An Examination of The Allusions To Isaiah 52:13-53:12 in The New Testament

AN EXAMINATION OF THE ALLUSIONS TO
ISAIAH 52:13-53:12 IN THE NEW TESTAMENT

by

Robert John Dixon
April 22, 2008

A dissertation submitted to the
Faculty of the Graduate School of
State University of New York at Buffalo
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

Department of Classics
3307660

3307660

2008
Copyright 2008 by
Dixon, Robert John

All rights reserved

ii
CONTENTS

ABSTRACT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii

Chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
The Need . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
The Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
The Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Isaiah 53 in the New Testament . . . . . . . 11
C. H. Dodd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Walther Zimmerli-Joachim Jeremias . . . . 13
Morna Hooker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
R. T. France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Douglas Moo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
The Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 in
Jewish and Christian Sources . . . . . . . 21

Peter Stuhlmacher . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Otfried Hofius . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Jesus and the Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53
and Christian Origins . . . . . . . . . . 25
Otto Betz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Mikeal C. Parsons . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Rikki E. Watts. . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

iii
J. Ross Wagner . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
David Sapp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Isaiah in the New Testament . . . . . . . 31
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3. ANALYSIS OF ISAIAH 53 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
The Problem of Isaiah 53 . . . . . . . . . . 35
Non-Theological Reasons for Differences
Between the MT and the LXX . . . . . . . . . 38

How Did the NT Writers Handle Differences
Between the MT and the LXX . . . . . . . . . 42

The Servant Songs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
The Structure of Isaiah 53 . . . . . . . . . 50
Exegesis of Isaiah 53 . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Strophe One-Isaiah 52:13-15 . . . . . . . 51
Isaiah 52:13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Isaiah 52:14-15 . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Isaiah 53:1-9: An Introduction . . . . . . . 63
Strophe Two-Isaiah 53:1-3 . . . . . . . . 64
Isaiah 53:1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Isaiah 53:2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Isaiah 53:3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Strophe Three-Isaiah 53:4-6 . . . . . . . 70
Isaiah 53:4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Isaiah 53:5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Isaiah 53:6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

iv
Strophe Four-Isaiah 53:7-9 . . . . . . . . 75
Isaiah 53:7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Isaiah 53:8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Isaiah 53:9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Strophe Five-Isaiah 53:10-12 . . . . . . . 85
Isaiah 53:10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Isaiah 53:11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Isaiah 53:12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4. RICHARD HAYS' CRITERIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Allusion Defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Criteria of Richard B. Hays . . . . . . . . . 96
Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Recurrence or Clustering . . . . . . . . . 97
Thematic Coherence . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Historical Plausibility . . . . . . . . . 98
History of Interpretation . . . . . . . . 99
Satisfaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Availability and Isaiah 53 . . . . . . . . . 101
Historical Plausibility and Isaiah 53 . . . . 102
Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

v
5. QUOTATIONS FROM ISAIAH 53 IN
THE NEW TESTAMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Quotations Defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Isaiah 53:4 in Matthew 8:17 . . . . . . . . . 115
Isaiah 53:12 in Luke 22:37 . . . . . . . . . 118
Isaiah 53:1 in John 12:38 . . . . . . . . . . 123
Isaiah 53:7,8 in Acts 8:32,33 . . . . . . . . 124
Isaiah 53:1 in Romans 10:16 . . . . . . . . . 127
Isaiah 52:15 in Romans 15:21 . . . . . . . . 129
Isaiah 53 in 1 Peter 2:22-25 . . . . . . . . 131
1 Peter 2:22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
1 Peter 2:23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
1 Peter 2:24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
1 Peter 2:25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
1 Peter Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
6. ALLUSIONS FROM ISAIAH 53 IN THE
GOSPELS AND ACTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Allusions in Matthew . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Matthew 2:23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Matthew 13:16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Allusions in Mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Mark 9:12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

vi
Mark 8:31, 9:31 and 10:33,34 . . . . . . . 150
Mark 8:31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Mark 9:31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Mark 10:33,34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Mark 10:45 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Mark 14:21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Mark 14:24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Mark 14:49 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Mark 14:60,61 and Mark 15:4,5 . . . . . . 167
Mark 14:65 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Mark 15:27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Allusions in Luke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Luke 11:22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Luke 24:25, 24:27 and 24:46 . . . . . . . 174
Allusions in John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
John 1:29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
John 3:14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Allusions in Acts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Acts 3:13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Acts 10:43 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
7. ALLUSIONS FROM ISAIAH 53 IN THE
PAULINE EPISTLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

vii
Allusions in Romans . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Romans 4:24, 4:25 and 5:1 . . . . . . . . 186
Romans 5:15 and 5:19 . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Allusions in 1 Corinthians . . . . . . . . . 193
1 Corinthians 2:9 . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
1 Corinthians 5:7 . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
1 Corinthians 15:3 . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Allusions in Philippians . . . . . . . . . . 200
Philippians 2:7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
8. ALLUSIONS FROM ISAIAH 53 IN THE GENERAL
EPISTLES AND REVELATION . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Hebrews 9:28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
1 Peter 1:11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
1 John 3:5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Allusions in Revelation . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Revelation 5:6, 5:9, 5:12, 13:8 . . . . . 212
Revelation 14:5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
9. CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

viii
ABSTRACT

The writers of the New Testament make extensive use
of the Old Testament in their writings. One passage,
Isaiah 52:13-53:12, is of particular importance as
evidenced by the fact that it is quoted seven times by five
different writers. However, the use of Isaiah 52:13-53:12
is not limited to quotations. Some scholars also believe
that allusions from this passage play a vital role in the
writing of the New Testament. Of particular importance are
the questions: did Jesus understand his life and mission in
relation to Isa 52:13-53:12, and what is the nature of the
atonement? Other scholars think the writers of the New
Testament made very little or no use of allusions to Isaiah
52:13-53:12 in their writings.
The goal of the dissertation is to determine how
extensive is the use of allusions to Isaiah 52:13-53:12 in
the New Testament? This is accomplished by evaluating the
validity of the allusions most commonly suggested by
scholars. The allusions are assessed using the seven-fold
criteria of Richard B. Hays as set forth in his book Echoes
of Scripture in the Letters of Paul. In the conclusion,
the results of the analysis are categorized according to
the probability that they are actual allusions.

ix
The dissertation also includes a chapter that
presents an exegesis of both the Hebrew and Septuagint of
Isaiah 52:13-53:12. This exegesis attempts to explain how
this passage was understood by the early church. A chapter
is also devoted to the seven quotations from Isaiah 52:13-
53:12 in the New Testament.
1

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The writers of the NT saw the fulfillment of the OT
in the life and ministry of Jesus. To explain this belief
they drew heavily from the OT in the form of direct
quotations as well as allusions in their writings. One of
the most important, if not the most important OT passage
used by the NT writers is Isa 52:13-53:12.
1
But how
widespread is the use of Isa 53 in the NT? Scholars agree
that there are seven direct quotations from this passage in
the NT.
2
However, there is a lack of consensus concerning
the extent of allusions that have been drawn from this
passage. The purpose of this dissertation is to evaluate
the NT passages that are most frequently recognized as
containing an allusion to Isa 53 with the goal of
determining the validity of each one. Stated in other

1
This passage, Isa 52:13-53:12, is usually referred
to simply as Isa 53 in commentaries, monographs, journal
articles et cetera. Therefore, throughout this paper, this
fifteen verse passage will be referred to as Isa 53.

2
Matthew 8:17; Luke 22:37; John 12:38; Acts 8:32-33;
Romans 10:16, 15:21; 1 Peter 2:22.
2
words, how extensive is the allusive use of Isa 53 in the
NT?

The Need
Isa 53 is a unique passage that has captured the
attention of biblical scholars for centuries as they try to
answer the questions raised in this elusive passage. Many
scholars such as Ivan Engnell, Franz Delitzsch, and James
Muilenburg
3
have emphasized the importance and beauty of
this passage.
The element that makes this passage distinct from
the rest of the OT is its revolutionary treatment of the
relationship between righteousness, sin, and suffering.
Isa 53 presents a figure, known as the Servant, who suffers
and dies to atone for the sins of others. This notion is
radically different from the standard OT belief that the
righteous person will prosper while the unrighteous will
suffer. Because of its unique nature, an overwhelming
amount of scholarship has been devoted to this difficult

3
Ivan Engnell, "The Ebed Yahweh Songs and the
Suffering Messiah in Deutero-Isaiah," Bulletin of John
Rylands Library 31 (January 1948):73; Franz J. Delitzsch,
Isaiah, vol. 2 in The Commentary on the Old Testament
(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1973), 203; James Muilenburg,
"Isaiah," in The Interpreters Bible, ed. George Arthur
Buttrick et al. (Nashville: Abingdon, 1953), 614.

3
passage in search of the answers to such questions as: Who
is the Servant? and What is his mission?
While it is evident that Isa 53 is important to OT
studies, it is also very important in NT studies. Passages
from Isa 53 are quoted or alluded to by NT writers to
support theological arguments and to contextualize
historical events. The most important theological issue
concerns the NT concept of the nature of atonement.
4
In
regard to historical events, passages from Isa 53 are
believed to play an important role in the details
surrounding the crucifixion of Jesus
5
as well as the manner
in which Paul conceptualized his ministry
6
(i.e. to the

4
Atonement studies include David A. Sapp, "The LXX,
1QIsa, and MT Versions of Isaiah 53 and the Christian
Doctrine of Atonement," in Jesus and the Suffering Servant:
Isaiah 53 and Christian Origins, ed. William H. Bellinger
Jr., and William R. Farmer (Harrisburg, PA: Trinity, 1998),
170-192; Daniel P. Bailey, "Concepts of Stellvertretung in
the Interpretation of Isaiah 53," in Jesus and the
Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 and Christian Origins, ed.
William H. Bellinger Jr., and William R. Farmer
(Harrisburg, PA: Trinity, 1998), 223-250; Morna D. Hooker,
Jesus and the Servant: The Influence of the Servant Concept
of Deutero-Isaiah in the New Testament (London: SPCK,
1959), 23.

5
Douglas J. Moo, The Old Testament in the Gospel
Passion Narratives (Sheffield, England: The Almond Press,
1983), 1-468.

6
Richard B. Hays, "'Who Has Believed Our Message?':
Paul's Reading of Isaiah," in New Testament Writers and the
Old Testament: An Introduction, ed. John M. Court (London:
4
gentiles). In the course of these NT theological and
historical investigations, scholars may discuss the seven
quotations and perhaps as many as forty allusions from Isa
53.
The problem with many of these studies is not
limited to how an allusion functions in a particular
passage, but whether the passage contains an allusion at
all. Widespread disagreement exists among scholars on this
issue. The disparity regarding which texts contain
allusions is also evident in scholarly reference works.
The allusions listed in the "Index of Allusions" in two of
the most widely used edited Greek New Testaments differ.
The Nestle-Aland 27
th
edition Greek New Testament and the
United Bible Society 3rd edition Greek New Testament each
list thirty-six allusions from Isa 53 in the NT, but they
are not the same thirty-six allusions.
7

SPCK, 2002), 46-70.

7
Kurt Aland, et al., "Index of Allusions and Verbal
Parallels," in The Greek New Testament, corrected 3d ed.,
(Stuttgart: United Bible Societies, 1983), 901-11; Eberhard
Nestle, et al., "Loci Citati Vel Allegati," in Nestle-Aland
Novum Testamentum Graece 27th ed. (New York: American Bible
Society, 1993), 773-808. The two indexes will simply be
referred to as "Index" or "Index of Allusions" throughout
this dissertation.

5
The Method
Because of the importance of the use of Isa 53 in
the NT, and the lack of consensus regarding which verses
actually contain allusions, there is a need to bring
greater clarity to this issue. The goal of this study is
to assess the probability that the suggested allusions from
Isa 53 are genuine. This will be accomplished by applying
the seven-fold criteria for identifying echoes and
allusions as set forth by Richard B. Hays in his book
Echoes of Scripture in the Letters of Paul.
8

The criteria will function as a scale to determine
the validity of an allusion, much as a ruler is used to
measure distance (although measuring allusions is less
objective). The criteria will be applied to the pertinent
allusions listed in the "Index of Allusions" of both the
Nestle-Aland 27
th
edition and the UBS 3rd edition Greek New
Testaments. These two indexes have been selected because
they contain the majority of the most commonly recognized
allusions. In addition to these allusions, three other
allusions, commonly discussed by scholars but not listed in

8
Richard B. Hays, Echoes of Scripture in the Letters
of Paul, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), 29-33.
6
either index will also be examined.
9

After applying Hays' criteria to the relevant
allusions, each will be classified based on its strength,
or the likelihood that it is authentic. This is the main
goal of this work. The three categories are
"certain/virtually certain," "probable/possible," and
"unlikely/doubtful."
10

The impetus for this study is the lack of consensus
in the scholarly community regarding the certainty of
allusions from Isa 53 used in NT passages. Those studies,
as mentioned above, are usually theological or historical.
However, it is not the purpose of this work to engage in
those subjects. Discussion of theological and historical
issues that spring from these allusions will be avoided
except when this is necessary to determine the validity of
an allusion. It is the hope that those who engage in NT
studies that are based on allusions from Isa 53 will use
the findings in this study to bring greater accuracy to
their own work.

9
Mark 8:31; Mark 9:31; Mark 10:33-34.

10
Jan Fekkes III, Isaiah and Prophetic Traditions in
the Book of Revelation: Visionary Antecedents and their
Development, Journal for the Study of the New Testament
Supplement Series 93 (Sheffield, England: Sheffield
Academic Press, 1994), 14-15.
7

The Organization
This dissertation is organized into nine chapters.
Chapter 1 includes an explanation of the need, the method,
and the organization for this study. Chapter 2 contains a
review of selected studies that have included allusions
from Isa 53 in the NT as part of the study. I also show
through the review that few scholars explain why a given
allusion from Isa 53 is accepted as such. The meaning of
Isa 53 as the early church understood it is explained
through an exegesis of the Hebrew in chapter 3. Because
many quotations and allusions in the NT are based on the
LXX, attention is also given to the Greek text. A more
detailed explanation of Hays' criteria is presented in
chapter 4. Chapter 5 presents an analysis of the seven
quotations from Isa 53 in the NT.
In chapters 6-8, Hays' criteria are applied to the
allusive uses from Isa 53 in the NT (Chapter 6-The Gospels
and Acts; Chapter 7-The Pauline Epistles; and Chapter 8-The
General Epistles and Revelation).
The final chapter includes a summary of the
conclusions from chapters 6-8. It also contains a final
conclusion regarding the extent of the allusive use of Isa
53 in the NT derived from the analysis of the NT texts in
8
the study. The dissertation concludes with suggestions for
further inquiries into this topic.

