November), week 19 (19 November) and week 21 (3 December), all take place on !e"da#
$rom 4 to 5pm at %N3&
1ssessmen%:
/(0 a %hree hour e2amina%ion, 304, 5 6ues%ions a.. carry 20 marks
/20 7*en book c.ass %es%, (04
8e9erences:
(. 8ogers and -ayhe:: Engineering Thermodynamics+ *ub.ished by ;ren%ice
<a..
2. Eas%o* = -c$onkey: 1**.ied Thermodynamics 9or Engineering
Techno.ogis%s, *ub.ished by &ongman
,. >ncro*era and De?i%%: undamen%a.s o9 <ea% and -ass Trans9er,
5
%h
edi%ion, *ub.ished by John ?i.ey = sons.
$on%en%s:
' (ond!ct)on* t+e appl)cat)on o$ %o!r)er," -aw to "tead# and non."tead# cond)t)on"& 6/8
lect!re"& 0eat ran"$er ma)nl# t+ro!1+ "ol)d mater)al or a "tat)onar# $l!)d
' (onvect)on* a proce"" w+)c+ ma# be e)t+er $orced or nat!ral, and )nvolve" !"e o$ Newton,"
-aw o$ cool)n1& /6 lect!re"& 0eat ran"$er t+ro!1+ $l!)d" 2 l)3!)d" and 1a"e"&
' 4ad)at)on* appl)cat)on o$ t+e 5tep+an.6olt7man -aw, v)ew $actor", and "!mmat)on and
rec)proc)t# r!le"& /5 lect!re"& +e med)!m o$ tran"$er )" )rrelevant .. +eat tran"$er w)t+o!t t+e
8"!pport, o$ an# med)!m . "ol)d or $l!)d&
' 0eat 9:c+an1er" * t+e)r mode o$ operat)on and de")1n calc!lat)on"& /4.5 lect!re"
$ourse ou%.ine:
(. @asic <ea% Trans9er
' - Heat transfer mechanisms
' - Conduction: Heat transfer through composite walls
' - Conduction: Heat transfer through cylindrical layers
' . Conduction/convection: Overall heat transfer coefficient
2. Dimensiona. ana.ysis
' - Dimensional analysis method
' - Convection: Correlation for natural and forced convection
' - Convection: Correlation for friction/heat transfer in a pipe flow
' - Forced convection: Reynolds analogy
,. Ans%eady hea% %rans9er: %ransien% conduc%ion
) Lumped capacitance ethod
1
) !alidity of lumped capacitance method
4. <ea% %rans9er by radia%ion
.6lack bod#
.;ra# bod#
.+e 5te$an.6olt7mann -aw
.;eometr)c $actor
.4ad)ant )nterc+an1e between 1ra# bod)e"
. ;a" rad)at)on
5. <ea% e2changers
' - "ypes and structures
' - Log ean "emperature Difference #L"D$ ethod
' - %ffectiveness-&"'( method
6a")c law"* con"ervat)on o$ ma"" and ener1#, t+ermod#nam)c" law"
+ermod#nam)c" )" t+e "t!d# o$ t+e )nter.relat)on between +eat, work and )nternal ener1# o$ a
"#"tem&
<ea% %rans9er mechanisms
1& (ond!ct)on* +eat tran"$er $rom one part o$ "!b"tance to anot+er part o$ t+e "ame "!b"tance or
$rom one bod# to anot+er t+ro!1+ p+#")cal contact, no apprec)able d)"placement o$ molec!le"
$orm)n1 t+e bod#& %o!r)er," law*
k<t+ermal cond!ct)v)t# o$ mater)al, depend)n1 on mater)al, =<"!r$ace area
(ond!ct)on (onvect)on
2& (onvect)on* +eat tran"$er w)t+)n a $l!)d b# m):)n1 o$ one port)on o$ $l!)d w)t+ anot+er&
Nat!ral convect)on ($ree convect)on)* ca!"ed b# den")t# d)$$erence> $orced convect)on
(?nat!ral convect)on)* $l!)d )" $orced to $low b# e:ternal mean" (p!mp, w)nd, etc)& Newton,"
law*
+ < +eat tran"$er coe$$)c)ent or $)lm coe$$)c)ent, depend)n1 on t+e $l!)d and t+e $low re1)me
2
)
" "
* +
)
"
* +
d)
d"
* + ,
2 1
& & & & & &

( )
- w
" " h+ ,

3& 4ad)at)on* all matter cont)n!o!"l# em)t" electroma1net)c rad)at)on !nle"" )t" temperat!re )"
ab"ol!te 7ero& No mater)al (med)!m) )" re3!)red $or +eat tran"$er& 5te$an.6olt7mann -aw *
where . the emissivity of the surface and < 5&669:1@
.8
ABm
2
C
4
(5te$an.6olt7mann
con"tant)
(ompar)"on between t+e mec+an)"m"
(ond!ct)on* ke# parameter* cond!ct)v)t# (k) . a propert# o$ t+e mater)al
(onvect)on* Ce# parameter* +eat tran"$er coe$$)c)ent (+) . relat)n1 to $l!)d D $low pattern
4ad)at)on* Ce# parameter* em)"")v)t# . a propert# o$ t+e "!r$ace, rad)at)on )" proport)onal to

4
&
$onduc%ion
(ond!ct)on* +eat tran"$er t+ro!1+ a ")n1le.la#er wall
%rom %o!r)er," law*
Ae +ave
+en
R./)/#+0)<t+ermal re")"tance
$onduc%ion %hrough a com*osi%e :a.. B e.ec%rica. ana.ogy
<ea% %rans9er %hrough ;.anes 1, @ = $:

5!mm)n1 !p above 3 e3!at)on" and con")der)n1 $or cont)n!)t# and "tead# "tate +eat tran"$er*
3
4
& &
s emit
+" ,

d)
d"
+0 ,

)
" "
+0 ,

1 2
R
" "
,
2 1

( )
( )
( )
C C C
C
1 1 1
1
+ + +
+
R
" "
+ 0 )
" "
,
R
" "
+ 0 )
" "
,
R
" "
+ 0 )
" "
,
4 3 4 3
2
3 2
2 1 2 1
3
,

) (
4 1
C 1 +
C 1 +
R R R
" "
, , , ,
+ +

$ombina%ion o9 conduc%ion and con'ec%ion 2 overall +eat tran"$er coe$$)c)ent U $or $l!)d $)lm and
"ol)d wall* !")n1 electr)cal analo1#*
'<overall +eat tran"$er coe$$)c)ent
$ombina%ion o9 conduc%ion and con'ec%ion 2 overall +eat tran"$er coe$$)c)ent U $or $l!)d $)lm and
a compo")te wall* !")n1 electr)cal analo1#*
E<overall +eat tran"$er coe$$)c)ent
$onduc%ion: <ea% %rans9er %hrough cy.indrica. .ayers
=""!me "tead# +eat $low )n a rad)al d)rect)on )nto or o!t $rom t+e centre o$ t+e c#l)nder or p)pe, )&e&
F <3:=< a con"tant, )n a rad)al d)rect)on& 0owever, t+e "!r$ace area, 8=,, )ncrea"e" a" 8r, )ncrea"e"&
0eat tran"$er (cond!ct)on) t+ro!1+ a ")n1le c#l)nder*
+ermal re")"tance R*
4
( ) ( )
) (
1 1
o i
o w
w
i
o i
o w i
o i
" " '+
+ h + *
)
+ h
" "
R R R
" "
,
+ +

+ +

o w
w
i
h *
)
h '
1 1 1
+ +
( ) ( )
) (
re")"tance
potent)al
1 1 3 2 1
o i
o o w2 w2
w2
i i
o i
o w w w i
o i
" " '+
+ h + *
)
+ h
" "
R R R R R
" "
,
+

,
_

+ + + +

o w2
w2
i
h *
)
h '
1 1 1
+

,
_

+

( )
dr
d"
rl *
d)
d"
*+ , 2

( )
( )
( )
R
" "
*l
r r
" "
,
2 1
1 2
2 1
2
B ln

len1t+ c#l)nder t+e )" & & & 2

2
1
2
1
l d" l *
r
dr
,
r
r
r
r

( )
*l
r r
R
2
B ln
2 1

Thermal resistance in a different form: !")n1 8lo1 mean area, or 8lo1 mean rad)!", o$ t+e c#l)nder*
w+ere +
ln
)" lo1 mean area, r
ln
)" lo1 mean rad)!"&
+ere$ore +eat tran"$er t+ro!1+ a c#l)nder*
$onduc%ion %hrough cy.indrica. .ayers B a compo")te "tr!ct!re
0eat tran"$er t+ro!1+ "teel p)pe 6 w)t+ $o!l)n1 = D )n"!lat)on (*

$ombina%ion o9 conduc%ion and con'ec%ion 2 overall +eat tran"$er coe$$)c)ent U $or +eat tran"$er
t+ro!1+ c#l)ndr)cal la#er* !")n1 electr)cal analo1#*
+
o
and +
i
are o!t and )nner "!r$ace area of cylinder3 +
w
)" lo1 mean area o$ t!be*
E )" overall +eat tran"$er coe$$)c)ent*
A+ere r
w
)" t+e lo1 mean rad)!" o$ t+e t!be*
5
ln
1 2
ln
*+
r r
*+
r
R

( )
l r
r r
r r l
+ +
+ +
+ & & 2
) B ln(
2
) B ln(
ln
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
ln

) B ln(
1 2
1 2
ln
r r
r r
r

( )
ln
2 1 2 1
& B + * r
" "
R
" "
,

C + 1 + + + C 1 +
C 1 +
+ *
r r
+ *
r r
+ *
r r
" "
l *
r r
l *
r r
l *
r r
" "
R R R
" "
,
ln,
3 4
ln,
2 3
ln,
1 2
4 1
4 3 3 2 2 1
4 1 4 1
2
) B ln(
2
) B ln(
2
) B ln(
+

+ +

+ +

( ) ( )
o o w w
w
i i
o i
o w i
o i
+ h + *
)
+ h
" "
R R R
" "
,
1 1
+ +

+ +

( )
) (
1 1
o i o
o w
o
w
w
i
o
i
o i o
" " '+
h +
+
*
)
+
+
h
" " +
,
+ +

( )
i o
i o
w
+ +
+ +
+
B ln

o w
o
w
w
i
o
i
h +
+
*
)
+
+
h '
1 1 1
+ +
o w
o
w
w
i
o
i
h r
r
*
)
r
r
h '
1 1 1
+ +
( )
i o
i o
w
r r
r r
r
B ln

Dimensiona. ana.ysis
D)men")onal anal#")" can be !"ed to* (1) 4ed!ce n!mber o$ e:per)ment" needed D ")mpl)$#
e:per)ment"> (2) 9:per)mental data pre"entat)on> (3) 6roaden t+e !"e o$ e:per)mental re"!lt" to a
w)de cond)t)on"> and (4) 0elp )n !nder"tand)n1 t+e p+#")c" o$ a problem& 0owever, d)men")onal
anal#")" )t"el$ can not completel# "olve t+e problem a" e:per)ment" are e""ent)al $or t+e
determ)nat)on o$ emp)r)cal con"tant"&
6!ck)n1+am G) t+eor#* )$ r )" t+e d)"t)nct re$erence ma1n)t!de" re3!)red to e:pre"" t+e d)men")onal
$orm!la o$ all n ma1n)t!de" d)rectl# a$$ect)n1 a p+#")cal p+enomenon, t+en t+e"e n ma1n)t!de" ma#
be 1ro!ped )nto (n.r) )ndependent d)men")onle"" parameter" (o$ten re$erred a" ")
9:ample* o $)nd a "et o$ d)men")onle"" 1ro!p" $or t+e problem o$ t+e $low o$ an )ncompre"")ble
$l!)d t+ro!1+ a p)pe&
())-)"t relevant var)able"*
' p < pre""!re drop
' D < p)pe d)ameter
' Em < mean veloc)t#
' - < len1t+ o$ p)pe
' < v)"co")t#
' < den")t#
())) =""!me t+e $ollow)n1 relat)on"+)p*
()))) Ar)te t+e d)men")on o$ t+e var)able"
Har)able" D)men")on En)t
Gre""!re (G) IB-2 Ga (NBm2)
Den")t# () IB-3 k1Bm3
H)"co")t# () IB- k1 B" m
Heloc)t# (E) -B mB"
-en1t+ (D, -) - m
()v) 5!b"t)t!te t+e"e )nto above e3!at)on #)eld"*

(v)93!at)n1 )nd)ce" #)eld"*
%or I* 1 < a J b (1)
%or -* .1 < .3a . b J c J d J e (2)

;
A
m
6
e d c
m
- a
L D u const p & & & & &)& (
[ ] [ ]
e d
c - a
L L
"
L
L"

L"

1
]
1

1
]
1

1
]
1

1
]
1

3 2
%or * .2 < .b . c (3)
(v)) 5olv)n1 above e3!at)on" and !")n1 e:per)ment" #)eld"
-
m
m
D u
t cons
u
p
L
D

'

tan
2
+e"e de$)ne $r)ct)on coe$$)c)ent and 4e#nold" n!mber
+en we +ave f.f
4
#Re$, )&e& $r)ct)on coe$$)c)ent )" t+e $!nct)on o$ 4e#nold" n!mber&
D)men")onal anal#")" proced!re*
1) -)"t all t+e var)able" :1, :2, K, :n,
2) =""!me a relat)on"+)p )n term" o$ a prod!ct o$ power" o$ t+e var)able"
3) E"e t+e pr)nc)ple o$ d)men")onal +omo1ene)t# to wr)te down*
4) 93!ate t+e power" o$ t+e $!ndamental d)men")on" on bot+ ")de" o$ e3!at)on )n "tep 3) and "olve
t+e e3!at)on obta)ned, c+oo")n1 "ome o$ t+e power" a" nece""ar#>
5) 5!b"t)t!te $or t+e power" )nto t+e e3!at)on and +ence wr)te # a" a $!nct)on o$ t+e d)men")onal
1ro!p"&
Note" on D)men")onal =nal#")"*
2 +e non.d)men")onal 1ro!p" are not !n)3!e&
2 =lwa#" c+oo"e t+e commonl# !"ed one"
2 Non.d)men")onal 1ro!p" !"ed "+o!ld be )ndependent
9:ample* D)men")onal anal#")" $or $orced convect)on ($reeBnat!ral convect)on )" ne1lected)*
var)able"* +eat tran"$er coe$$)c)ent h3 $l!)d v)"co")t# 5, den")t# 6, t+ermal cond!ct)v)t# *, "pec)$)c +eat
capac)t# o$ $l!)d c
p
, d)$$erence between "!r$ace and $l!)d 7t and $l!)d veloc)t# !, t+en we +ave
h.f(53 63 *3 c
p
, 7t3 u3 l$.+ 5
a
6
-
*
c
c
p
d
7t
e
u
f
l
g
l )" c+aracter)"t)c l)near d)men")on, = )" con"tant& E")n1 d)men")onal anal#")"*

'