9

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Introduction
The use of the OT in the NT represents an essential
field in biblical studies that encompasses a variety of
topics. The importance of this field is primarily due to
the tremendous number of OT passages either quoted or
alluded to by NT authors. Henry Shires identifies three
categories of OT quotations in the NT: acknowledged OT
quotations, unacknowledged quotations, and OT passages that
are reworded or referred to directly.
11
These three
categories take in 1,604 NT citations to 1,276 different OT
passages. This means that more than one-seventh of NT
verses contain some kind of quotation from the OT. In
addition to these quotations, Shires says that several
thousand other NT passages clearly allude or refer to OT
verses.
12

Scholars have approached the topic of the use of

11
Henry Shires, Finding the Old Testament in the New
(Philadelphia: Westminster, 1974), 15.

12
Ibid.

10
the OT in the NT in a variety of ways. These studies
include works that endeavor to define and establish the
criteria necessary to determine the difference between a NT
quotation, allusion, or echo.
13
Other studies explore
whether or not the NT authors respected the context of the
OT text.
14
Research has been devoted to understanding the
relationship between the NT writer's use of the OT, and
that of Qumran and Rabbinic writers.
15
Scholars have also
investigated how quotations and allusions were applied

13
Stanley E. Porter, "The Use of the Old Testament
in the New Testament: A Brief Comment on Method and
Terminology," in Early Christian Interpretation of the
Scriptures of Israel: Investigations and Proposals, ed.
Craig A. Evans and James Sanders, Journal for the Study of
the New Testament Supplement Series, vol. 148, ed. Stanley
E. Porter (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1997), 79-96;
Roger Nicole, "The New Testament Use of the Old Testament,"
in Revelation and the Bible, ed. Carl F. H. Henry (Grand
Rapids: Baker, 1958), 135-51.

14
S. V. McCasland, "Matthew Twists the Scriptures,"
Journal of Biblical Literature 80 (1961): 143-48; G. K.
Beale, "Did Jesus and His Followers Preach the Right
Doctrine from the Wrong Texts?" Themelios 14 (1989): 89-96.

15
Richard N. Longenecker, Biblical Exegesis in the
Apostolic Period, 2d ed. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999);
Klyne Snodgrass, "The Use of the Old Testament in the New,"
in The Right Doctrine from the Wrong Texts: Essays on the
Use of the Old Testament in the New, ed. G. K. Beale (Grand
Rapids: Baker, 1994), 29-51; Joseph A. Fitzmyer, "The Use
of Explicit Old Testament Quotations in Qumran Literature
and in the New Testament," New Testament Studies 7 (1960-
61): 297-333.

11
whether prophetically, didactically, or apologetically.
16

Finally, subjects such as typology and sensus plenior are
included in this vast field of study.
17

Isaiah 53 in the New Testament
It would seem that more studies exploring the use
of Isa 53 in the NT would exist, considering the vast
amount of literature devoted to the subjects of the
Suffering Servant and the Servant Songs found in Isa, of
which Isa 53 is a part. Studies include a discussion of
Isa 53 in a portion of the NT, but few have focused on the
use of Isa 53 in the entire NT.
In the following review of literature, I briefly
describe some of the studies that have included allusions
from Isa 53. I also explain how each author determined the
validity of the allusions that he or she used. I present
this review of literature chronologically.

16
Walter C. Kaiser Jr., The Uses of the Old
Testament in the New Testament (Chicago: Moody, 1985), 1-
235.

17
David L. Baker, "Typology and the Christian Use of
the Old Testament," Scottish Journal of Theology 29 (1976):
137-57; Walter C. Kaiser, Jr., "The Single Intent of
Scripture," in Evangelical Roots: A Tribute to Wilbur
Smith, ed. K. S. Kantzer (Nashville: Nelson, 1978), 123-41.

12
C.H. Dodd
The first significant work devoted to the use of
the OT in the NT in the second half of the 20
th
century,
According to the Scriptures: The Sub-Structure of New
Testament Theology
18
by C.H. Dodd. Dodd's premise is that
certain portions of the OT are particularly useful to the
writers of the NT, and that these parts provide the
majority of the OT material used by the NT authors. Dodd
calls this OT foundation a "central tradition," that "more
or less" controls the teaching found in the NT.
19
He
defines the "central tradition" as the kerygma, which is
the proclamation of the death, burial, and resurrection of
Jesus. He further explained that the kerygma included not
only the facts of these events, but also the significance
of these historical events.
Dodd's work is important to this study because Isa
53 is one of the sections he identifies as significant to
the NT writers. He lists 25 verses in the NT that contain
either a quotation or an allusion to Isa 53.
20
However,

18
Dodd, C[harles] H[arold]. According to the
Scriptures: The Sub-Structure of New Testament Theology
(London: Nisbet, 1952), 1-145.

19
Ibid., 11.

20
Dodd, 92-94.

13
nowhere does he provide any justification for his inclusion
of any of the allusions, including those that other
scholars have rejected.

Walther Zimmerli-Joachim Jeremias
Another work that has had wide influence on the
subject of Isa 53 in the NT is The Servant of God
21
by
Walther Zimmerli and Joachim Jeremias. This is an English
publication of what had previously been an article entitled
Pai' " qeou' in Kittel's Theologisches Wrterbuch zum NT.
22
The
book consists of two sections and constitutes an in-depth
word study. In the first half of the book Zimmerli
explores the use of the designation pai' " qeou' "Servant of
God" in the OT. In the second part of the book, which is
particularly relevant to this study, Jeremias examines pai' "
qeou' from the period after the writing of the LXX through
the writing of the NT.
Jeremias begins the NT portion of the article

21
Walther Zimmerli and Joachim Jeremias, The Servant
of God, rev. ed., trans. Harold Knight, ed. C. F. D. Moule
et al. Studies in Biblical Theology, No. 20. (London: SCM
Press, 1965).

22
Gerhard Kittel, ed. et al., Theologisches
Wrterbuch zum Neuen Testament, vol. 5, (Stuttgart:
Kohlhammer, 1932), s. v. "pai' " qeou'," by Walther Zimmerli and
Joachim Jeremias.

14
noting that the designation pai' " qeou' is rare in the NT,
occurring only eight times.
23
Of these eight instances,
five of them refer to Jesus.
24

In his presentation, Jeremias first argues that the
designation of Jesus as the pai' " qeou' comes from an ancient
tradition and that its meaning is not "child of God," but
"servant of God." Jeremias then broadens his discussion
well beyond the term pai' " qeou' and discusses the servant
concept from all of Deutero-Isaiah and concludes that many
direct and indirect allusions to the Servant texts of
Deutero-Isaiah can be found in many NT books, and that the
majority of them belong to an "ancient stock of tradition."
Finally, Jeremias considers whether Jesus applied the
Servant passages of Deutero-Isaiah to Himself, and
concludes that he did.
Jeremias discusses and accepts many of the
allusions that will be discussed in this dissertation as

23
Several of the headings in this section contain
the Greek pai' " qeou' , such as "pai' " qeou' in the New Testament,"
and "pai' " qeou' as a Title of Jesus." However, the
construction pai' " qeou' is not found in the NT. In the text,
Jeremias indicates this by referring to the expression as
"pai' " (of God);" "of God" being implied.

24
Luke 1:54 refers to Israel; Luke 1:69 and Acts
4:25 refer to David, Matt 12:18; Acts 3:13, 26, 4:27, 30
refer to Jesus.

15
actual allusions. However, he does not always provide
reasons for acknowledging these allusions, and when he does
they are brief and limited to linguistic similarities.

Morna Hooker
Perhaps the most influential book discussed in this
survey is Jesus and the Servant,
25
written in 1959 by Morna
Hooker. Hooker's study is historical in nature. Her main
objective is to determine at what point in history
Christian thought identified Jesus as the Servant in
Deutero-Isaiah (this would encompass all four Servant
Songs). She queries whether this application originated
with Jesus himself, or with the early church. Further, she
asks that if it did begin with the early church, at what
point in time did this occur. In an attempt to answer this
question, Hooker examines many quotations and possible
allusions from Deutero-Isaiah in the NT.
In respect to allusions, she developed a two-fold
criteria to determine whether a verse actually contains an
allusion. The first criteron requires that the NT verse
must contain some linguistic affinity to a Deutero-Isaian
passage, and second, that this passage must indicate that

25
Morna D. Hooker, Jesus and the Servant: The
Influence of the Servant Concept of Deutero-Isaiah in the
New Testament (London: SPCK, 1959), 1-230.

16
it was necessary for Jesus to endure suffering. In
addition to these two criteria, Hooker also explains that
the evidence must remain inconclusive unless it can be
shown that the reference was to (and only to) a Deutero-
Isaian passage.
Her investigation begins with an analysis of 39
passages in the Synoptic Gospels. After examining these
verses, she concludes than while many of the texts can be
traced exclusively to Deutero-Isaiah, only one of them, in
her view, applied the sufferings of the Servant to Jesus.
This one passage, Luke 22:37 speaks only indirectly of
suffering and does not refer to vicarious suffering.
She examines a second group of 15 synoptic passages
to determine whether Jesus own predictions of his
suffering could be traced solely to Deutero-Isaiah. Once
again, she returns with a negative answer.
Regarding Pauls use of Isa 53, Hooker observes
that even though Paul quotes from Isa 53, there is no
evidence to support the concept that Paul understands Jesus
as the "servant figure." She adds that Paul would have
certainly included this idea had he believed Jesus was the
Servant.
She also states that she could find no evidence of
the Deutero-Isaian vicarious atonement concept in the

17
Gospel of John. According to Hooker, the only passage from
Deutero-Isaiah used in the NT that explains the
significance of Jesus death is 1 Pet 2:22-25.
In her conclusion, Hooker upholds the belief that
no passage (quotation or allusion) in the NT supports the
idea that Jesus thought of himself as the Suffering Servant
of Deutero-Isaiah. She believes that this idea first
appeared in 1 Pet.
The reason this work is so influential is that it
runs counter to the commonly held belief by the majority of
scholars, such as Dodd and Jeremias, that Jesus did
understand his life and ministry in terms of the Servant of
Isa 53. While Morna Hooker's scholarship and thoroughness
cannot be questioned, her criteria are faulty. To require
proof that an allusion must be, and must only be from Isa
53 in order to verify it is too stringent. This criteron
virtually eliminates the possibility that any passage in
the NT contains an allusion to Deutero-Isaiah (including
Isa 53). In addition, her criteria, which are basically
limited to linguistic factors is inadequate, failing to
take in other factors such as thematic coherence and
recurrence.
In her article entitled "Did the Use of Isaiah 53

18
to Interpret His Mission Begin with Jesus?,"
26
Morna Hooker,
after almost 40 years of reflection, comes to the same
basic conclusions as she did in her book, that the NT does
not support the thesis that Jesus understood his mission in
light of Isa 53, and that Peter was the first to apply Isa
53 to Jesus. Hooker does update her conclusions,
suggesting that perhaps the use of Isa 53 to interpret the
mission of Jesus began with Paul.
27

R. T. France
Another significant work that deals with the
subject of the use of the OT in the NT, including a
discussion of Isa 53, is Jesus and the Old Testament
28
by
R.T. France, published in 1971. In this work, France
endeavors to explain how Jesus makes use of the OT to
explain his life and ministry. France limits the study to
those passages in the synoptic gospels where Jesus himself

26
Morna D. Hooker, "Did the Use of Isaiah 53 to
Interpret His Mission Begin with Jesus?" in Jesus and the
(Harrisburg, PA: Trinity, 1998), 88-103.

27
Ibid., 103.

28
R. T. France, Jesus and the Old Testament: His
Application of Old Testament Passages to Himself and His
Mission (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1971), 1-
292.

19
explains his ministry and mission from OT passages. France
also argues that Jesus actually makes the statements
attributed to him; the early church did not put words in
his mouth as others suppose.
In his treatment of Jesus' application of the
Servant concept from Isa 53, he discusses several passages:
one formal quotation, Luke 22:37, and four allusions.
France assigns the allusions to levels of verifiability.
He considers Mark 10:45 and Mark 14:24 to be clear
allusions, Mark 9:12 and Luke 11:22 possible allusions.
France does not take for granted that these are allusions
to Isa 53, and therefore discusses each one, particularly
on linguistic and thematic grounds. An important aspect of
his method is his willingness to recognize an allusion by a
connection of thought (thematic), even if it is not
possible to prove a linguistic connection.

Douglas Moo
Another work that includes an extensive treatment
of Isa 53 in the NT is a dissertation by Douglass Moo,
published in 1983, The Old Testament in the Gospel Passion

20
Narratives.
29
This study is a topical investigation that
explores the use and influence of the OT in the passion
narratives of the four Gospels. By confining his inquiry
to a single subject, Moo is able to explore in detail the
OT background for this single theme. Other significant OT
passages discussed by Moo include Zechariah 9-14 and
various Psalms.
Moo's analysis of Isa 53 led him to several
conclusions. First, Moo states that there was a "point by
point" correspondence between the life and ministry of
Jesus and the Servant in Isa, and that Jesus could not have
overlooked this correspondence.
Second, he notes that even though Jesus does not
frequently quote Isa 53, this should not be interpreted as
though Jesus did not understand its significance to his
life and mission.
30
This is because Moo thinks that the use
of allusions implies a greater familiarity to and
acceptance of the alluded passage.
31

Moo also concludes that the appearance of only one

29
Passion Narratives (Sheffield, England: Almond Press,
1983), 1-468.

30
Ibid., 168.

31
Ibid., 169.

21
direct citation to the servant concept in the gospel
passion narratives (Luke 22:37) shows that the servant
influence should not be consigned to a later soteriological
stage but to Jesus himself. Moo explains that if it were
from a later stage, one would expect to find an even
division of allusions and quotations between the sayings of
Jesus, narratives, and editorial comments on his death.
32

Finally, Moo concludes his remarks with the
hermeneutical observation that the NT writers were faithful
to the original OT meaning and that no OT passage was
changed "illegitimately to suit an application."
33

In this study, Moo provides in-depth discussions
for many of the allusions from Isa 53 in the Gospels in
order to substantiate whether a possible allusion is an
actual allusion. However, he does not present a
comprehensive set of criteria to evaluate these allusions.

The Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 in
Jewish and Christian Sources
Two important recent additions to the study of the
Servant Songs are The Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 in

32
Ibid., 170.

33
Ibid., 172.

22
Jewish and Christian Sources
34
edited by Bernd Janowski and
Peter Stuhlmacher, and Jesus and the Suffering Servant:
Isaiah 53 and Christian Origins edited by William H.
Bellinger and William R. Farmer.
35
The theme of the first
of these books, as stated in the book's preface, is the
vicarious suffering of the Servant of God found in Isa 53.
Two of the articles are relevant to this study.

Peter Stuhlmacher
The focus of the paper by Peter Stuhlmacher is

34
Bernd Janowski and Peter Stuhlmacher, eds. The
Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 in Jewish and Christian
Sources, (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004), 1-548.

35
The contents of both of these books are, for the
most part, papers that were presented at two separate
conferences. Of the ten papers that are included in The
Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 in Jewish and Christian
Sources, seven of them were originally presented as part of
Martin Hegels graduate and faculty seminar held during the
1991 summer semester in Tbingen. This book was originally
published in German under the title Der leidende
Gottesknecht by Mohr Siebeck in 1996. The English edition
was translated by Daniel P. Bailey and the chapter by
Bailey was not part of the German edition. The two papers
included in both the German and English editions that were
not part of the seminar are those by Hermann Spieckerkmann
and Stefan Schreiner. Only two of the articles deal
directly with the use of Isa 53 in the NT. Other articles
included in the book explore such topics as the use of Isa
53 in the pre-Christian period and the messianic servant
concept in the Targum of Isaiah.

23
Isaiah 53 in the Gospels and Acts.
36
In this article, the
author, using many of the NT passages that quote or allude
37

to Isa 53, shows that the roots of the Christological
interpretation of Isa 53 were not started by the early
church after the resurrection of Jesus, but rather
represents the interpretation of Jesus own understanding
of his mission and death.
He also shows that Jesus messianic understanding
of Isa 53 comes from the Jewish understanding of the
passage prevalent at that time, but that the idea of his
suffering comes from Isa 43:3-4 and 53:11-12. His
conclusion is that for the first time, the text of Isa 53
was made clear by a consistent application to a historical
individual. He adds that a corporate sense of the passage
remains when one considers that the people of God are his
"body."
In the article, Stuhlmacher does not explain why he
accepts the allusions from Isa 53 that he includes.

36
Peter Stuhlmacher, "Isaiah 53 in the Gospel and
Acts," trans. Daniel P. Bailey, ed. Bernd Janowski and
Peter Stuhlmacher, in The Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 in
Jewish and Christian Sources (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans 147-
62), 2004.

37
Some of the allusions Stuhlmacher mentions are:
Mark 8:31, 9:31, 10:32,33, 10:45, 14:24; Luke 24:56; John
1:29; Acts 3:13, 10:43; Rom 4:25; 1 Cor 15:3b-5; and Heb
9:28.

24
Rather, he confines his discussion of allusions from Isa 53
in support of his own conclusion.

Otfried Hofius
In the next article, The Fourth Servant Song in the
New Testament Letters,
38
Otfried Hofius examines how the
authors of the NT epistles interpret the theological
meaning of Isa 53. The discussion revolves around the
German word Stellvertretung, "place-taking." The question
Hofius tries to answer is how should readers understand the
place-taking of the Servant and Jesus?
He establishes that in Isa 53, the Servant took
upon himself the sins of others (without their
participation), a concept known as "exclusive place-
taking." He then argues that the writers of the NT letters
interpreted Isa 53 in an innovative manner: sins are not
detachable from the sinner. In the NT, Jesus takes upon
himself the sins of others in such a way that the sinner is
still included in the process, known as "inclusive place-
taking."
Several NT passages thought to contain allusions to

38
Otfried Hofius, "The Fourth Servant Song in the
New Testament Letters," trans. Daniel P. Bailey, ed. Bernd
Janowski and Peter Stuhlmacher, in The Suffering Servant:
Isaiah 53 in Jewish and Christian Sources (Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 2004), 163-88.

25
Isa 53 are used to explain this idea. Portions of Hofius'
arguments may serve partially to justify the validity of
certain allusions, but explanations are brief and not
applied to all the allusions. The primary function of the
proposed allusions is to support Hofius' argument. Hofius
states that two of the allusions he includes, 1 Cor 15:3b-5
and Romans 4:25, "cannot be doubted;"
39
however, he does not
explain why this is so. Other references to Isa 53 include
Rom 5:15-19; Hebrews 9:28; and 1 Pet 2:21-25 and 3:18.

Jesus and the Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53
and Christian Origins
In February of 1996, a conference entitled "Isaiah
53 and Christian Origins" was held at Baylor University.
Fifteen of the papers presented at the conference make up
the contents of Jesus and the Suffering Servant.
40
In the
Introduction to this compendium, the editors state in two
different ways the general question the various authors are
trying to answer: did Jesus originate the application of
Isa 53 on Christian faith? and did Jesus understand Gods
will for Israel, himself and his disciples in light of the

39
Hofius, 176.

40
William H. Bellinger Jr. and William R. Farmer,
eds., Jesus and the Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 and
Christian Origins, (Harrisburg, PA: Trinity, 1998), 1-325.

26
suffering servant of Isa 53? The editors add that no
matter how difficult it may be, Christians must accept the
possibility that Jesus suffered and died without
identifying himself with the Servant of Isa 53, and that
this passage may not have possessed any special
significance upon his ministry.

Otto Betz
In his article, "Jesus and Isaiah 53,"
41
Otto Betz
states that he wants to take a "constructive" approach
regarding whether Jesus applied Isa 53 to himself and his
ministry. Betz' constructive approach includes the use of
four criteria in his analysis. First, he explains that in
addition to examining the Hebrew and Greek texts of Isa 53,
he also considers the Aramaic Targum of Isaiah. Second, he
notes the "speculative methods" used in the Targum, and
points out that the NT writers might have used a similar
method of interpretation. Third, Betz examines some of the
many statements of Jesus and Paul that he feels have been
neglected in other studies, yet have echoes to Isa 53.
Finally, he states that a special theme of the

41
Otto Betz, "Jesus and Isaiah 53," in Jesus and the

27
article will be the word "gospel," whose source he
believes is Isa 53:1, and from that passage alone. With
these four criteria in mind, Betz examines a number of
passages from the epistles of Paul as well as the sayings
of Jesus.
Betz only discusses three allusions in depth: Mark
10:38, 45; and 14:22-24. He considers all three to contain
allusions from Isa 53 and argues for their validity on
several grounds, including linguistic factors and thematic
coherence. Betz also includes an interesting observation:
the LXX of Isa 53:10 may have been translated from the
Hebrew in an Aramaizing way. He arrives at this conclusion
after noting linguistic similarities between the LXX
translation and the Targum of Isa 53:10.

Mikeal C. Parsons
Mikeal C. Parsons wrote an article in reply to
Morna Hooker entitled "Isaiah 53 in Acts 8."
42
The purpose
of this article is to challenge Hooker's interpretation of
one of the passages that led to her conclusions. Parsons

42
Mikeal C. Parsons, "Isaiah 53 in Acts 8: A Reply
to Professor Morna Hooker," in Jesus and the Suffering
Servant: Isaiah 53 and Christian Origins, ed. William H.
Bellinger Jr., and William R. Farmer (Harrisburg, PA:
Trinity, 1998), 104-19.

28
suggests that demonstrating the weaknesses of Hooker's
analysis of this one passage could lead to an overall
reconsideration of her entire thesis.
43
Parsons also
includes the criteria he thinks is necessary to conduct
this intensive reevaluation of her theory.
44

Parsons begins by summarizing the results of
Hooker's study of Acts 8. He states that Hooker believes
that the writer of Acts used Isa 53 in Acts 8 only to
support the "fact" of Jesus' passion without any
consideration for the "significance" of the passion.
Parsons discusses several issues, including why the
particular passage from Isa 53 was quoted, and matters
concerning the eunuch.
Particularly important to this study is that
Parsons briefly applies Hays' criteria to Luke 24:27 (which
some scholars consider an allusion to Isa 53) to evaluate
whether or not it is alluded to in Acts 8:35.
45
He

43
Parsons, 104.

44
Ibid. In a footnote, Parsons states, "I am of the
opinion that only by a combination of a detailed passage-
by-passage analysis and a coherent theory of early
Christian use(s) of Jewish scriptures can one begin to
undertake to dismantle the overall thesis proposed by
Hooker."

45
Parsons, 116-17.

29
determines that Acts 8:35 does refer to Luke 24:27, a
conclusion that strengthens his argument against Hooker.
Parsons ends his article stating that in Acts 8, not only
is the fact of Jesus death discussed, but also the
significance and vicarious nature of his death.

Rikki E. Watts
Rikki E. Watts, in "Jesus Death, Isaiah 53, and
Mark 10:45 A Crux Revisited,"
46
discusses the relationship
between Isa 53 and Mark 10:45. He argues against the
findings of C.K. Barrett and Morna Hooker, neither of whom
accepts Isa 53 as a source of allusion in Mark 10:45
Watts is very critical of the methodology of both
Barrett and particularly of Hooker, and seeks to establish
that Mark 10:45 is an allusion to Isa 53. He does this by
considering the thematic structure of Mark, and Mark's use
of Deutero-Isaiah and the "New Exodus" concept. Watts also
explores the nature of Mark's citations, and the highly
allusive way Marks Jesus used the OT, as well as
considerations relating to the use of the LXX.

46
Rikki E. Watts, "Jesus' Death, Isaiah 53, and Mark
10:45: A Crux Revisited," in Jesus and the Suffering
Trinity, 1998), 125-51.

30
J. Ross Wagner
In his article "The Heralds of Isaiah and the
Mission of Paul,"
47
J. Ross Wagner explores Pauls
understanding of Isa 51-55 in Romans. Wagner argues that
an examination of Isa 53 within its greater context is
necessary in order to gain a full appreciation of how Paul
understood Isa 53. He also writes that this investigation
falls under Richard Hays' criterion of thematic coherence.
48

He states, "the larger 'story' of Isa 51-55 has exercised a
profound influence on the very foundations of Pauls
theology as expressed in Romans."
49

The majority of the article is devoted to three
quotations in Romans from Isa (Isa 52:7 in Rom 10:15; Isa
53:1 in Rom 10:16; and Isa 52:15 in Rom 15:21). While this
article illustrates the importance of thematic coherence,
only a brief mention is made of allusions in Rom from Isa.

47
J. Ross Wagner, "The Heralds of Isaiah and the
Mission of Paul: An Investigation of Paul's Use of Isaiah
51-55 in Romans," in Jesus and the Suffering Servant:
Jr. and William R. Farmer (Harrisburg, PA: Trinity, 1998),
193-222.

48
Wagner, 194.

49
Wagner, 194.

31
David Sapp
David Sapps article "The LXX, 1QIsa, and MT
Versions of Isaiah 53 and the Christian Doctrine of
Atonement,"
50
explores the use of the LXX, 1QIsa, and MT
versions of Isa 53. He observes that the Greek version,
which was probably the version used most by the NT writers,
does not contain so strong a statement about the vicarious
suffering of the Servant as did the Hebrew. Sapp also
points out that disciples seeking to evangelize the Gentile
world could only use their Greek Bibles since the Gentiles
did not know Hebrew. His findings are relevant to this
study because he concludes that one should not expect to
find references in the NT from Isa 53:9a or 10-11b.

Isaiah in the New Testament
The last work to be considered in this review is a
book edited by Steve Moyise and Maarten J. J. Menken,
Isaiah in the New Testament.
51
It represents the second

50
David Sapp, "The LXX, 1QIsa, and MT Versions of
Isaiah 53 and the Christian Doctrine of Atonement," in
Jesus and the Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 and Christian
Origins, ed. William H. Bellinger Jr. and William R. Farmer

51
Steve Moyise and Maarten J. J. Menken, eds.,
Isaiah in the New Testament (New York: T. & T. Clark,
2005), 1-217.

32
offering of a trilogy devoted to the three OT books most
widely used in the NT. The other two books are Psalms and
Deuteronomy, which, along with Isa, are also the most often
quoted books in the Dead Sea Scrolls.
This work is included in this summary because it is
the most recent book devoted to the topic of the use of Isa
in the NT. However, only two allusions from Isa 53 are
discussed: Hebrews 9:28 and 2 Cor 4:11. The discussion
presented for these two allusions centers on their function
in the passage, rather than establishing their validity.

Conclusion
In the survey above I examined a number of works to
determine two main factors: the number of allusions from
Isa 53 each author includes in his or her study, as well as
whether or not the author argues for the validity of those
allusions. Authors such as Dodd, Jeremias, Hooker, Moo,
and Hofius each included numerous allusions while
Stuhlmacher, Betz, Parsons, Watts, and Wagner mention only
a few.
In regard to the validity of allusions, Dodd, for
example, does not provide any argument at all to prove the
validly of the allusions he accepts. Morna Hooker, on the
other hand, does provide criteria and makes a careful

33
examination to determine whether a proposed allusion is an
actual allusion. Robert France is the only other scholar,
besides Morna Hooker, to acknowledge levels of
verifiability. None of the other authors provides or
suggests the need for a set of criteria to evaluate
allusions. The only authors to provide in depth discussion
of the validity of allusions (without criteria) from Isa 53
are Douglas Moo, Otto Betz, Ricki Watts, and Robert
France.
52

Two of the writers discussed in this review,
Parsons and Wagner, utilize all or a part of Richard Hays'
criteria in their studies.
53
However, no author mentioned
in this survey,
54
has ever, to my knowledge, utilized or
advocated the use of Morna Hooker's criteria.
This survey has demonstrated that not all scholars
verify the validity of the allusions they accept. If a
writer does argue for a connection between a NT verse and

52
However, Moo's discussion is limited to allusions
concerning the Gospel Passion Narrative, while Betz
discusses three allusions, Watts only one allusion, and
France four allusions.