'l
*
c
f
*
hl
p
,
4e#nold" n!mber*
force viscous
force inertial 'D 'l

4e
N!""elt n!mber*
*
hD
*
hl
&u
<convect)ve e$$ectB(cond!ct)ve e$$ect)
Grandtl n!mber*
*
c
p

Gr <moment!m d)$$!")v)t#B t+ermal d)$$!")v)t#

D)men")onal anal#")" $or nat!ral convect)on (no $orced $l!)d $low, )&e& no $orced convect)on)* )n t+)"
ca"e, +eat tran"$er depend" on coe$$)c)ent c!b)cal e:pan")on, L, 6
4
.6
8
#49:7t$3 7t )" temperat!re
7

D u
u
p
L
D
f
m
m

4e D
) 2 B 1 ( 4
2
d)$$erence between two part" o$ $l!)d den")t# 6
4
and 6
8
; &at!ral convect)on depend" on !pt+r!"t* #6
4-
6
8
$g. 6
8
:7tg; D)men")onal anal#")" "+ow" t+at
&u.f#<r3 =r$ w+ere ;r )" ;ra"+o$ n!mber*
2
2 3

"l g
=r

<b!o#anc# $orceBv)"co!" $orce

A+en eval!at)n1 4e, N!, Gr and ;r, $l!)d propert)e" are taken at mean temperature a" t+e# var#
w)t+ & Note t+at Gr depend" onl# on $l!)d propert)e", "o Gr )" a propert# o$ $l!)d and var# w)t+ & M$
$l!)d )" not ver# d)$$erent $rom "ol)d "!r$ace , t+en $l!)d propert)e" can be eval!ated !")n1 mean
b!lk o$ $l!)d& Ot+erw)"e, mean $)lm temperat!re )" !"ed to eval!ate t+e $l!)d propert)e"*
2
w -
f
t t
t
+

t
-
* mean b!lk temperat!re, t
w
* "!r$ace temperat!re
+ermal convect)on correlat)on"
a) Nat!ral convect)on correlat)on"* dr)ven b# temperat!re, den")t#, b!o#anc#
b) Gre""!re lo"" D $r)ct)on coe$$)c)ent
c) %orced convect)on correlat)on"* dr)ven b# p!mp, $an, $orced c)rc!lat)on
Therma. $on'ec%ion: ree con'ec%ion
D)men")onle"" $orm!la $or t+ermal $ree convect)on )"* &u.f#=r3 <r$. f#=r<r$,
1& %ree convect)on $rom +or)7ontal c#l)nder * &u.>;?@#=r<r$
>;8?
3 D . Cylinder outside
diameter3 " . "s - "a #"s3 "a: cylinder surface A air temperature$3 Gropert)e" at $)lm
temperat!re #"s 9 "a$/8
2& %ree convect)on $or vert)cal "!r$ace, lam)nar $low (4>
B
C=rC4>
D
) * &u.+#=r<r$
>;8?
E t!rb!lent
$low (4>
D
C=r$* &u.+#=r<r$
>;B>
& Gropert)e" taken at $)lm temperat!re #"s 9 "a$/8
3& %ree convect)on $rom +or)7ontal $lat plate"
a) 0ot plate" $ac)n1 !pward" or cold plate" $ac)n1 downward"*
&u.>;?B#=r<r$
>;8?
(4>
?
C=rC8F4>
G
)
&u.>;4B#=r<r$
4/@
(2N4>
G
C=rC@F4>
4>
)
b) 0ot plate" $ac)n1 downward" or cold plate" $ac)n1 !pward"
&u.>;8G#=r<r$
>;8?
(3N4>
?
C=rC4>
4>
)
w+ere* - < mean o$ plate len1t+ D breadt+,
< " . a (", a* plate "!r$ace D a)r temperat!re),
Gropert)e" at $)lm temperat!re (" J a)B2
8
Mn man# ca"e" o$ nat!ral convect)on, )t )" po"")ble to !"e an appro:)mate e3!at)on to eval!ate +eat
tran"$er coe$$)c)ent, +& %or e:ample, $or nat!ral convect)on $rom a +or)7ontal p)pe
h.4;@8#7t/d$
4/B
when 4>
B
C=rC4>
D
h.4;8?7t
4/@
when 4>
D
C=rC4>
48
w+ere h )n ABm
2
&C, 7t

)n 0 and d )n m&
Therma. con'ec%ion corre.a%ions: 9orced con'ec%ion
1& %low )n")de c)rc!lar t!be"
a) D)tt!".6oelter e3!at)on ($or t!rb!lent $low 4e ? 1@,@@@, @&7OGrO1@@)*
&u.>;>8BRe
>;H
<r
>;B
for +eat)n1
&u.>;>8BRe
>;H
<r
>;@
for cool)n1
b) (on")der e$$ect o$ var)at)on o$ $l!)d propert)e"
c) -am)nar $low
!o%e: p)pe MD, mean veloc)t# and propert)e" at b!lk temperat!re are !"ed )n t+e above e3!at)on"&
2& %low o!t")de t!be"Bc#l)nder"
a& (orrelat)on $or $l!)d" $low)n1 o!t")de a ")n1le t!beBc#l)nder D normal to )t*
&u.>;8BRe
>IH
<r
>;@
b& %or a)r and t+e common 1a"e", t+e above ma# be ")mpl)$)ed to*
&u.>;8IRe
>;I
Note*
a) +e len1t+ term )n N! D 4e )" t+e o!t")de d)ameter o$ t+e t!be>
b) Gropert)e" are at t+e mean temperat!re m<(1J2)B2, w+ere 1 and 2 are t+e !p and down
"tream a)r temperat!re>
c) %)lm coe$$)c)ent )" ba"ed on t+e o!t")de "!r$ace area, )e, &u.h
>
d
>
/*&
!o%e: +e above e3!at)on" are $or $low pa"")n1 ")n1le t!be"& %or $low pa"")n1 t!be b!ndle"
"pec)al)"ed correlat)on" are needed
+ermal convect)on correlat)on"* Gre""!re lo"" D $r)ct)on coe$$)c)ent
1& Gre""!re drop )n a c)rc!lar p)pe*
+e $r)ct)on coe$$)c)ent ($) )" a $!nct)on o$ 4e, )&e& f.f#Re$
9mp)r)cal $orm!la"* 6la")!" e3!at)on* f.>;>GD4Re->;8? for BN4>
@
CReC4>
?
> Iood# 1rap+&
%or p)pe w)t+ ro!1+ wall", $ al"o depend" on t+e relat)vel# ro!1+ne"" /D, )&e& f.f#Re3 /D$
9
( ) ) @@@ , 1@ (4e B Gr 4e @27 & @
14 & @ 33 & @ 8 & @
>
s
&u
( ) ( ) ( ) ) 2@@@ (4e B B Gr 4e 86 & 1
14 & @ 3 B 1 3 B 1
<
s i
l d &u
2
4
2
u
D
L
f p


2& Gre""!re drop )n a non.c)rc!lar c+annel
Iet+od a)* $r)ct)on coe$$)c)ent can be obta)ned $rom e:per)ment"
Iet+od b)* (orrelat)on" $or c)rc!lar t!be" are !"ed and D )" replaced w)t+ t+e 0#dra!l)c (e3!)valent)
D)ameter (D+)
D+<4NareaB(wetted per)meter)<4abB(a2J2b)<2abB(aJb)
3& Gre""!re lo""e" d!e to $low accelerat)on, decelerat)on, abr!pt contract)onBenlar1ement, p)pe
$)tt)n1", etc&
** pre""!re lo"" coe$$)c)entPdeterm)ned b# e:per)ment"
orced $on'ec%ion B 8eyno.ds 1na.ogy
+)" analo1# compare" +eat tran"$er $rom a "ol)d "!r$ace w)t+ t+e $l!)d moment!m $rom t+e "!r$ace&
Mt e:pre""e" t+e +eat tran"$er )n term" o$ t+e $r)ct)onal re")"tance to t+e $low&
(on")der t!rb!lent $low w)t+ part)cle" o$ ma"", m, tran"port)n1 +eat and moment!m 2
perpend)c!larl# . to and $rom t+e "!r$ace, on avera1e*
0eat tran"$er per !n)t area*
c< t+e "pec)$)c +eat capac)t# o$ t+e $l!)d, Q<w.b &
4ate o$ c+an1e o$ moment!m acro"" t+e "tream*
(< veloc)t# o$ t+e b!lk $l!)d> C
w
<@ < t+e veloc)t# o$ t+e $l!)d at t+e wall&
%orce per !n)t area*
Mn lam)nar "!b.la#er, +eat tran"$er )" p!rel# b# cond!ct)on, t+!", $rom %o!r)er," law, $or !n)t area,
@
R
R
&

1
]
1

y
dy
d"
*
+
,
J
k<t+ermal cond!ct)v)t# o$ $l!)d&
H)"co!" $low* S
w
<T(d(Bd#)
#<@
.. t+e "+ear "tre"" at t+e wall&
-am)nar "!b.la#er )" ver# t+)n, temperat!re and veloc)t# ma# be a""!med l)near w)t+ d)"tance $rom
t+e wall, t+en* J.-*7"/K
-
and S
w
< T(BK
-
--K
-
: t+)ckne"" o$ lam)nar "!bla#er&
3B *7" < S
w
B T( 2 3< S
w
*7" B T( (2)
1@
" c m
+
,
J & &
R R
( ) C m C C m
w
R R

C m
w
&
R

) 1 &&&&&&&&( &&&&&&&&&& &&&&&&&&&&
& &
&
R
R
C
" c
J or
C " c
J
w w

2
4
2
u
D
L
f p


2
2
u
* p


93!at)on" (1) and (2) are e3!)valent $or c<kBTU cTBk<1<Gr& +)" mean" w+en GrV1, 4e#nold"
analo1# can be appl)ed a" +eat tran"$er acro"" lam)nar "!bla#er can be con")dered )n ")m)lar wa# to
t+e +eat tran"$er $rom "!b.la#er to b!lk o$ $l!)d& %or mo"t 1a"e", dr# and "!per+eated vapo!r"*
@&65OGrO1&2
%or !n)t "!r$ace area, J.h7" L h/c. M
w
/C L h/6cC. M
w
/6C
8

5tanton n!mber* Nt. h/6cC, $r)ct)on $actor f< S
w
B(W(
2
B2), )&e& $or 4e#nold" analo1#* Nt.f/8
Nt. h/6cC. hl/*F5/#6Cl$F*/#c5$.&u/#ReF<r$3
&u. hl/*E Re.#6Cl$/ 53 <r. #c5$/*
f* determ)ne" t+e +eat $low& !rb!lent p)pe $low, f can be e"t)mated $rom pre""!re drop&
G)pe $low* re")"tance<M
w
Od.7pOd
8
/B, d<d)ameter o$ p)pe, 7p<pre""!re drop per !n)t len1t+,
M
w
.7pd/B
Mmportant $actor )n +eat e:c+an1er de")1n* p!mp)n1 power re3!)red& G!mp)n1 power* rate at w+)c+
t+e work )" done to overcome t+e $r)ct)onal re")"tance, $or p)pe $low*
G!mp)n1 power per !n)t len1t+* P. M
w
OdC3
5o, A can be red!ced )$ veloc)t# ( decrea"e", +owever, decrea")n1 ( w)ll re"!lt )n )ncrea")n1 "!r$ace
area, t+!", a comprom)"e m!"t be made&
5)mpl)$)ed 4e#nold" analo1# ($rom e:per)ment")* (olb!rn X.$actor* Nt;<r
8/@
.>;?f
&arge %em*era%ure di99erence
-ar1e d)$$erence" )n temperat!re between t+e "!r$ace and t+e b!lk o$ t+e $l!)d, )t )" no lon1er
"!$$)c)ent to !"e mean $)lm temperat!re to eval!ate propert)e", E")n1 $ollow)n1*

" and w <ab"ol!te at p)pe a:)" and wall, $l!)d propert)e" are taken at mean $)lm &
Ans%eady hea% %rans9er: %ransien% conduc%ion
ran")ent cond!ct)on deal" w)t+ !n"tead#, t)me dependent +eat tran"$er, !")n1 t)me var#)n1 met+od
and -!mped capac)tance met+od& =ppro:)mat)on and man)p!lat)on o$ $orm!lae are !"ed )n anal#")"&
11
e:c+an1er& +eat a $or (-ID), d)$$erence rat!re mean tempe lo1 t+e

& & & & &
& & & &
F
A
* $low +eat o$ rate t+e power to p!mp)n1 o$ rat)o
& & & &
F len1t+, !n)t per $low +eat
& &
3 area, !n)t per $low +eat
2
R
R
R
w
R

" c
C
d " c
C C d
C
d " c
C
" c
w
w
w

,
_

2
1
2 1
ln
ln
"
"
" "
"
( ) ( )

'

,
_

w
s
"
"
0 &u , 4e , Gr
En"tead# or tran")ent +eat tran"$er problem", ar)")n1 w+en "#"tem bo!ndar# cond)t)on" c+an1e, are
ver# d)$$)c!lt to "olve& = ")mple approac+* t+e Lumped capacitance ethod, )" !"ed w+en
temperat!re 1rad)ent" w)t+)n t+e "#"tem are "mall&
9:ample* +ot metal $or1)n1&
Ietal )" )n)t)all# at !n)$orm temperat!re )& Mt )" 3!enc+ed b# )mmer")on )n a l)3!)d Y)n)t)all#Z at
"
Q
O"
i
at t)me t<@& emperat!re o$ metal decrea"e" w)t+ t)me (t?@) !nt)l )t reac+e" "
Q
& +)"
temperat!re red!ct)on )" d!e to convect)on at t+e "ol)d.l)3!)d )nter$ace& =""!me temperat!re
1rad)ent" )n t+e metal are ne1l)1)ble&
)me re3!)red $or "ol)d to reac+ temperat!re )" determ)ned b#*
t
h+
!c
i
s
p

ln
3
emperat!re reac+ed b# "ol)d at t)me t )"*
) ( t
!c
h+
i i
p
s
e
" "
" "

3 (3)
Phere R."-"
Q
3 R
i
."
i
-"
Q
3
liquid
( ) t " "
t

@
i
" "
t

@
12
%or lar1e t)me, "S"
Q
, e&1& "ol)d temperat!re <l)3!)d temperat!re& 6!c
p
/h+
s
)" called t+ermal t)me
con"tant, e:pre""ed a"
t t p
s
t
C R !c
h+
) )(
1
(
w+ere R
t
)" re")"tance to convect)on +eat tran"$er, C
t
)" t+e lumped thermal capacitance o$ "ol)d,
determ)n)n1 t+e re"pon"e o$ "ol)d to c+an1e" )n )t" t+ermal env)ronment&
E")n1 4t and (t, we +ave
+e total ener1# tran"$er 8F, occ!rr)n1 !p to "ome t)me 8t, )" 1)ven b#
1
]
1