53
Chapter 4 includes a brief discussion of several
other scholars who have adapted Hays' criteria.

54
I am not aware of any scholar advocating the use
of Hooker's criteria.

34
Isa 53, it is usually on linguistic grounds. The only
study designed to apply systematically a defined set of
criteria to allusions in the NT from Isa 53
55
is inadequate.
Therefore, a need exists for a reexamination of the
proposed allusions from Isa 53 in the NT using a better set
of criteria. I discuss the criteria I use to evaluate
these allusions in chapter 4. In the next chapter, I will
discuss how the writers of the NT might have understood Isa
53.

55
Hooker's study included all four Servant Songs.

35

CHAPTER 3

ANALYSIS OF ISAIAH 53

The Problem of Isaiah 53

Isa 53 is one of the most important
56
and yet one of
the most difficult passages to understand in the OT. Many
scholars have noted both textual
57
and interpretive problems
with this text.
58
Throughout history, these textual and
interpretive problems have led to a variety of Jewish and

56
Ivan Engnell, "The Ebed Yahweh Songs and the
Suffering Messiah in Deutero-Isaiah," Bulletin of John
Rylands Library 31 (January 1948): 73; Franz J. Delitzsch,
Isaiah, vol. 2 in The Commentary on the Old Testament
(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1973), 203.

57
For a good survey of the many textual issues see
Joseph Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40-55: A New Translation with
Introduction and Commentary, vol. 2 of The Anchor Bible
Commentary (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 2002), 346-349; and
John D. W. Watts, Isaiah 34-66, vol. 25 in Word Biblical
Commentary, ed. David A. Hubbard and Glenn W. Barker (Waco,
TX: Word, 1987), 225-226.

58
Brevard S. Childs, Isaiah: A Commentary, in The
Old Testament Library, ed. James L. Mays, et al.
(Louisville, KY: Westminster, 2001), 410; John N. Oswalt,
The Book of Isaiah: Chapters 40-66, in The New
International Commentary on the Old Testament, ed. R. K.
Harrison and Robert L. Hubbard, Jr. (Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 1998), 377.

36
Christian interpretations of this passage.
59

The purpose of this section is to establish the
meaning of Isa 53 as it was probably understood by the
writers of the NT. Christopher North demonstrates that not
every interpretation of Isa 53 from a Christian perspective
associates the Servant with Jesus. However, throughout
history, the majority of Christians (both Protestant and
Catholic) have understood Isa 53 messianically, and
identified the Servant with Jesus. Several of the direct
quotations from Isa 53 in the NT
60
clearly show that the NT
writers recognized Jesus as the Servant of Isa 53. The

59
Christopher R. North presents a historical survey
of the many Jewish and Christian interpretations of the
Servant Songs (including Isa 53). In regard to one of the
main questions, "Who is the servant?" North identifies both
collective and individual interpretations. The collective
(collective, meaning the servant represents a group)
interpretations include: the Servant represents all of
Israel (Collective Israel), Ideal Israel, a Remnant of
Israel, the prophets of Israel, or the priests of Israel.
Individuals identified as the Servant include the prophets
Jeremiah, Isaiah, Ezekiel, and Deutero-Isaiah; kings
identified are Josiah, Hezekiah, and Uzziah. Other
individuals identified as the Servant include Moses, Job,
Zerubbabel, and Cyrus. The most predominant interpretation
among Christians (both Protestant and Catholic) is that the
Songs are messianic, and Jesus is the Servant. Christopher
R. North, The Suffering Servant in Deutero-Isaiah: An
Historical and Critical Study (London: Oxford University
Press, 1948), 1-264.

60
Matt 8:17 and Luke 22:37 both explain aspects of
Jesus' ministry as a "fulfillment" of Isa 53; In Acts 8:32-

37
majority of current NT scholarship continues to
acknowledge that the writers of the NT identify Jesus with
the Servant of Isa 53, although scholars may differ on some
of the details in Isa 53.
The interpretation presented in this dissertation,
that of the early church, will show that a figure, known as
the "Servant," grew up in obscurity and was despised by
all. Even though he was innocent of any wrongdoing, he was
unjustly sentenced to death by cruel oppressors. In the
course of events, those who had previously scorned him
realize that he died as a substitute to pay the penalty for
their sins. In the end, the Servant is restored to a place
of prominence in victory. The writer of Isa 53 indicated
that none of this was a mistake; it all happened because
the Lord willed it to happen.
The analysis of this passage also includes an
explanation of the LXX translation of this poem. This is
necessary for two reasons. First, while the LXX
translation of the Hebrew is similar to the meaning of the
Hebrew, it does contain some important differences. These
differences probably reflect the theology of the LXX

35, Philip explains to the Ethiopian Eunuch that Isa 53
refers to Jesus; and Peter explains Jesus death in terms of
Isa 53 in 1 Pet 2:22-25.

38
translator(s). The LXX translator removed both the ideas
that the Servant literally died, as well as the fact that
it was God's will for the Servant to suffer. While the LXX
may belie certain theological tendencies, other reasons for
changes between the Hebrew text and the LXX should not be
overlooked.

Non-Theological Reasons for Differences
Between the Masoretic Text and the Septuagint

The LXX translation was produced in Alexandria,
Egypt during the third and second centuries B.C. This
translation became necessary because the Jews living in
Egypt spoke Greek, having lost the Hebrew language during
the Babylonian Captivity.
One of the concerns with interpreting the LXX is
that it is not one unified translation, but a collection of
translations or versions. These translations were produced
over a period of many years, beginning with the Torah. The
translators possessed varied abilities and followed
different rules or criteria for their translations.
Different rules for translation are evident from an
examination of books such as the Torah, Job, and Daniel.
Scholars agree that the Torah LXX was carefully and
skillfully translated. The translators of the Torah
produced a Greek version that is very close in meaning to

39
the Hebrew. However, the translation of other books is
often periphrastic and explanatory, such as Job and Daniel.
The translators of these two books must have sensed a need
not only to translate the text, but to clarify and explain
its meaning.
Another factor affecting the translation is the
varying skills of the translators. Historical evidence
regarding who were the LXX translators is incomplete. It
cannot be assumed that all the translators possessed the
skills to produce an accurate translation. Wrthwein
points out that the translators may not have had the
lexical and grammatical knowledge necessary to make
appropriate translations in all instances.
61

Another reason for differences between the LXX and
the Hebrew concerns the Hebrew text the translators used.
The Hebrew text used by the translators may have, in some
cases, differed greatly from the Hebrew text available to
scholars today. Modern scholars have concluded that there
is no doubt that the Hebrew text used to translate Jeremiah
is different from the MT. The LXX of Jeremiah lacks about
2,700 words that are found in the MT. In addition, the

61
Ernst Wrthwein, The Text of the Old Testament: An
Introduction to the Biblia Hebraica, trans. by Erroll F.
Rhodes (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1979), 65.

40
order of some passages in the LXX of Jeremiah differ from
the Hebrew.
62
This does not seem to affect the book of Isa
because Arie van der Kooij argues the Hebrew text of Isa
that the LXX translator(s) worked with is essentially the
same as the MT.
63

Another factor that might affect the translation in
a given instance is grammatical and lexical changes. Koine
Greek was used to translate the Hebrew and at the time
certain tendencies were followed. Ernst Wrthwein points
out for example that there was "the Greek preference for
subordinate constructions over coordinate clauses."
64

Lexical differences should also be expected because the
Hebrew language contains fewer words than Greek and
therefore the Hebrew required more Greek words to translate
the various shades of meaning.
It is also possible that the cultural milieu that
the Hellenized Jews living in Alexandria experienced

62
Ibid., 52.

63
Arie van der Kooij, "Isaiah in the Septuagint," in
Writing and Reading the Scroll of Isaiah: Studies of an
Interpretive Tradition, vol. 2, ed. by Craig C. Broyles and
Craig A. Evans, 513-29, Supplements to Vetus Testamentum,
vol. 70, no. 2. ed J. A. Emerton, et. al. (Leiden: Brill,
1997), 517.

64
Wrthwein, 65.

41
altered their thinking and thus affected the translation
from the Hebrew to the LXX. I. L. Seeligmann says the
translators had the "habit-peculiar to midrashic exegesis
generally-of contemporizing and anachronizing his
interpretations; or, in other words, his conscious or
unconscious tendency to rediscover, in the text he was
translating, the world of his own period."
65
The changes
that resulted from the translators immersion in his own
culture may have have gone unnoticed by himself or those
who read his translation.
This brief survey clearly shows that not all the
changes that exist between the Hebrew text and the LXX
translation are of a theological nature. Many other
factors played a role in the LXX translation including the
Hebrew text available, the rules for translating, the
ability of the translators, the nature of the Koine Greek,
lexical differences between the Hebrew and Greek, and
cultural influences in Alexandria, Egypt.

65
I.

L. Seeligmann, The Septuagint Version of
Isaiah: A Discussion of Its Problems MVEOL 9 (Leiden:
Brill, 1948), 96.

42
How Did the NT Writer's Handle Differences between the
Masoretic Text and the Septuagint.

It is also necessary to discuss the LXX translation
along with the Hebrew in this chapter because the LXX is
generally acknowledged as the Bible of the first-century
Christians. A comparison of the Hebrew text and its Greek
translation show that many of the verses contain at least a
few minor changes that do not alter the meaning in any
significant way. However, some verses contain significant
changes such as omissions, additions, and changes in
construction and emphasis. Because the NT writers often
quote from and allude to the LXX, it is important to
examine how they reconciled the differences between the LXX
and the Hebrew text from which it was translated.
First, it is necessary to explain both the speaking
and writing language skills of the NT writers. All the
writers, except Luke, were Jewish.
66
The language spoken
among Jews in first-century Palestine was Aramaic. Even
though Paul was from Tarsus, he was also fluent in

66
Luke was a Gentile and a physician and as such was
educated. The other NT writers are Matthew, Mark, John,
Paul, James, Jude, and the writer unknown writer of
Hebrews.

43
Aramaic.
67
It is also possible that Luke, who
traveledextensively with Paul, may have understood and/or
spoke Aramaic.
Many of the NT writers may also have been fluent in
Greek or at least had a working knowledge of the language.
68

Paul was from Tarsus, and his native language was Greek as
was Luke's. Peter and John were from Bethsaida in Galilee,
which is located on the sea of Galilee. Bethsaida was
adjacent to the Decapolis, which was a federation of ten
Hellenistic cities. This was a cosmopolitan area and Peter
and John probably knew Greek well. Peter's name was
originally "Symeon Peter," but probably due to Greek
influence he was later called Simon. Mark was from
Jerusalem and may not have been originally exposed to
Greek. However, Mark probably learned Greek during his
considerable time with Paul while in Greece and other
Gentile areas on missionary journeys. It is probable that
Matthew also knew Greek well. He was a tax collector,
possibly in the cosmopolitan area around Capernaum,

67
Acts 22:2.

68
It would seem that all of them could write in
Greek, otherwise they would have required a scribe to write
for them (which is possible). Many people are able to read
and/or write in a language that he or she cannot speak.

44
collecting tolls for the Roman government.
In regard to an understanding of Hebrew, most
Jewish boys in the first-century were taught to read and
write in the home and often through public or private
schools.
69
The focus of Jewish education was the Torah and
Jewish boys were taught to read all the books of Scripture
(the OT) in Hebrew and expected to memorize much of the
text.
70
Writing was also part of the education with boys
learning to write with a stylus on a small wax tablet.
71

Therefore, we can expect that all the Jewish writers of the
NT were familiar with Hebrew and the Hebrew text of the OT.
If necessary, they were also able to write in Hebrew. As a
Gentile, only Luke may not have had knowlegde of Hebrew.
This brief survey reveals that all the Jewish
writers of the Gospels and Paul were fluent in Aramaic and
possibly Greek, and were able to at least read and write
Hebrew. Only Luke might have been limited to Greek.
Therefore, it should not be assumed that the NT writers

69
D. F. Watson, "Education: Jewish and Greco-Roman,"
in Dictionary of New Testament Background, ed. Craig A.
Evans and Stanley E. Porter (Downers Grove, IL:
InterVarsity, 2000), 312.

70
Ibid.

71
Ibid.

45
relied on the LXX translation alone for their understanding
of the OT. While the LXX was the text that was most
frequently quoted in the NT, that does not mean the NT
writers were unaware of the meaning of the Hebrew text.
For example, Matthew makes a very close translation of the
Hebrew in the quotation from Isa 53:4 in Matt 8:17.
The reason the NT writers quote so often from the
LXX is because it was the common Bible of the first-
century. The LXX was brought to every city in the Roman
Empire that the Jews of the Diaspora lived. Gleason Archer
and Gregory Chirichigno explain the significance of the
LXX:
It was virtually the only form of the Old Testament in
the hands of Jewish believers outside Palestine, and it
was certainly the only available form for Gentile
converts to the Jewish or Christian faiths.
72

The purpose for writing the Gospels and other NT books was
largely evangelistic. Archer and Chirichigno point out
that it was necessary to quote the LXX because to do
otherwise would raise unnecessary questions about
discrepancies between the quotations in the NT and the OT

72
Gleason L. Archer and Gregory Chirichigno, Old
Testament Quotations in the New Testament (Chicago: Moody,
1983), ix.

46
of that day.
73
Evidence that people did closely examine the
scriptures is found in Acts 17:11 where it is said of the
Berean's: "they received the message with great eagerness
and examined the Scriptures every day to see if what Paul
said was true." (NIV)
While the NT writers made pragmatic use of the LXX
in order to avoid raising unnecessary issues between the OT
of the day and their quotations, it appears there were
times when a more significant alteration of the LXX or a
direct translation of the Hebrew was unavoidable. All of
the quotations discussed in this dissertation are verbatim
or very nearly so from the LXX except Matt 8:17. In Matt
8:17 Matthew appears to make his own translation from the
Hebrew. This does not pose as great a problem with the
rationale discussed above because Matthew was writing
primarily to a Jewish audience.
74

It should also be noted that it seems the NT
writers avoided quotations from passages where the LXX
translators failed to accurately translate the meaning of

73
Ibid.

74
Matt is considered the Gospel to the Jews for many
reasons including the fact that he begins his Gospel by
tracing the lineage of Jesus to Abraham (father of the
Jewish nation) through David.