) e:p( 1 ) (
@ @ t
i p
t
s
t
t
!c dt h+ Jdt ,

, "!b"t)t!t)n1 [ )n and )nte1rat)n1
The 'a.idi%y o9 %he .um*ed ca*aci%ance me%hod
-!mped capac)tance met+od )" ")mple and conven)ent met+od $or deal)n1 w)t+ t+e !n"tead#
cond!ct)on problem"& +!", )t )" )mportant to know t+e cond)t)on" o$ appl)cat)on o$ t+e met+od&
o develop a "!)table cr)ter)on $or t+e tran")ent problem we con")der "tead#."tate cond!ct)on t+ro!1+
a plane wall area, =& One "!r$ace )" ma)nta)ned at a temperat!re "
s34
and t+e ot+er "!r$ace )" e:po"ed
to a $l!)d o$ temperat!re "
Q
C "
s34
& +e temperat!re o$ t+)" "!r$ace w)ll become "ome )ntermed)ate
val!e "
s38
, "
Q
O "
s38
C "
s34;
Ender "tead# "tate cond)t)on", t+e "!r$ace ener1# balance )"*
) ( ) (
2 , 2 1 ,
" " h+ " "
L
*+
s s s
*.t+ermal cond!ct)v)t# o$ "ol)d& 4earran1)n1 above e3!at)on #)eld"
1i
*
hL
R
R
h+
*+ L
" "
" "
conv
cond
s
s s

B 1
B
2 ,
2 , 1 ,
1i )" t+e 6)ot n!mber, mea"!r)n1 t+e temperat!re drop )n t+e "ol)d relat)ve to t+e temperat!re
d)$$erence between t+e "ol)d "!r$ace and t+e $l!)d& +e val!e o$ 1i )" !"ed to determ)ne )$ l!mped
capac)tance met+od )" appropr)ate& +!", w+en deal w)t+ a tran")ent (!n"tead#) problem, t+e $)r"t
t+)n1 )" to eval!ate t+e 6)ot n!mber& M$ t+e $ollow)n1 cond)t)on )" "at)"$)ed
1 & @ <
*
hL
1
c
i
+e error a""oc)ated w)t+ !")n1 t+e l!mped capac)tance met+od )" "mall&
%or conven)ence, the characteristic length L
c
o$ above e3!at)on )" de$)ned a" t+e rat)o o$ t+e vol!me
to "!r$ace area, L
c
.!/+
s
& t+!", $or a plane wall o$ t+)ckne"" 2-, L
c
.LE for a lon1 c#l)nder, L
c
.r
>
/8
13
) (
e:p
t t
C R
t
t t i
e
C R
t

,
_

$or a "p+ere L
c
. r
>
/@; o )mplement cr)ter)on )n con"ervat)ve $a"+)on, Lc )" a""oc)ated w)t+ t+e len1t+
"cale corre"pond)n1 to t+e ma:)m!m "pat)al temperat!re d)$$erence&
Pith L
c
.!/+
s
, we +ave
T is thermal diffusivity; F
o
)" d)men")onle"" t)me, w+)c+, w)t+ 6)ot n!mber, c+aracter)7e" t+e
tran")ent cond!ct)on problem&
+e l!mped capac)tance met+od can be !"ed to (1) anal#7e t+e t)me re3!)red $or t+e +eat tran"$er
proce"" to reac+ "ome $)nal temperat!re 8,> (2) anal#7e t+e $)nal temperat!re re"!lt)n1 $rom a t)me
per)od o$ 8t, "econd" o$ a +eat tran"$er proce""&
Note: 1oth the &usselt num-er and the 1iot num-er have the same form (hL/*)& 0owever, $or t+e
6)ot n!mber, t+e t+ermal cond!ct)v)t# k !"ed )" t+at $or t+e "ol)d> $or calc!lat)n1 N!""elt n!mber t+e
k val!e a" t+at o$ t+e $l!)d& +e 6)ot n!mber )" a mea"!re o$ t+e rat)o o$ t+e temperat!re drop )n t+e
"ol)d mater)al and t+e temperat!re drop between t+e "ol)d and t+e $l!)d& +e N!""elt n!mber )" a
d)men")onle"" ver")on o$ t+e temperat!re 1rad)ent at t+e "!r$ace between t+e $l!)d and t+e "ol)d, and
)t t+!" prov)de" a mea"!re o$ t+e convect)on occ!rr)n1 $rom t+e "!r$ace&
<ea% %rans9er by radia%ion: Therma. radia%ion
@.ack body
+ermal rad)at)on* +eat tran"$er re3!)re" no med)!m& 4ad)at)on "tr)k)n1 a bod# can be ab"orbed, T,
re$lected, 6, or tran"m)tted, M& +e $ract)on" o$ rad)at)on ab"orbed, re$lected and tran"m)tted are called
ab"orpt)v)t# T, re$lect)v)t# 6 and tran"m)"")v)t# M3
T9 69 M.4
%or mo"t "ol)d" and l)3!)d" tran"m)"")v)t# )" ne1l)1)ble, t+!" T9 6.4& M$ an )deal bod# ab"orb" all t+e
rad)at)on t+at $all" on )t, "!c+ bod# )" called -lac* -ody; %or black bod#, and T.4and 6.>; No
totall# black bod# e:)"t" )n pract)ce, b!t man# "!r$ace" appro:)mate to t+e de$)n)t)on&
9ner1# rad)ated $rom a bod# per !n)t area per !n)t t)me )" called t+e emmissive power
= black bod# )" t+e be"t po"")ble em)tter a" well a" t+e be"t po"")ble ab"orber&
+e em)"")v)t# o$ a bod# )" de$)ned b#
14
&
&
& &
& &
\
&
&&&&& & &&&&&&&&]
& &
&
&
& &
&
& &
& &
2
2 2
num-er Fourier the
L
t
F where
F 1
c !
t + h
or
c
*
- n
L
t
*
L h
L
t
c
*
*
L h
L c
t h
c !
t + h
c
o
o i
p
s
p c
c
c p
c
c p p
s

( ) Fo 1i
" "
" "
i i
& e:p

R
%
-ody -lac* a of power emmisive the
-ody a of power emmisive the

=b"orpt)v)t# e3!al" em)"")v)t# w+en t+e two bod)e" are at t+e "ame temperat!re& +)" )" called
C)rc+o$$," law* t+e em)"")v)t# o$ a bod# rad)at)n1 ener1# at temperat!re, , )" e3!al to t+e
ab"orpt)v)t# o$ t+e bod# w+en rece)v)n1 ener1# $rom a "o!rce at a temperat!re, &
The grey body
%or t+e maXor)t# o$ mater)al" t+e em)"")ve power per !n)t wavelen1t+ )" a $!nct)on o$ t+at wavelen1t+
Y)ncl!d)n1 black bod)e"Z& 0owever, t+ere are certa)n mater)al" $or w+)c+ t+e em)"")v)t# )" v)rt!all#
con"tant over all wavelen1t+" and $or all temperat!re& 5!c+ an )deal "!r$ace )" called a 1re# bod#,
and T.U, at all temperat!re", w+ere ^ and _ are total ab"orpt)v)t# and total em)"")v)t# over all
wavelen1t+&
The C%e9an)@o.%Dmann &a:
5.6 law l)nk" t+e em)"")ve power and t+e temperat!re o$ a bod#& +e law "tate" t+at t+e em)"")ve
power or ener1# em)tted )" proport)onal to t+e 4
t+
power o$ t+e bod#," temperat!re, )&e&