47
the Hebrew text into Greek. David Sapp demonstrates that
there are no quotations in the NT from Isa 53:10, a
particularly difficult passage, and few if any allusions
from the LXX of this verse.
75

In answer to the original question, "how did the
writers of the NT reconcile differences between the Hebrew
and LXX?" I suggest the following: writers who understood
both the LXX and the original Hebrew (except Luke), used
the LXX because it was the OT of the first-century.
76
They
usually quote the LXX verbatim, but occasionally make their
own translation from the Hebrew or alter the Greek text
when necessary to clarify the meaning. If a verse is
especially problematic, they avoided the verse altogether
and used other OT passages to strengthen their writing.

The Servant Songs
Many modern scholars deny that the OT book of Isa

75
Origins, ed. William H. Bellinger Jr. and William R. Farmer

76
Jennifer M. Dines, The Septuagint, ed. Michael A
Knibb (London: T. & T. Clark, 2004), 1-196; Karen H. Jobes
and Moiss Silva, Invitation to the Septuagint, (Grand
Rapids: Baker, 2000), 1-351; R. Timothy McClay, The Use of
the Septuagint in New Testament Research (Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 2003), 1-207.

48
was written by a single author, the prophet Isaiah, arguing
that the book is the product of at least two writers.
According to this division, the first part of the book
(chapters 1-39) is attributed to the prophet Isaiah, while
the second part (chapters 40-66) is assigned to an unknown
author referred to as Deutero-Isaiah. Some scholars divide
the book further, believing that a third writer known as
Trito-Isaiah wrote chapters 55-66.
77
These divisions are
based on differences such as theme, vocabulary, and the
perceived geographic location of the writer.
In 1892, Bernhard Duhm, in his commentary on the
book of Isa, identified four passages in Deutero-Isaiah
that he names the Servant Songs.
78
He believes these
passages should be separated from the rest of Deutero-

77
Other modern scholars still make valid arguments
for the unity of Isa. Gleason L. Archer Jr., A Survey of
Old Testament Introduction (Chicago: Moody Press, 1985),
336-359; Roland Kenneth Harrison, Introduction to the Old
Testament: with a Comprehensive Review of Old Testament
Studies and a Special Supplement on the Apocrypha (Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999), 764-795; Edward J. Young, Who
Wrote Isaiah? (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1958), 1-88.

78
It is assumed that the four songs are linked. The
best available complete work is still Christopher R. North,
The Suffering Servant in Deutero-Isaiah (New York: Oxford
University, 1949).

49
Isaiah, supposing they were written a century later.
79

Even though they are not grouped together (in fact several
chapters separate them in some cases), they seem to have a
common theme and tell the story of an unknown servant.
80
In
terms of genre, these passages consist of Hebrew poetry
which constitutes much of the OT.
The first Servant poem describes a Servant,
especially chosen by God, who will go to the nations to
bring justice. In the second poem, the Servant describes
his mission which is to go not only to the tribes of
Israel, but also to be a light to the nations. The third
poem is in the first person with the Servant describing how
he was physically harmed while carrying out his mission.
The fourth poem, Isa 53, speaks of the Servant's suffering,
death, and ultimate victory.
Just as Isa 53 itself has received a tremendous
amount of attention, so also have these four poems
collectively. Scholars have debated the extent of each
passage, the meaning of each "song," the unit as a whole,
the contribution of these passages to the entire book of

79
Bernhard Duhm, Das Buch Jesaia bersetzt und
erklrt (Gottingen, 1892), xviii, 204ff., and 365ff.

80
The passages Duhm identified are Isa 42:1-4; 49:1-
6; 50:4-9; 52:13-53:12.

50
Isa, and the overall significance of the Songs.
The issue that has received the greatest amount of
attention is the question, "Who is the Servant?" Many
different solutions have been suggested to answer this
question, but the most common are that the Servant is the
prophet Isaiah himself, a righteous remnant of Israel, or,
according to a Christian scholarly interpretation, Jesus.

The Structure of Isaiah 53

What is referred to as Isa 53 in this paper, and by
most scholars when they refer to this passage, is actually
Isa 52:13-53:12. That Isa 52:13-15 is connected to chapter
53 has been disputed, however most scholars accept the
entire passage as a unit.
81

The poem can be nicely divided into five stanzas of
three verses each (52:13-15; 53:1-3, 4-6, 7-9, 10-12).
82

The first and last sections represent a divine oracle as it
is the Lord Himself who is speaking. The first strophe,
Isa 52:13-15 introduces the Servant of the Lord with a

81
F. Duane Lindsey, The Servant Songs: A Study in
Isaiah (Chicago: Moody, 1985), 99.

82
There is some disagreement about where the
"report" ends and the divine oracle resumes. It may be in
verse 11.

51
statement indicating his ultimate success and exaltation.
The thought then turns to his unexpected humiliation and
subsequent vindication.
The last strophe, Isa 53:10-12, is tied to the
first and indicates the purpose of the Lord and explains
that it was his will that the events described occur. It
also describes the Servants atoning sacrifice and his
final vindication.
The middle section of the poem, verses 1-9
(strophes three, four, and five), provide a report of the
humiliation and death of the Servant. This report is given
by a group of people who initially scorn the Servant, only
later to realize that he bore their sins to secure God's
forgiveness.

Exegesis of Isaiah 53

Strophe One-Isaiah 52:13-15

Isaiah 52:13
`13V 7`JU` 1
83
1ND 31 NU11 D1`
iooo oovgori o noi oo koi
o|0gor+oi koi oooo0gor+oi
o|oopo
84

83
The Hebrew text used in this dissertation is the
text edited by K. Ellinger and W. Rudolph. K. Ellinger and
W. Rudolph eds., Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia, corrected
4
th
ed. (Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1990).

52
See! My Servant shall
succeed,
He shall be exalted, and
lifted up, and shall be
exceedingly high.
Behold, My Servant will be
prudent, and will be lifted
high and will be exceedingly
glorified.

The speaker in verses 13-15 is the LORD. Since, in
the course of the poem the Servant will undergo contempt,
misunderstanding, and death, the author here establishes
from the beginning that the final outcome will be success.
This theme of exaltation is resumed in 53:11ff.
The verse begins with the word 1, an interjection
which functions in two ways. First, it is used
stylistically to indicate a new section. The beginning of
Isa 52:13 (with 1 and `13V ) is similar to that of Isa 42:1.
It is probable that this repetition is intended to draw
attention back to Isa 42:1ff where the commencement of the
Servant's work is presented, while Isa 53 shows its
culmination.
85
Second, it is used to heighten the reader's

84
The LXX text used in this dissertation is the
edited version of Alfred Rahlfs. Alfred Rahlfs, ed.
Septuaginta, Id Est Vetus Testamentum Graece Iuxta LXX
Interpretes, 2 vols., (Stuttgart: Privilegierte
Wrttembergische Bibelanstalt, 1935).

85
Claus Westermann, Isaiah 40-66: A Commentary,
trans. David M. G. Stalker, in The Old Testament Library,
ed. G. Ernest Wright, et al. (Philadelphia: Westminster,
1969), 258.

53
awareness that he or she should pay careful attention to
what, or more importantly, who will be presented and
discussed.
86

The exact nuance of the word 7JU is difficult to
determine. The Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament
states that it is translated by at least nine English
words, and in this context suggests the word means "to act
circumspectly or prudently."
87
In the context of Isa 52:13
BDB gives the meaning "prosper, have success,"
88
while
Holladay gives the meanings to "act w[ith] (religious)
insight, devotion, piety."
89
Claus Westerman says that the
word can indicate both an action and its results.
90
In this
case, the action would be to be wise and prudent; the

86
John N. Oswalt, The Book of Isaiah: Chapters 40-
66, in The New International Commentary on the Old
Testament, ed. R. K. Harrison and Robert L. Hubbard Jr.

87
R. Laird Harris, Gleason L. Archer Jr., and Bruce
K. Waltke, eds., Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament,
s.v. 7JU , by Louis Goldberg.

88
Francis Brown, S. R. Driver, and Charles A.
Briggs, The Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon
with an Appendix Containing the Biblical Aramaic (Peabody,
MA: Hendrickson, 2000), 968.

89
William L. Holladay ed., A Concise Hebrew and
Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament (Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 1971), 352.

90
Westermann, 258.

54
result would be to succeed. Even if this is possible, it
seems that the emphasis is on the result. Therefore the
best translation is "to succeed," which is similar to the
way the word is used in Joshua 1:8 where it indicates that
if something is done, the person will have "success."
In the Greek, the word oovigi has fewer shades of
meaning and in biblical use generally means "to
understand," but can also mean "to be prudent" as in Josh
1:7 another passage where oovigi is used to translate 7JU .
91

Even though this interpretation may indicate that the
Hebrew meaning is "act wisely," it seems that the emphasis
is on the outcome, and the word should be translated
"succeed."
The second part of the verse indicates the
exaltation of the Servant by the use of three verbs, "He
shall be exalted, and lifted up, and shall be exceedingly
high." One question surrounding these words is whether
they are synonymous or sequential. Franz Delitzsch
believes that these verbs showed a chain of thought, "he
will rise up, he will raise himself still higher, he will
stand on high," indicating the "commencement, the

91
Johan Lust, Erik Eynikel, and Katrin Hauspie,
eds., Greek-English Lexicon of the Septuagint, rev. ed.
(Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 2003), 524.

55
continuation, and the result or climax of the exaltation."
92

On the other hand, E. J. Young argues that the purpose here
is to show "a complete and utter exaltation will come to
the Servant."
93
Youngs suggestion is preferable because
the focus seems to be on the result, not a continuing
action. The Servant having succeeded in his mission will
be "exalted" above all.
Of significance is the fact that in the entire OT
the words D1 and NU1 are used together only here and in
three other places in Isa. In the other three instances,
they refer to God. In addition, the prophet made it clear
in Isa 2:6-22, and especially verse 17 that only God will
be exalted. Therefore, this "lifting up" cannot refer to
the nation of Israel, or the prophet himself, but only the
Messiah.
94
This is also how it was understood in the
Aramaic translation, the Targum of Isaiah, because the word
"Messiah" was inserted in verse 13.
Of less importance is that in the LXX only two

92
Delitzsch, 305.

93
Edward J. Young, The Book of Isaiah: The English
Text, with Introduction, Exposition, and Notes, vol. 2

94
Oswalt, 378-379.

56
verbs are used for the Hebrew's three. It has been
suggested that one of the Hebrew verbs is a gloss or that
the Greek translator accidentally skipped over one of the
words. The reasons that seem most plausible are that the
LXX translator either rendered the Hebrew as a hendiadys or
that he did not feel it was necessary to repeat all three
words, knowing that in the Hebrew a repetition of such
words functions like a superlative.
95

Isaiah 52:14-15
D`3 q`7V 1DDU UNJ
1ND U`ND n0UD}J
D1N `13D 1Nn1
14 ov +ponov rko+goov+oi rni or
noXXoi oo+ ooogori ono ov0pnv
+o rioo ooo koi g ooo ooo ono + v
ov0pnv
Just as many were appalled at
you,
96

-his appearance was so
disfigured beyond human
semblance,
And his form beyond that of
the sons of men.
Just as many were astonished
by you,
So your appearance compared
with other men will be
despicable,
And your glory compared with
other men.

95
Eugene Robert Ekblad Jr., Isaiah's Servant Poems
According to the Septuagint: An Exegetical and Theological
Study (Leuven: Peeters, 1999), 181.

96
It has been suggested that this pronoun be emended
to "him" based on the Syriac Targum. However, both 1QIsa
a

and 1QIsa
b
support the Masoretic Text. The more difficult
reading is preferred. In addition, it is not uncommon for
Hebrew prophets to abrubtly change the person as Gesenius
points out, "In poetic (or prophetic) language there
sometimes occurs (supposing the text to be correct) a more
or less abrupt transition from one person to another. Thus
from the 2nd to the 3rd (i.e. from an address to a
statement)." Wilhelm Gesenius, Hebrew Grammar, trans. A.

57
D`3 D`1? \` }J
D`D D`J7D 1YD` 1`7V
1N D7 DON7 UN `J
11113n 1VDUN7 UN1
oo+ 0ooooov+oi r0vg noXXo rn`
oo+ koi oovroooiv ooiXri +o
o+oo oo+ v o+i oi ook ovgyyrXg
nrpi oo+oo o|ov+oi koi oi ook
okgkoooiv oovgooooiv
So will he startle many
nations,
And kings will shut their
mouths because of him,
For what they were not told
they will see,
And what they did not hear
they will understand.

So will many nations be
startled by him,
And kings will shut their
mouths,
Because that which was not
reported concerning him they
will see,
And that which had not been
heard, they will understand.

Verses 14 and 15 need to be considered together as
a unit. The theme of these two verses is the humiliation
of the Servant followed by a statement that reinforces his
exaltation. Both his humiliation and exaltation evoke a
strong response from two separate groups of people.
One of the key issues of these verses is whether
"his appearance was so disfigured beyond human semblance
and his form beyond that of the sons of men" (verse 14b) is
a parenthetical statement, or a portion of text that was
originally located between Isa 53:2 and Isa 53:3. Bernard
Duhm is credited as the first to suggest that this phrase
(verse 14b) made more sense inserted between Isa 53:2 and
Isa 53:3. Other scholars have subsequently come to accept

E. Cowley, ed. E. Kautzsch, 2d English ed. (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1909), 462. Therefore, this
entire verse is referring to the Servant, with a shift from
the third person to the second person.

58
Duhm's theory.
97
While it does fit well between the two
verses in the next section, there is no textual evidence to
suggest this move.
98

Assuming that 14b should remain where it is, it is
necessary to explain the syntactical problem that exists.
Verse 14 begins with a protasis "Just as" UNJ . The problem
is that several possibilities exist as the apodosis, the
"even so" clause because both 14b and 15a begin with "so"
}J .
There are at least three ways this problem may be
resolved. The first suggestion is that the protasis in 14a
is followed by a double apodosis 14b and 15a.
99

Protasis: Just as many were appalled at you,
Apodosis 1: -his appearance was so disfigured beyond
human semblance- And his form beyond that of the sons
of men.

Apodosis 2: So will he sprinkle many nations...

97
R[oger] N[orman] Whybray, Isaiah 40-66 in The New
Century Bible Commentary, ed. Ronald E. Clements (Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans, 1975), 169.

98
Childs, 412.

99
"As thus explained, the sense would be, their
abhorrence of him was not without reason [so disfigured
beyond human semblance . . .], and it shall not be without
requital [so will he sprinkle many nations]," Joseph A.
Alexander, Commentary on the Prophecies of Isaiah, vol. 2
(Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1953), 287.

59
The second suggestion is that both }J clauses should
be understood parenthetically with the apodosis found in
the second clause of verse 15 "and kings shall shut their
mouths at him . . ."

First Parenthesis: (his appearance was so
disfigured beyond human semblance And his form
beyond that of the sons of men.)

Second Parenthesis: (So will he sprinkle many
nations)

Apodosis: And kings will shut their mouths because of
him, For what they were not told they will see, And
what they did not hear they will understand.

With this construction the contrast would be the varied
response of the many and the kings; the many are appalled
while the kings shut their mouths.
100

A third possibility, which I think is correct, is
that the protasis is followed by an explanatory parenthesis
and then by the apodosis as follows:
Explanatory parenthesis: (his appearance was so
disfigured beyond human semblance And his form
beyond that of the sons of men.)

Apodosis: So will he sprinkle many nations, And kings
will shut their mouths because of him, For what they

100
Young, 337.

60
were not told they will see, And what they did not hear
they will understand.

In the parenthesis it is explained why the many are
appalled at the Servant. This theme will be returned to in
Isa 53:2. The comparison therefore is between the many who
are appalled and the nations, represented by the kings who
marvel at the spiritual cleansing wrought by the Servant's
suffering.
101

Another important question concerns those who are
the "many," who are appalled, mentioned in verse 14. I
believe the "many" is the same group that is represented in
53:1-9. They are the Israelites who look upon the Servant
and are appalled at what happened to him. The unexpected
humiliation causes them to become DDU , "appalled" or
"astonished." The speaker, who is God, introduces what
will be said later in the poem by the "we."
102

After the parenthetical explanation of the
Servant's appearance, the focus turns to the "kings" who

101
Lindsey, 104-105.

102
David J. A. Clines, I, He, We, and They: A
Literary Approach to Isaiah 53, Journal for the Study of
the Old Testament Supplement Series, vol. 1, ed. David J.
A. Clines, et al. (Sheffield: University of Sheffield,
1976), 29. David Clines and other scholars refer to the
speakers in Isa 53:1-9 as "we" or the "we group". This
terminology will be adopted throughout the remainder of the
dissertation.

61
seem to represent the many nations. The first group reacts
negatively to the Servant because of his suffering, while
the second group is amazed at the result (cleansing of sin)
of the Servant's suffering.
103

A further difficulty in these two verses concerns
the meaning of the word 11 ,
104
which has the primary meaning
of "to sprinkle." The word 11 is a technical word, found
in the Torah, and is used for the sprinkling of water, oil,
or blood for the purpose of ceremonial cleansing or
purifying.
105
This cleansing is not for decontamination.
Instead, it is administered in order to obtain ritual
purity. In this case, the Servant, who the "many" believe
is contaminated, is actually pure and therefore able to
cleanse the many nations.
106
While this interpretation
makes sense in the overall context of Isa 53, several
factors suggest a better translation for this instance of

103
Lindsey, 105.

104
Oswalt, 374. ". . . Among more recent
commentators, Young, North, Muilenburg continue to prefer
'sprinkle' (but North, following Nygren, has the nations
sprinkling the servant for fear of contamination). All the
others prefer some alternative, usually 'startle.'; E.J.
Young, "The Interpretation of yzh, in Isaiah 52:15,"
Westminster Theological Journal 3 (1941) 125-32.

105
Young, 338.

106
Young, 338-339.

62
11 .
First, 11 is rendered 0ooo "to startle," in the
LXX. There are other significant differences between the
Hebrew and LXX texts of this passage (as will be seen in
subsequent verses) so this factor alone should not be
considered conclusive. However, 11 in the hiphil tense
designates the liquid being sprinkled, never the object
that is sprinkled. Therefore, if this word is translated
consistent with its normal use, the clause would be "the
nations were sprinkled (onto something else), which makes
no sense.
107

Scholars have also argued that it is exegetically
incorrect to infer the priestly function to the Servant and
heighten the cultic nature of this passage which does not
rise to the surface. I think it is possible possible that
cultic factors exist, especially in verse 53:10 where an
DUN "sin offering," is mentioned.
I think the most compelling reason for rejecting
the translation "to sprinkle" is that there is no parallel
for it. "Startled" is a much better parallel to "many are
appalled," and it also corresponds with the surprise of the
kings who "shut their mouths." This therefore may be the

107
Oswalt, 381.

63
one instance in the OT of 11 II from the Arabic, meaning "to
startle."
108
The BDB entry includes a note regarding the
dubious nature of this meaning for this form; however, it
is possible and seems to provide the better solution to the
problem.

Isaiah 53:1-9: An Introduction
The identification of the speakers in this section
constitutes another very important interpretative problem.
Three main suggestions have been made as to who the "we"
are: the nations mentioned in 52:15,
109
the collective voice
of the prophets, or the nation of Israel which is
represented through the voice of the prophet.
110

The first suggestion is unlikely because nothing is
said of the nations reacting negatively to the Servant,
rather they were unaware of both the suffering and
exaltation of the Servant, and when it happened, they were

108
Brown, Driver, and Briggs, Hebrew and English
Lexicon, 633.

109
James Muilenburg and Henry Sloane Coffin, "The
Book of Isaiah 40-66," vol. 5 in The Interpreter's Bible,
ed. George Arthur Buttrick (Nashville, TN: Abingdon, 1954),
614. Muilenburg takes this passage as a "confessional
lament by the nations represented perhaps by their kings."

110
Oswalt, 381.

64
surprised.
111
The second suggestion also seems unlikely,
since the true and faithful prophets of Israel would have
understood the Lord's will, and would not have scorned the
Servant. The third option seems by far the best choice
with the prophet speaking for and identifying himself with
his people, similar to the way Jeremiah represented and
identified with his people in Jer 14:7-9.
112

Strophe Two-Isaiah 53:1-3

Isaiah 53:1
11nVDU7 }`DN `D
n71 `D7V 1` V111
kopir +i rnio+roorv +g okog g v
koi o poiv kopioo +ivi
onrkoXo|0g
Who has believed our message?
And to whom has the arm of
the LORD been revealed?
Lord, Who believed our report
And to whom has the arm of
the Lord been revealed?

In this verse, the prophet (representing the
faithful remnant
113
), asks "Who has believed our message?"
The message he is speaking about is the one previously
mentioned in verse 52:15, "For what they were not told they
will see, And what they did not hear they will understand."

111
J. Skinner, The Book of the Prophet Isaiah:
Chapters XL-XLVI (Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1951),
136.

112
Oswalt, 381.

113
The group of Israelites who were faithful to the
Lord and did not worship false gods.

65
This question is rhetorical and is more an exclamation of
unbelief than a question, uttered to bring attention at the
scarcity of unbelievers.
114
The answer to the question is
"few."
The second part of the verse amplifies the first.
"The arm of Lord" refers to the Lord's power to save. Some
scholars also believe that this is a reference to the
Messiah. Therefore, the prophet again concludes that few
have experienced this saving power.
115

Isaiah 53:2
1`1D7 11`J 7V`1
`Y |ND UUJ1
1 N71 17 NnN7
11D011 NDN71 1N11
ovgyyriXorv rvov+iov oo+oo
noioiov pio rv yg oi|og ook
ro+iv rioo oo+ ooor ooo koi
rioorv oo+ov koi ook rirv rioo
ooor koXXo
He grew up before him like a
sapling,
Like a root out of dry
ground,
There was nothing impressive
in his appearance,
Nor did he have any splendor
that we should look at him,
Nor anything pleasing in his
appearance.
We announced before him like
a young child,
Like a root in dry ground,
There is nothing spectacular
in his appearance, no glory,
We saw him and he had neither
form nor beauty.

This verse begins a summary of the "career" of the

114
Young, 340.

115
John L. McKenzie S. J., Second Isaiah:
Introduction, Translation, and Notes, vol. 20 in The Anchor
Bible (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1968), 133; Lindsey,
114.

66
Servant and how the "we" group responded to him. It shows
how from the very beginning of his life he was considered
unimpressive in every way. "Before him," refers to the
fact that the Lord was aware of, and observed the growth
and progression of the Servant's life. However, it does
not indicate any special protection as he grew up,
116
rather
the Lord was aware of his sufferings and yet did nothing to
relieve them.
117

The Servant's early life is described by the use of
a pair of similes. The term "sapling" refers to a "sucker"
that saps the life out of the plant and should be cut off.
Not only is the sapling worthless in itself, but it is also
a parasite stealing the life from the better part of the
plant. The Servant is also like a "root out of dry
ground:" he appears to be struggling and his survival is in
doubt.
The last part of the verse summarizes how others
respond to this unremarkable figure. He possesses no
obvious special quality which would attract people to him.
This is not merely a question of whether or not he is good
looking but rather a statement that penetrates to the core

116
Whybray, 173.

117
Whybray, 173-174.

67
of his existence: he does not amaze anyone.
A significant departure from the Hebrew exists at
the beginning of this verse in the LXX. While ovoyyrXX
appears fourteen times in Isa to match eight different
Hebrew words, it is never used to translate 7V .
118
It is
possible that the translator engaged in intertextual
exegesis, and referred back to Isa 12:4-5 where ovoyyrXX is
used twice in reference to the Lord's glorious deeds.
119

The author's use of ovoyyrXX would draw the reader back to
what was spoken of in Isa 12:4-5, the glorious thing the
Lord has done, and apply it to the story of the Servant,
showing that the primary mission of Israel is to announce
the good news to the nations.
120
Although this is possible,
it is difficult to say for certain what the translator had
in mind.

118
Ekblad, 199.

119
Isa 12:4-5.
4
And you will say in that day: Give
thanks to the LORD, call on his name; make known his deeds
among the nations; proclaim that his name is exalted.
5

Sing praises to the LORD, for he has done gloriously; let
this be known

in all the earth. (NRSV)
Isa 12:4-5. (LXX) koi rpri rv +g grpo rkrivg vri +r kopiov
oo +r +o ovoo oo+oo ovoyyriXo+r rv +oi r0vroiv +o rvooo oo+oo
ivgokro0r o+i o|0g +o ovoo oo+oo 5 ovgoo+r +o ovoo kopioo o+i o|gXo
rnoigorv ovoyyriXo+r +oo +o rv noog +g yg .

120
Ekblad, 200.

68
Isaiah 53:3
DÙ`N 7101 131
`70 V11`1 n13NJD U`N
11DD D`1D nODJ1
113U0 N71 131
oXXo +o rioo oo+oo o+iov rkXri nov
nopo nov+o ov0pnoo ov0pno rv
nXgyg v koi rio |rpriv oXokiov
o+i onro+pon+oi +o npoonov oo+oo
g+ioo0g koi ook rXoyio0g
He was despised and forsaken
by men,
A man of pains and acquainted
with suffering,
As one hiding his face from
us,
He was despised and we
esteemed him not.
But his appearance was
dishonorable,
One forsaken from all men.
Being a man with a wound,
And knowing (how) to bear
sickness,
That his face had been turned
away,
He was not held in honor nor
regarded.

The general statements about the humiliation of the
Servant in verse 2 are amplified in verse 3, particularly
by the word 13 "despise." The despise felt toward the
Servant is emphasized due to the fact that 13 is a strong
word, and that it is repeated at the beginning and end of
the verse. According to Robert D. Culver, the word
"despised" is "the most comprehensive of all the terms
here, involving that complete act of the whole man when he
utterly and completely refuses something."
121
The Servant
is also regarded as a "rejected man," and is seen by people

121
Robert D. Culver, The Sufferings and the Glory of
the Lord's Righteous Servant (Moline, IL: Christian Service
Foundation, 1958), 53.

69
as having no significance for them.
122

The next line takes the reader beyond the negative
response of others to the Servant and indicates that the
Servant also experienced suffering as a "man of pains and
familiar with suffering." This is an important phrase and
the meaning of the word `7 must be determined by context.
Some scholars have argued that the Servant suffers from
leprosy.
123
The word is often used in the OT to mean
"sickness" or "disease."
124
It can also indicate a general
suffering or affliction,
125
as in Ecclesiastes 6:2. This
passage says that it is an `7 "affliction" when a man is no
longer able to enjoy his possessions because they have
fallen into the hands of a foreigner. It seems most likely
in this context that what the Servant bears is not disease
or sickness but rather sin. This same figure is used by
Isaiah in Isa 1:5b-6.
126
In addition, any suffering that is
described in the remainder of this poem is caused by

122
Oswalt, 383.

123
Muilenburg, 620.

124
Brown, Driver, and Briggs, Hebrew and English
Lexicon, 318.

125
Holladay, 105.

126
Young, 344.

70
others. The last two lines once again emphasize that
people did not even want to look at the Servant.

Strophe Three-Isaiah 53:4-6

Isaiah 53:4
NU1 N1 11`70 }JN
D73O 11`3NJD1
V11 113U0 1101N1
1VD1 D`7N JD
oo+o +o oop+io g v |rpri koi
nrpi g v ooovo +oi koi gri
rXoyioor0o oo+o v rivoi rv nov koi
rv nXgyg koi rv kokori
Yet it was our sickness he
bore
And our suffering he carried.
Yet we thought him stricken
Smitten by God and afflicted.
This one bears our sins,
And suffers for us,
And we reckoned him to be in
pain and having been struck
and afflicted.

This verse begins the third strophe, and throughout
this strophe there is a contrast between the "we" and the
Servant. In the first portion this verse, the "we" group
acknowledges what he did for them; in the second part, the
"we" group declares their attitude toward him.
The first word in the verse, "surely," can be
understood as either affirmative,
127
or as an adversative of
surprise.
128
The word can also be used to indicate both

127
Delitzsch, 315.

128
Walter Brueggemann, Isaiah 40-66, in Westminster
Bible Companion, ed. Partick D. Miller and David L.
Bartlett (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 1998),
145.