(on")der bod# 1, o$ em)"")v)t# U
4
at temperat!re "
4
, completel# "!rro!nded b# black "!rro!nd)n1" at
lower temperat!re "
8
& +e ener1# leav)n1 bod# 1 )" completel# ab"orbed b# t+e "!rro!nd)n1"& +en
t+e rate o$ +eat tran"$erred $rom t+e bod# to )t" "!rro!nd)n1" per "3!are meter o$ bod# )"
w+)c+ )" t+e d)$$erence between t+e ener1# tran"m)tted and ener1# ab"orbed b# t+e bod#& M$ t+e
em)"")v)t# o$ t+e bod# at
1
)" ")1n)$)cantl# d)$$erent $rom t+at o$ t+e bod# at
2
t+en t+e
appro:)mat)on o$ a 1re# bod# ma# not be "!$$)c)entl# acc!rate& Mn t+)" ca"e, a 1ood appro:)mat)on )"
to take t+e ab"orpt)v)t# o$ bod# 1 w+en rece)v)n1 rad)at)on $rom a "o!rce at
2
a" be)n1 e3!al to t+e
em)"")v)t# o$ bod# 1 w+en em)tt)n1 rad)at)on at
2
&
&amber%Es .a: and %he geome%ric 9ac%or
%or mo"t "!r$ace" t+e 1reater part o$ t+e em)tted rad)at)on )" normal to t+e "!r$ace& +!", )t )"
)mportant to con")der +ow t+e rad)at)on )" d)"tr)b!ted )n t+e var)o!" d)rect)on" $rom two "!r$ace"& o
t+)" end, t+e )nten")t# o$ normal rad)at)on, i, )" de$)ned $or
d)rect)on" normal and "ome ot+er an1le to t+e "!r$ace&
i
&
)" t+e )nten")t# o$ normal rad)at)on and de$)ned a" t+e rate o$ ener1# em)"")on $rom !n)t "!r$ace
area, t+ro!1+ !n)t "ol)d an1le, alon1 a normal to t+e "!r$ace& +e )nten")t# o$ rad)at)on )n an# ot+er
d)rect)on at an# an1le ` to t+e normal )" denoted a" i
V
&
Note* a "!r$ace "!btend" a "ol)d an1le at a po)nt d)"tance r $rom all po)nt" on t+e "!r$ace,
e3!al to t+e "!r$ace area d)v)ded b# r
8
& %or e:ample, t+e "!r$ace o$ a "p+ere )" BOr
8
and +ence t+e
"ol)d an1le "!btended b# t+e "!r$ace at )t" centre )" BO&
15
& , & &
) &( B 1@ 67 & 5 , , &
4
R
4 2 8 4
R
-ody the of emissivity the is where -ody -lac* non a for " % and
0 m P where -ody -lac* a for " %1





( )
4
2
4
1 1
R
& " " J
4
2
4
1
R
& & & &
2 1
" " J "hen
" "

%)1!re "+ow" t+e "c+emat)c $or t+e "ol)d an1le&
&amber%Es cosine .a:
+e var)at)on o$ )nten")t# o$ rad)at)on )" 1)ven b# &amber%Es cosine .a:
+e rate o$ ener1# em)"")on $rom a "!r$ace o$ area d+ is then given -y
(on")der a "mall area d+, and t+e rad)at)on $rom d+ w+)c+ pa""e" t+ro!1+ a "mall element o$ t+e
"!r$ace area o$ a +em)"p+ere w)t+ d+ at )t" centre ("ee $)1!re above)& +e element "!btend" an an1le
` at t+e centre o$ t+e +em)"p+ere and t+e "mall )ncrea"e )n an1le over t+e w)dt+ o$ t+e element )"
t+en dV& +e w)dt+ o$ t+e element )" t+e len1t+ o$ t+e arc, o$ t+e an1le dV, and t+e rad)!" r&
()&e& =6 )n t+e $)1!re), namel#* w)dt+ o$ element, =6<r dV&
16
&
& &
angle solid small a is dw where
d+ dw i

co"
&
i i
d+ i d i d+ d+ % or
d i d+ d+ %
i i from ng su-stituti
d i d+ d+ dw i d+ %
-y given is d+ from emission energy total of rate the hence
d dP e i
r
d r
d+ at su-tended dw angle Nolid e i
r d r nce circumfere width area Nurface
-y given is element the of area surface the +nd
r C+ is element the of radius "he
& &
&
&
& &
2
2 ")n
& & 2 &
")n co" & & 2 &
co" &
& & ")n & 2 & & & & &
& ")n & 2 & &
& ")n & & 2
) ( , & &
")n & & 2 & ) (
&& &&&&&&&&&&
& ")n &
2
@
R
2
@
R
2
@
2
@
R
2
2

%or black bod#
4
" %

+!", d+ i d+ "
&
& & & & &
4

5o, B & &
4
" i
&
t+e )nten")t# o$ normal rad)at)on or t+e rate o$ ener1# em)"")on $rom !n)t
"!r$ace area t+ro!1+ a "ol)d an1le&
+e "ol)d an1le
Note* =n area )" "a)d to "!btend )n t+ree d)men")on" a "ol)d an1le at an o!t")de po)nt& +e "ol)d an1le
)" mea"!red b# t+e area "!btended (b# proXect)on) on a "p+ere o$ !n)t rad)!" or b# t+e rat)o o$ t+e
area (=) )ntercepted on a "p+ere o$ rad)!" r to t+e "3!are o$ t+e rad)!" (=Br
2
)& +e !n)t o$ "ol)d an1le
)" t+e "terad)an& +e "ol)d an1le completel# "!rro!nd)n1 a po)nt )" 4a "terad)an"& M$ a "mall area (d=)
)" at a d)"tance 4 $rom a po)nt and )t" normal make" an an1le [ w)t+ a l)ne drawn to t+e po)nt, t+e
"ol)d an1le $ormed b# t+e area and t+e po)nt )" (d=&co"[)B4
2
&
Geome%ric 9ac%or
(on")der two "mall black "!r$ace" o$ area d+
1
and d+
2
at temperat!re"
1
and
2
, a d)"tance ) apart,
and )ncl)ned a" "+own )n $)1!re& Ne)t+er bod# rece)ve" all t+e rad)at)on $rom t+e ot+er&
-et "!r$ace d+
2
"!btend a "ol)d an1le dw
1
at t+e centre o$ "!r$ace d+
1
& +en*
1

x
dA
1
at
T
1
dA
2
at
T
2
17
2
4
1 2 1 2 1
2
2
2 2
1
4
1 1 1 1
2
4
1 1 1 2
1
co" co"
co" &
co"
&
&
co"
1
)
" d+ d+
d+ on incident energy of rate the +nd
)
d+
dw
angle solid the of definition the from also
" d+ dw
d+ on incident energy of Rate
"herefore
surface -lac* a for
"
i &ow
d+ dw i d+ on incident
d+ from emission of Rate
&
&

+e 1eometr)c $actor" F
4-8
and F
8-4
can be obta)ned $rom do!ble )nte1rat)on o$ e3!at)on" 1,2 and 2,1,
anal#t)call# or 1rap+)call#& %or a lar1e area, compo"ed o$ "mall area" d+
4
and d+
8
, avera1e 1eometr)c
$actor" can be de$)ned )n a ")m)lar manner a" above&
8adian% in%erchange be%:een grey bodies
4ad)o")t#, , )" de$)ned a" t+e total rad)ant ener1# leav)n1 a bod# per !n)t area per !n)t t)me&
Mrrad)at)on, , )" de$)ned a" t+e total rad)ant ener1# )nc)dent on a bod# per !n)t area per !n)t t)me&
0ence
18
( )
( )
( )
( )
4
2
4
1 2 1 2 1 2
R
4
2
4
1 1 2 1 2 1
R
4
2
4
1 2
2 1 2 1
2 1
R
2
1 2 1
1 2
2
2 2 1
2 1
4
1 1
2
4
1 2 1 2 1
2 1
2 . 1
4
1 1 1
F d
F d
wr)tten be can +)"
co" co"
F d
)" "!r$ace" e between t+ e )nterc+an1 ener1# o$ rate net t+e
) 1 , 2 &&&&&&&&( &&&&&&&&&& &&&&&&&&&& &&&&&&&&&&
co" co"
2 , 1 &&& &&&&&&&&&& &&&&&&&&&& &&&&&&&&&&
co" co"
co" co"
& &
, % , $actorR 1eometr)c R t+e called )" $)r"t b# t+e
em)tted ener1# t+e bod# to "econd on t+e )nc)dent ener1# t+e o$ rat)o
& & &d= )" d= $rom em)"")on ener1# total o$ rate t+e Now
" " d+ F or
" " d+ F
" "
)
d+ d+
"hen
)
d+
F
Nimilarly
)
d+
F therefore
" d+ )
" d+ d+
F e i
"he
"