71
affirmation and surprise.
129
The statement here appears to
take on the third meaning. The "we" are admitting that in
fact it was the Servant who intervened on their behalf. In
surprise, they also realize that, contrary to their
original assessment of the Servant and his situation, they
were in error.
130

The topic of vicarious suffering is one of the key
issues in Isa 53, and the opening statements in this verse
bring this subject to the surface for the first time.
131
In
verse 3 the "we" group states that the Servant was "a man
of pains and acquainted with suffering." The two words
used in parallel in the last verse, `7 "sickness" and 31NJD
"suffering," are employed in parallel in this verse as
well. Here, these words are used to describe what the
Servant has "borne" and "carried." However, unlike in the
previous verse, the "we" group now acknowledges that this
was done for their sake. The Servant did not merely become
a fellow sufferer, he actually took upon himself the sin of
the "we" group. Their guilt was transferred to him and he
became their substitute. The author of Isa 53 does not

129
Oswalt, 386.

130
Oswalt, 386-387.

131
Childs, 415.

72
explain how one person can take upon himself the sins of
others. He only states that this is what happened.
The thought in this verse is not chronological.
The "we" group does not understand the meaning of the
Servant's suffering as stated in the first part of this
verse until later in the poem. Their original impression
of the events is the subject of the second part of this
verse. The "we" group describes the Servant's punishment
in strong terms when they said he was "stricken, smitten by
God and afflicted." What is particularly noteworthy is
that the "we" group reckons God as the direct agent of this
misery.
The major difference between the Hebrew and LXX
translation is that the LXX omits "God" as the agent of the
Servant's suffering. In the LXX, there is no statement
attributing the suffering of the Servant to God. The
reason this statement was excluded is because it probably
seemed incomprehensible to the LXX translator(s) that God
would desire to cause a sinless person to suffer. As a
result of this omission, the "we" group could be seen as
sympathetic to the Servant, who now suffers only at the
hands of his oppressors.

73
Isaiah 53:5
11VUDD 770D N11
11`n11VD NJ1D
1`7V 11D17U O1D
117ND1 1n3031
oo+o or r+pooo+io0g oio +o
ovoio g v koi roXokio+oi oio
+o oop+io g v noiorio ripgvg
g v rn` oo+ov + Xni oo+oo
gri io0grv
But he was wounded for our
transgressions,
Crushed because of our
iniquities,
The chastisement that made us
whole was upon him,
And by his wounds we were
healed.
He was wounded because of our
transgressions,
He was sick because of our
sins,
The discipline of peace was
upon him,
We were healed by his bruise.

In this verse, statements are made that continue
the contrast between the "us" and "him," as the speakers
elaborate and clarify the idea of vicarious suffering. The
nature of the suffering moves from a vague "sickness" or
"suffering," to "wounding" and "crushing." In addition,
the speakers now state more plainly that this "wounding"
and "crushing" was the result of their "transgressions" and
"iniquities"; his suffering was not the result of his own
sin. The word translated "wounded" is very potent, so much
so that Delitzsch remarks, "there were no stronger
expressions to be found in the language, to denote a
violent and painful death."
132

Just as earlier in the poem, sin was represented by
the image of "sickness" and "suffering," so in this verse

132
Delitzsch, 318.

74
the forgiveness of sin is represented as "wholeness" and
"healing." The speakers are saying that the healing they
experience is not physical, but spiritual. They
acknowledge the brutality of the punishment and that they
are the cause and the beneficiaries of it.

Isaiah 53:6
11`Vn }NYJ 117J
11`1D 1J17 U`N
13 V`?D 1`1
117J }1V nN
nov+r npoo+o rnXovg0grv
ov0pno +g oo oo+oo rnXovg0g koi
kopio noprokrv oo+o v +oi
oop+ioi g v
Like sheep we all went
astray,
Each one turned his own way,
And the LORD caused our
iniquity to light upon him.
Like sheep we all went
astray,
Each man wandered his own
way,
And the Lord laid on him our
sins.

This verse takes the reader to the core of the
problem. Here, the author of Isa 53 explains why was it
necessary for the Servant to suffer in the first place.
The "we" group acknowledge their transgressions and liken
themselves to a flock of sheep that wander in any and all
directions. The position of 117J "we all," begins and ends
this verse, emphasizing the idea that everyone is guilty.
Some commentators take the "we all" to imply that the
writer saw this problem extending to the entire human

75
race.
133
While this may be true, it seems that the speakers
are most concerned with their own shortcomings. They do
not point their finger at others, but rather acknowledge
their own responsibility in regard to the consequences to
the Servant.
The second part of the verse states that because of
this going astray, God deemed it necessary for the Servant
to suffer. Previously the "we" group thought that the
Servant was suffering for his own transgressions. Here,
after acknowledging that it was for their sins, they again
state that even though it was for their sins, it was still
the Lord causing it to happen. The image of sheep in this
verse prepares the reader for the next strophe.

Strophe Four-Isaiah 53:7-9

Isaiah 53:7
1V1 N11 U?1
1`D0nD` N71
731` 03D7 UJ
D7N1 `11 `1D7 70J1
1`D 0nD` N71
koi oo+o oio +o krkok o0oi ook
ovoiyri +o o+oo npoo+ov rni
o|oyg v g0g koi ovo rvov+iov
+oo kripov+o oo+o v o|vo oo+
ook ovoiyri +o o+oo oo+oo
He was oppressed yet he
humbled himself,
And he did not open his
mouth,
As a sheep being led to
slaughter,
He was afflicted yet did not
open his mouth,
As a sheep is led to
slaughter,
And as a lamb before the
shearers he was silent,

133
Oswalt, 389.

76
And as a ewe before her
shearers is dumb,
So he did not open his mouth.
So he did not open his mouth

This verse begins the fourth stanza, which
emphasises the unjust treatment of the Servant in spite of
his innocence and his submissive response to this
treatment. The emphasis of verse seven is the willingness
of the Servant to endure the harsh treatment that is
inflicted upon him. "He did not open his mouth" is stated
twice, near the beginning of the verse and at the
conclusion of the verse. Between these repeated phrases
the author uses two similes to explain how the Servant did
not open his mouth: "As a lamb being led to the slaughter,"
and "as a ewe before her shearers is dumb."
The main sentence in this verse is "he was
oppressed," and the following clauses are circumstantial,
providing an explanation of the Servant's state of mind as
he endured mistreatment.
134
The connotation of "oppression"
is "physical brutality" or "physical violence" at the hands
of others.
135
The word 1V "humbled" indicates submission on
the part of the Servant showing his willingness to be
oppressed and his lack of resistance.

134
Young, 350.

135
Whybray, 176; Westerman, 264.

77
The fact that the Servant suffered voluntarily is
also indicated by the statement that "he did not open his
mouth." Just as the author repeated "all of us" at the
beginning and end of the previous verse for emphasis, so he
repeats "he did not open his mouth," for the same purpose.
The conduct of the Servant is unique, given the unjust
nature of the way he was treated.

Isaiah 53:8
0,7 DDUDD1 YVD
001U` `D 111nN1
D``0 |ND 11 `J
1D7 V1 `DV VUDD
rv +g +onrivori g kpioi oo+oo gp0g
+g v yrvro v oo+oo +i oigygor+oi o+i
oipr+oi ono +g yg g g oo+oo ono
+ v ovoi v +oo Xooo oo g0g ri
0ovo+ov
He was taken away by
oppression and judgment.
And of his generation, who
considered,
That he was cut off from the
land of the living,
For my peoples transgression,
The stroke was upon him.
His justice was taken away in
the humiliation,
Who will tell his generation,
For his life was taken away
from the earth,
From the lawless conduct of
my people he was led to
death.

This is one of the most difficult verses in Isa 53.
However, it is generally agreed that this verse speaks
further of the unjust treatment of the Servant.
136

The first problem concerns the relationship between
the initial preposition }D, and the word to which it is

136
Oswalt, 392.

78
attached, YV "oppression."
137
Muilenburg shows that various
commentators have translated this phrase eight different
ways.
138
Even though the translations vary, most scholars
agree that the Servant was denied justice and suffered
within a formal legal setting. The translation provided in
this paper should be understood this way as well, although
the suggestion that the two nouns "oppression" and
"judgment" be taken as a hendiadys, translated "oppressive
judgment," is possible as well.
David F. Payne suggests that there is "some fixed
legal idiom here, either 'after arrest and sentence' or
'from prison and lawcourt,'" which is also possible.
139
The
meaning of YV is uncertain as it only appears in the Bible
two other times, although the verb is used often with the
meaning of "shut up, imprison."
140
Assuming the definition

137
Quite often in Hebrew, the preposition is elided
and attached to the noun.

138
Muilenburg, 625.

139
David F. Payne, "The Servant of the Lord:
Language and Interpretation," Evangelical Quarterly 43
(July-September 1971): 127.

140
Oswalt, 392.

79
"oppression" is correct,
141
the best choice of meaning would
be causal: the Servant suffered because he was denied
justice and endured unjust treatment from beginning to end.
A second problem exists in part because of
uncertainty over the meaning of the word 11. Delitzsch
gives a lengthy list of meanings but concludes that it must
mean, "His contemporaries, or the men of His generation."
142

This is the meaning accepted here because it is the only
suggestion that provides the basis for a meaningful
rendering of this passage and the words that follow. This
phrase indicates at the time of the Servant's unjust
sentence the people of his generation did not comprehend
that it was for their transgressions that this was
happening.
A third difficulty in this verse regards the
meaning intended for the word translated "cut off:"
143

should it be understood literally or figuratively? Several

141
"Oppression" is used in many standard
translations such as the NIV, NAS, TNK, and JPS.

142
Delitzsch, 324. For an explanation of other
technical aspects of this part of the verse including the
meaning of the word nN see 324-325.

143
For more on the usage and meaning of this word
see Oswalt, 395-396.

80
scholars, such as J. A. Soggin
144
and Whybray,
145
understand
it figuratively. Whybray says that the use here is similar
to a metaphorical rendering found in the lament and
thanksgiving psalms. Whybray writes, "So here the speakers
are concerned to emphasize the Servants nearness to death:
he was 'as good as dead.'"
146
Others have understood "cut
off" to mean that either he risked death, or that he was
exiled, supposedly a fate worse than death.
147
These
suggestions are unnecessary, since they go against the
plain meaning of the text which is made particularly clear
in verse ten when explicit mention is made of the Servant's
grave. The idea then is that the Servant, being "cut off,"
suffered a premature death at the hand of others.
This verse ends by clearly stating that those who
should have suffered, those who deserved the punishment,
were spared from the punishment. It also emphasizes once
again that the things that happened to the Servant were the
result of the "people's" transgression. The shift from the

144
J. A. Soggin, "Tod und Auferstehung des leidenden
Gottesknechtes: Jes. 53:8-10," Zeitschrift fr die
Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 87 (1975): 346-55.

145
Whybray, 177.

146
Ibid.

147
Childs, 416.

81
pronouns "we" and "us" to "my" presents an interpretive
problem. In this section (verses 1-9), the prophet has
been speaking on behalf of the people. The change of
pronoun makes it seem as if the Lord is once again the
speaker because in other places in this poem, the first
person singular pronoun refers to God. In spite of the
change of person, the speaker is still the prophet. This
construction is similar to that of 1 Samuel 5:10 where a
singular pronoun is used in a plural sense and is used here
simply as a variant.
148

The LXX differs from the Hebrew in the first part
of this verse in several ways. First, the word translated
in the Hebrew "oppression" is replaced in the Greek with
the word "humiliation." Second, the Hebrew indicates that
what has been denied the Servant is judgment, while the
Greek indicates that his justice has been denied. These
differences change the focus from the oppressive actions of
the wicked to the effect they had on the Servant, causing
him to be humiliated and the judgmental actions of the
oppressors to the justice that has been denied. This

148
For example, 1 Sam 5:10 reads `DVnN1 `1n`D7 "to
kill me and my people," but needs to be translated "to kill
us and our people" because the speakers are the people of
the city Ekron.

82
denial of justice sets up the translator to make further
changes in the following verses that will explain how this
vindication took place.
149

The second part of the verse shows how this
vindication might be possible. In the Hebrew, this verse
and the surrounding context show that the Servant literally
died. However, the Greek softens the statements, leaving
open the possibility (which the ensuing verses will
confirm) that the Servant was led to death, to the point of
death, but at the last moment was spared from death. Sapp
is correct in stating that from a Christian point of view
there is little difference between the Greek and Hebrew,
however, the statements that follow in the LXX will show
that the oppressors, not the Servant, were subject to a
punitive death.

Isaiah 53:9
13 D`VUnN }n`1
1`nD3 ÙVnN1
UV OD0N7 7V
1`D3 DD N71
koi oo +oo novgpoo ov+i +g
+o|g oo+oo koi +oo nXoooioo ov+i
+oo 0ovo+oo oo+oo o+i ovoiov ook
rnoigorv ooor ropr0g ooXo rv +
o+oo+i oo+oo
He was given his grave with And I will give the wicked in

149
Origins, ed. William H. Bellinger Jr., and William R.
Farmer (Harrisburg, PA: Trinity, 1998), 177.

83
the wicked,
And with the rich in his
death,
Though he had committed no
wrong,
Nor was any deceit in his
mouth.
place of his grave
And the rich in place of his
death,
Because he committed no
lawless deeds,
Nor was deceit found in his
mouth.

This verse moves the events of the Servant along
from death to burial. That the Servant died and was buried
is clear. The nature of that burial is somewhat unclear.
It is difficult to determine whether the first two lines
are synonymous or antithetical. The verb translated
"given" governs both lines. The words "grave" and "death"
are synonymous with each other, but what about "wicked" and
"rich." It is true that those who do what is right are
blessed and can be rich, however, it is also true that
often the rich are seen as oppressive, denying the rights
of the poor, orphans, and widows. In this context, there
seems to be no reason to identify the rich as wicked
people. Rather, with a touch of irony, the Servant is
honored in death by being buried with the rich.
The second bicolon reveals something startling
about the Servant. Not only did he humbly submit to his
oppressors and remain silent in the face of his unjust
sentence, but he had done nothing wrong at all: "He had
done no violence nor was any deceit found in his mouth."
It is on this basis, because he was not required to suffer

84
for his own sins, that he was able to take the blow for the
transgressions of the "we." This last statement ends the
confessional of the "we" group.
The LXX of this verse contains several very
important changes from the LXX. The first is that the verb
in the Hebrew "he was given," is in the third person while
in the Greek it is in the first person clearly referring to
God. Second, the Greek preposition ov+i , "instead of," is
used twice; once to replace the Hebrew preposition 3, "in,"
and once where there is no Hebrew preposition. Third, a
causal conjunction is used in the Greek, o+i, "because," in
place of the Hebrew's concessive conjunction, 7V "though."
These changes have the effect of showing that God
vindicated and spared the Servant because "he committed no
lawless deeds." It also shows that just as the Servant was
about to die at the hands of the wicked, there is a
reversal of fortune; the Servant is vindicated and it is
the oppressors who suffer the consequences of their unjust
treatment of the Servant.
150

150
Sapp, 178.

85
Strophe Five-Isaiah 53:10-12

Isaiah 53:10
`70 1NJ1 |D0 1`1
1UD1 DUN DÙnDN
D`D` q`N` V1 N`
07Y` 11`3 1` |D01
koi kopio ooXr+oi ko0opiooi oo+o v
+g nXgyg ro v o +r nrpi oop+io g
|og o v o|r+oi onrpo okpoiov
koi ooXr+oi kopio o|rXri v
But the Lord desired to crush
him to cause him to suffer,
Though you make his life a
guilt offering,
He will see (his) offspring
and will prolong (his) days,
and the will of the Lord will
prosper in his hand

And it was the Lord's desire
to cleanse him of the wound.
If you give an offering for
sin, your soul will see long-
lived offspring.