( )
( )
y reciprocit of theorem ip relationsh reciprocal the + F + F
" " + F , and
" " + F , e i






&&& &&&&&&&&&&
"een t+at be can )t e3!at)on" t+e"e $rom and
& &
2 1 2 1 2 1
4
2
4
1 2 1 2 1 2
R
4
2
4
1 1 2 1 2 1
R

R
4
R
4 4
R
R R R
& &
&
,
= " W e i
surface the from reflected energy
of fraction the include must radiosity the -ody grey a For
" W and " % -ody -lac* a For
surface -ody the of area the is + where
+ = W , -ody from transfer heat &et
1


+

,
_

( )
) &&&&&&( &&&&&&&&&& &&&&&&&&&& &&&&&&&&&& F
")n
F )&e&
2, bod# b# d )ntercepte )" w+)c+ = rad)at)on
o$ $ract)on t+e )" , % $actor, 1eometr)c t+e , 2 and 1 bod)e" an# two %or
) &&&&&&( &&&&&&&&&& &&&&&&&&&& &&&&&&&&&& &&&&&&&&&&
1
1
& &
1
1
& , 1 ,
R
R
2 1 2 1 1 2 1
R
1 2 2 2 1 1
R
R
2 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 1
R
R
1 1
2 . 1
R
4
R
4
R
R R R
R
4
R
R
R
4
R
- W W F +
F + F + g u and
W F + W F +
W
a W "
+
, or
" W
W = W
+
,
e i
" W
= or
= " W
"herefore
vity transmissi neglecting -ody grey a for +lso

,
_

,
_

,
_

R
W
R
=
=n electr)cal analo1# can be !"ed ba"ed on O+m," law> w+ere F )" analo1o!" to c!rrent, (b
4
.c) )"
analo1o!" to potent)al d)$$erence, re")"tance w)ll be 1B(=
1
%
1.2
)&
9:ample* a bod# 1, completel# enclo"ed b# a bod# 2, $)1!re below "+ow" t+e electr)cal analo1#&
4
2
2 2
2
2 1 1 1 1
1 4
1
1 1 1
"
+ F + +
"

19
( ) ( )
( )

,
_

,
_

'

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

'

,
_

'

+ +

+ +

1
1 1
& &
t+en to1et+er clo"e ver# are bod)e" A+en
) &( &&&&&&&&&& &&&&&&&&&&
1
1 1
1
1
1 1
1
1
1 1
1 1
1
1 1 1
, tan
2 1
4
2
4
1 1
2 1
2 1
2 2
1
1
4
2
4
1 1
R
4
2
4
1
2 1
1 2 2
1
1 2 2
1
1 1
2 1
2 2
2
2 1 1 1 1
1

" " +
, e i
+ +
c
+
+
" " +
R
" "
,
+ +
+
+
+
+
R
therefore F here and
+ F + +
R ce resis "otal
"
"
"
+)" latter e:pre"")on $or t+e +eat tran"$er al"o appl)e" to t+e ca"e o$ two lar1e $lat parallel "!r$ace"
w+ere t+e ")7e o$ t+e "!r$ace" )" lar1e compared w)t+ t+e)r d)"tance apart, )&e& t+e rad)ant ener1#
e"cap)n1 to t+e "!rro!nd)n1" )" ne1l)1)ble&
A+en more t+an two "!r$ace" e:c+an1e +eat t+en an e3!)valent electr)c c)rc!)t can be drawn !")n1
t+e e:pre"")on" $or re")"tance (e3!at)on (m) D (n))&%or t+e ca"e "+own +ere a bod# 1 e:c+an1e" +eat
w)t+ bod# 2, t+e "!rro!nd)n1" 3 be)n1 at a d)$$erent temperat!re&
+e e3!)valent c)rc!)t )" "+own below w)t+ t+e re")"tance", potent)al" and c!rrent"&
=ppl#)n1 O+m," law to eac+ part o$ t+e network we obta)n "): e3!at)on"
=l"o $rom C)rc+o$$," law o$ electr)c c)rc!)t"
M
1
<M
4
JM
5
, M
2
< M
5
2 M
6
, and M
3
< M
4
J M
6
w+ere 8M, repre"ent" c!rrent
<ea% %rans9er coe99icien% 9or radia%ion
2@
( ) ( )
( )
3 2 2
6
3
R R
2
3 1 1
4
3
R R
1
2 1 1
5
2
R R
1
3 3
3
3
4
3
3
R
2 2
2
2
4
2
2
R
1 1
1
1
1
R
4
1
,
,
1
1
,
1

F +
X
W W
F +
X
W W
F +
X
W W
+
X " W
+
X " W
+
X W "
are eJuations si) the

Note* %or convect)ve +eat tran"$er $rom a "!r$ace )t" total area 8=, "+o!ld be !"ed )n t+e calc!lat)on&
Mn rad)at)on +eat tran"$er $rom t+e "ame bod# t+e area o$ t+e "!r$ace envelope m!"t be !"ed&
;a" rad)at)on
+e e$$ect o$ tran"m)"")on t+ro!1+ t+e 1a"eo!" atmo"p+ere +a" been ne1lected> "ome "mall amo!nt
o$ rad)at)on w)ll be ab"orbed, b!t t+)" can be ne1lected, beca!"e )t )" "mall& (erta)n 1a"e" are
tran"parent to rad)at)on> t+e"e )ncl!de )nert 1a"e" (e&1& ar1on) and 1a"e" w)t+ "#mmetr)c d)atom)c
molec!le" (e&1& o:#1en and n)tro1en)& ;a"e" w)t+ certa)n t#pe" o$ a"#mmetr)c molec!lar "tr!ct!re"
(e&1& carbon mono:)de and d)o:)de, "!lp+!r d)o:)de, and water vapo!r) rad)at)on )" ab"orbed $rom
and em)tted to "!rro!nd)n1 "!r$ace"& =b"orpt)on and em)"")on o$ rad)at)on )n 1a"e" )" "elect)ve,
occ!rr)n1 onl# )n certa)n band" o$ wavelen1t+"& 4ad)at)on w)t+)n a $!rnace, $or e:ample, m)1+t need
to acco!nt $or t+e"e propert)e"&
<ea% E2changers
9:ample" o$ +eat e:c+an1er dev)ce" )ncl!de* (1) )ntercooler"> (2) pre.+eater"> (3) conden"er"> (4)
bo)ler"> (5) evaporator", etc& +e proce""e" )nvolve a l)3!)d or a 1a" w+)c+ re3!)re" to be +eated or
cooled&
+ree ma)n t#pe" o$ +eat e:c+an1er*
4ec!perator* )n w+)c+ t+e $low)n1 $l!)d" e:c+an1)n1 +eat are on e)t+er ")de o$ a d)v)d)n1
wall&
4e1enerator* )n w+)c+ t+e +ot and cold $l!)d" pa"" alternatel# t+ro!1+ a "pace conta)n)n1 a
matr): o$ mater)al t+at alternatel# prov)de" a ")nk and a "o!rce $or +eat $low&
9vaporat)ve t#pe* )n w+)c+ a l)3!)d )" cooled evaporat)vel# and cont)n!o!"l# )n t+e "ame
"pace a" t+e coolant&
21
( )
( )( )
( )( )( )
( )
( )( )
( ) ) &&&&&( &&&&&&&&&& &&&&&&&&&& &&&&&&&&&& &&&&&&&&&& & & F
) &&&&&&&&&( &&&&&&&&&& &&&&&&&&&&
& & F
+ave&&& we $er, +eat tran" convect)on %or
& &
%rom
t& coe$$)c)en $er +eat tran" convect)on t+e # to analo1o!"l
de$)ned "omet)me" )" , rad)at)on, $or t coe$$)c)en $er +eat tran" =
2 1
R
2 1
2
2
2
1 2 1
R
2 1 2 1
2
2
2
1 1 2 1 2 1
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
1 1 2 1
4
2
4
1 1 2 1 2 1
r
e t t + h
therefore
d " " " " F h
write can we these comparing +nd
t t + h
" " " " " " + F , e i
" " " " + F
" " + F ,
h
r
r
w
Y
-
Y
-

+ +

+ +
+

Double pipe heat exchanger

Garallel.$low (co.c!rrent) and (o!nter.$low (co!nt.c!rrent) $low
(a) parallel $low (b) co!nt.c!rrent $low
Note* de < temperat!re o$ +ot "tream, 8t, <temperat!re o$ cold "tream> 5!b"cr)pt 1 D 2 $or )nlet D
o!tlet re"pect)vel#
22
>m*or%an% !o%es:
( +e temperat!re o$ a wet vapo!r or bo)l)n1 $l!)d rema)n" con"tant>
2 = 1reater temperat!re ran1e )" po"")ble $or co!nter.$low& 0o:e'er, in parallel $low,
t+e $)nal temperat!re" m!"t be "omew+ere between t+e )n)t)al val!e" o$ eac+ $l!)d&
, ?+en m&c
=
< m&c
6
t+en temperat!re d)$$erence )n co!nter.$low )" t+e "ame all alon1 t+e t!be
len1t+ beca!"e +eat 1)ven !p b# $l!)d = e3!al" +eat rece)ved b# $l!)d 6
4&
$ross 9.o: recu*era%or
23

,
_

1
2
2 1
R
ln
) ( & & &
t
t
t t ' l D
,

tu-e the of
area surface mean the l D + and t + ' , "hen
difference e temperatur mean arithmic the
t
t
t t
t
-y given is difference e temperatur mean the
& & & &&&&&&&&&& &&&&&&&&&& & &
lo1 && &&&&&&&&&&
ln
ln
R
2
1
2 1
ln

,
_

$low& . co!nter $or le"" )" re3!)red area "!r$ace t+e

c+an1e", erat!re 1)ven temp $or and $l!)d" two t+e o$ $low ma"" o$ rate" 1)ven $or t+at $ollow" Mt
le""& alwa#" )" o$ val!e b!t t+e $low, . parallel $or
1reater )" t )n)t)al +e $low& . parallel $or t+an $low . co!nter $or 1reater )" 1eneral Mn
po"")ble& a" lar1e a" made be m!"t t+en E, o$ mean val!e 1)ven a and =, area, 1)ven a $or
& &
ln
1 ln
ln
ln
R

t
t
t
shows t + ' ,
+e cro"" $low rec!perator )n t+)" $)1!re +a" t!be $low (=) $rom le$t to r)1+t on t+e d)a1ram and cro""
$low (6) )n t+e "+ell $rom top to bottom& +e tr!e mean temperat!re d)$$erence depend" on t+e rat)o
o$ t+e prod!ct o$ t+e ma"" $low and "pec)$)c +eat capac)t)e" o$ $l!)d" = and 6, a" well a" on t+e rat)o
o$ t+e temperat!re d)$$erence between t+e re"pect)ve )nlet" and o!tlet"& able" o$ correct)on $actor"
are ava)lable $or var)o!" val!e" o$ t+e rat)o"&
A+en t+e temperat!re d)$$erence" at )nlet and o!tlet are not "!b"tant)all# d)$$erent, )t )" a 1ood
appro:)mat)on to !"e t+e ar)t+met)c mean temperat!re d)$$erence, )&e&
%or cro"".$low t+e re3!)red "!r$ace area )" between t+at o$ co!nter.$low and parallel.$low&
ou.ing resis%ance
+e $low)n1 $l!)d )" "eldom completel# $ree $rom d)rt, o)l, 1rea"e, and c+em)cal depo")t", and a
coat)n1 tend" to collect on all metal "!r$ace"& +)" 1)ve" r)"e to an )ncrea"e )n re")"tance to +eat
tran"$er& = fouling resistance )" added to t+e total t+ermal re")"tance&
#p)cal val!e" per "3!are metre o$ "!r$ace area are
' 1&8 CBkA $or $!el o)l
' @&6 CBkA $or r)ver water
' @&2 CBkA $or bo)ler $eed water
<ea% e2changer e99ec%i'eness /!TA me%hod0
+)" met+od !"e" e$$ect)vene"" to el)m)nate !nknown d)"c+ar1e temperat!re and 1)ve" "ol!t)on $or
e$$ect)vene"" )n term" o$ known parameter" (m, c, = and E)
+e e$$ect)vene"", U, o$ a +eat e:c+an1er )" de$)ned a" t+e rat)o o$ t+e act!al +eat tran"$erred to t+e
ma:)m!m po"")ble +eat tran"$er&
&um-er of transfer units mea"!re o$ t+e e$$)c)enc# o$ an e:c+an1er and )" de$)ned a"
24
1
+
+ 1
+ 1
c m
c m
and
t t
t t
&
&
R
R
1 1
2 2

,
_

,
_

2 2
2 1 2 1
1 1 + +
t t t t
t
e)changer flow cross a in possi-le is t t
1 +
>
2 2

ln
t
fluid one of change e temperatur
&
tu
+e more e$$ect)ve +eat e:c+an1er +a" a 1reater n!mber o$ tran"$er !n)t"& +e rat)o o$ ma:)m!m to
m)n)m!m t+ermal capac)t# )" R.C
min
/C
ma)
; R can var# between 1 and @, namel# bot+ $l!)d" +av)n1
t+e "ame t+ermal capac)t# and one $l!)d +av)n1 an )n$)n)te t+ermal capac)t#& +)" latter ca"e appl)e"
to a bo)l)n1 l)3!)d or a conden")n1 vapo!r&
%or a co!nter $low +eat e:c+an1er
25
m)n
ln
&
C
+ '
&
t
s difference e temperatur fluid two the of greater the
&
terms general more in
tu
tu

( )
( ) R &
R &
tu
tu
e R
e

1
1
& 1
1

( )
( )
1 1
2 1
ln
,
& tan ,
")n ,
& e:p
& 1 ,
C H
C C
tu
C H C H
C H
t t
t t
&
e)changer the throughout t cons is which fluids cold and hot
the -etween difference e temperatur the eJuals t and
C C ce t t case this For
used -e cannot for ression a-ove the
R C C when
e)changer heat flow counter a For

26
( )
( )
ess effectiven the e
condenser a g e R and type flow either for
e)changer heat flow parallel a for
R
e
that shown -e also may Xt
&
&
gives derivation resulting the and
tu
tu
&
R &
tu
tu

+
1
Z & & Y @ ,
1
1
1
1