And the Lord desires to take
away

This verse marks the beginning of the fifth and
final section of the poem. This last section speaks of
Gods purpose and the Servants final outcome, with the
Lord, as in 52:13-15, once again the speaker.
Verse 10 begins by returning to the idea that it
was the Lords purpose to cause the Servant to suffer. The
Lords involvement in the suffering of the Servant is
emphasized by a shift in the normal word order.
151
It is
significant that the suffering endured by the Servant was
not random or without meaning; instead, it was part of a
divine plan.
The word translated "make" can be either a second

151
Muilenburg, 627.

86
or third person singular. Since the point of this passage
is the accomplishment of the Lord's will, it seems most
likely that the subject is the Lord, in the second person.
The Lord made the Servant's life a guilt offering.
Regardless of whether the Lord was the agent, or the
Servant himself offered his life as a guilt offering, the
most important issue is that the Servant's life was offered
as a guilt offering. That the Servant became a guilt
offering makes clear that his suffering was sacrificial in
nature, intended to provide forgiveness of sins for others.
The second bicolon explains that even though his
life will be made a guilt offering and will be "cut off,"
nevertheless, the Servant will receive long life and the
blessing of children. Regardless of whether this statement
is meant literally or metaphorically, or whether it implies
a resurrection, there is a greater significance. The
significance is that having lived what appeared to be a
life of futility, the Servant will not be cursed by God,
but instead will receive all his blessings.
The LXX translator of this verse continued to
eliminate the statements that would either attribute the
suffering of the Servant to God, or that it was the Lord's
will for the Servant to suffer. In verse 10a the LXX shows
that God wanted to "cleanse" or "purge" him of the plague

87
(referring to the adversity he endured), rather than
"crush" him and "cause him to suffer."
In verse 10b the Hebrew indicates that the Servant
was made the "guilt offering," and because of this, he will
(as a result of implied return to life) be blessed with
children and a long life. In the LXX, it is the wicked who
are told that if they make an offering for sin (presumably
their own), then they will be blessed with children and
long life.
Finally, verse 10c concludes the thought stating
the will of God will prosper in the Servant's hand. In the
LXX, this phrase is reworded and it begins a new thought
which continues into verse 11. Verse 11 will state that
which God desires to take away.

Isaiah 53:11
N` 1UD1 7DVD
1nV13 V3U`
D`37 `13V `1Y `1Y`
73O` N1 Dn11V1
ono +oo novoo +g |og oo+oo
ori oi oo+ | koi nXoooi +g
oovrori oikoi ooi oikoiov ro
oooXroov+o noXXoi koi +o oop+io
oo+ v oo+o ovoiori
After the suffering of his
soul he will see and be
satisfied.
By his knowledge my righteous
servant will justify many,
And he will bear their
iniquities.
From the affliction of his
soul,
To show to him light and to
mould him with understanding,
To vindicate the righteous
one who serves the many well
And he will bear their sins.

The preposition }D should be understood as both
temporal and causal. It is both "after" and "because of"

88
the Servant's suffering that he will "see the light and be
satisfied."
152
The word 7DV may be used to indicate more
than just a general suffering on the part of the Servant.
TDOT showed that the word 7DV is used several times in the
OT to refer to the suffering of someone who has been chosen
by God for a special mission such as Joseph (Gen 41:51),
Jeremiah (Jer 20:18), and here of the Servant.
It is uncertain what word should be the object of
the verb "see." Some translations such as the NIV include
an alternate translation to reflect the text of the LXX and
Dead Sea Scrolls (1QIsa
a
and 1QIsa
b
) that include the word
"light" which is not found in the Masoretic text. On the
basis of these three sources, it is probably correct to
accept "light" as the object of "see." In this context
there should also be an implied "of life"; "light of life"
is used in both Psalm 56:13 and Job 33:30 where it refers
to deliverance from physical death. However, since the
Servant did die, this must refer to some kind of
reincarnation or resurrection. Having seen what he has
accomplished through his sacrificial death the Servant is
described as satisfied.
The difficulty in the next line, "By his knowledge

152
Lindsay, 134.

89
my righteous Servant will justify many," is that "his
knowledge" can be either taken as objective or subjective.
If it is taken as objective, it means the knowledge the
Servant possesses; as subjective it means the knowledge
others have of him. In this context, the word "knowledge"
can mean "experience." It seems evident that the events of
the Servant's life, his suffering and ultimately his death,
are the means that produced forgiveness for the "we" group.
Therefore, this clause should be taken as objective: the
"knowledge" or "experience" of the Servant. Childs writes,
it is "a summary of the servants experience that has just
been described."
153
Therefore the Servant, having
experienced certain things, is now satisfied. This verse
is brought to a conclusion with another reference to the
sin bearing work of the Servant on behalf of Israel and the
nations.
The LXX picks up the thought here that began at the
end of verse 10. Rather than the Hebrew's, "After the
suffering of his soul," the Greek reads, (that the Lord
desires to take away) "From the affliction of his soul, to
show him light and to mould him with understanding." These
statements indicate once again that the LXX translation

153
Childs, 419.

90
contains a major theological shift from the Hebrew. This
shift removes any trace that the Servant's suffering was
either caused by, or the will of the Lord. Instead, it
shows that the Lord cut short the Servant's suffering.

Isaiah 53:12
D`33 1770N }J7
77U 70` D`D1YVnN1
1UD1 n1D7 V UN n0n
1D1 D`VUDnN1
NU1 D`3ND0 N11
O V`?D` D`VUD71
oio +oo +o oo+o kXgpovogori
noXXoo koi + v ioop v rpiri
oko Xo ov0` v noproo0g ri 0ovo+ov
g |og oo+oo koi rv +oi ovooi
rXoyio0g koi oo+o oop+io noXX v
ovgvrykrv koi oio +o oop+io
oo+ v noproo0g
Therefore I will allot to him
a portion along with the
great,
And with the strong he will
divide the booty,
Because he poured out his
life unto death,
And numbered with the
transgressors,
And he bore the sin of many,
and made intercession for the
transgressors.
Therefore he will inherit
many,
He will part the spoils of
the strong,
Because his soul was handed
over unto death,
And with the lawless he was
reckoned,
And he took upon himself the
sins of many,
And he was handed over
because of their sins.

The final verse begins by stating that the Servant
will be rewarded for his suffering. No longer will he be
looked upon as a despised and rejected man to be punished
by God. Rather, he will be among the great and mighty
receiving the rewards of a victor. A four-fold reason for
this reward is given at the end of the verse.
The syntax of the first part of the verse does

91
allow for two separate interpretations.
154
The Servant
either divides the spoil with the "great" and "strong," or
the Servant is given the "many" and the "numerous" as his
portion. The context and grammar favor the idea that the
Servant (as indicated in Isa 53:13) will be successful in
his mission. This concluding statement reinforces the fact
that the Servant succeeded by showing the results of his
success: he will receive his allotted portion as do other
victors.
The poem is brought to a conclusion with the author
stating why the Servant was rewarded. The placement of
these statements at the end of this work highlights their
importance and leaves the reader with this thought: the
Servant died an unjust death bearing the sin of the many.

Conclusion

The interpretation of the Hebrew indicates that an
obscure, despised figure silently endured an unjust trial
before he was subjected to an undeserved death sentence.
All those who saw him believed he was suffering for his own
transgressions. However, this same group came to
understand that not only did the Servant suffer in their

154
Oswalt, 405.

92
stead and bear their sin, but that he was also without any
sin of his own. In addition, the "we" group realized that
it was the Lord's will for these things to occur. Finally,
the Servant was exalted and rewarded for accomplishing his
mission.
The LXX story agrees with the Hebrew up to the
point of the Servant's death. However, in the LXX it is
the oppressors, not the Servant, who are judged and
executed. The "we" group are instructed to present an
offering in order to have a family and long life. The LXX
does agree with the Hebrew that the Servant bore the sins
of many, but the mistreatment of the Servant is attributed
to the oppressors, not the Lord. The conclusion is similar
to the Hebrew as the Servant is rewarded for fulfilling his
mission.

93

CHAPTER 4

RICHARD HAYS' CRITERIA

Introduction

In order to evaluate the allusions under
consideration, it is essential to provide a consistent set
of criteria that can be applied equally to all allusions.
For this dissertation, I have adopted the criteria of
Richard B. Hays,
155
which he developed to evaluate the
allusions
156
he examines in his study of Paul's epistles.
The seven criteria he outlined are availability, volume,
recurrence, thematic coherence, historical plausibility,

155
Other scholars who have utilized Hays' criteria
include J. Ross Wagner, "The Heralds of Isaiah and the
Mission of Paul: An Investigation of Paul's Use of Isaiah
51-55 in Romans," in Jesus and the Suffering Servant:
Jr. and William R. Farmer (Harrisburg, PA: Trinity, 1998),
193-222); and Mikeal C. Parsons, "Isaiah 53 in Acts 8: A
Reply to Professor Morna Hooker," in Jesus and the
William H. Bellinger Jr. and William R. Farmer (Harrisburg,
PA: Trinity, 1998), 116-17.

156
Hays' criteria are for treating "echoes."
94
history of interpretation, and satisfaction.
157
Because
this dissertation focuses on allusions, it is also
necessary to explain what is meant by this term. Finally,
there is also the need to describe how the results of the
analysis of each allusion will be categorized.

Allusion Defined

An allusion is defined by the Oxford English
Dictionary as "a covert, implied, or indirect reference."
158

However, a more exhaustive definition is necessary for the
purpose of this work. Not only is an allusion a reference
to another work, but this reference must be understood by
the reader in order to grasp the fullness of the author's

157
Brian S. Rosner is one of the writer's who adapts
Hays' criteria in the development of his own criteria. In
his book Paul, Scripture and Ethics: A Study of 1
Corinthians 5-7, Rosner formulates six criteria to Hays'
seven. Rosner did not include a criterion which
corresponds with Hays' "availability," or "satisfaction."
However, he did include "verbal agreement" corresponding to
Hays' "volume." In addition Rosner used the criterion of
"recurrence" and "thematic coherence." Brian S. Rosner,
Paul, Scripture and Ethics: A Study of 1 Corinthians 5-7,
(Grand Rapids: Baker, 1994), 19; Michael Thompson also
acknowledges partial dependence on Hays for the development
of his criteria, Michael Thompson, Clothed with Christ: The
Example and Teaching of Jesus in Romans 12.1-15.13, Journal
for the Study of the New Testament Supplement Series, vol.
59 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1991), 30.

158
Oxford English Dictionary, 2d ed., s.v.
"allusion" [CD-ROM] (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1992).
95
meaning. Its use must also somehow enhance the author's
meaning of the text. Michael Thomson provides a thorough
definition, stating that an allusion is
A conscious attempt on the author's part to remind
readers of an earlier text, so that through their
reflection on that text, the present author's meaning
is enhanced in some way. In order for the allusion to
be successful, the audience must recognize the sign,
realize that the echo is deliberate, remember aspects
of the original text to which the author is alluding,
and connect one or more of these aspects with the
alluding text in order to get the author's point.
159

In this study the focus is on two of these points: Did the
author refer to Isa 53, and how did the author enhance his
discussion by reference to Isa 53?
A word frequently used in conjunction with allusion
is the term "echo." Biblical scholars are often
inconsistent in the use of these two terms. Sometimes the
pair appear as virtual synonyms. However, the usual
distinction is that an echo is a more subtle reference than
an allusion. Other times echo is used to describe an
allusion a writer made unconsciously. For the purpose of
this paper the only term used will be "allusion" as defined
above.

159
Thompson, 29.
96
Criteria of Richard B. Hays

Availability

The first criterion "availability," is used to
evaluate whether or not the writer and/or intended audience
had access to the source of the allusion. This criterion
is very basic; if a writer was unaware of the precursor
text, it would be impossible to allude to it. In the case
of Isa, it is clear that both the writer and audience were
familiar with the book of Isa.

Volume
This criterion is primarily used to test the
repetition of words or syntactical patterns between the
precursor text and the allusion. The greater the
similarity, the "louder" the volume. The importance of a
text is another factor used to determine volume. In the
case of Isa 53, the entire passage is important and thus is
of high volume. Finally, the volume is affected by the
rhetorical stress placed on the precursor text within its
context. For example, if a text is located at the climax
of an author's argument it will receive more volume than if
it is only one of the points in an argument.

97
Recurrence or Clustering
Hays considers this criterion "very important" and
that it can play a "crucial role" in identifying allusions.
Recurrence or clustering exists when the author quotes or
alludes to a passage more than once. According to Hays, if
reference is made to a certain OT passage, other possible
citations become more compelling because writers tend to
repeatedly draw material from passages they are familiar
with. Hays also notes that the recurrence may not be
limited merely to the exact text alluded to, but to the
larger context from which it was drawn.

Thematic Coherence
The criterion of thematic coherence asks whether
the supposed allusion relates to the subject matter the
author is discussing. Does the thought or theme of the
material introduced through the allusion make sense? Hays
notes the possibility of an author introducing an allusion
which does not cohere well with the theme of a passage. If
this does occur, the allusion would be much more difficult
to substantiate.
An important issue that Hays does not discuss in
his explanation of this criterion is the term "proof-
98
text."
160
This expression is used to describe the practice
of citing a verse or passage to prove or substantiate a
point of doctrine. The writers of the NT use many
quotations from the OT as proof-texts. A proof-text is
valid if its application coheres with the context and
meaning of the source text. However, a proof-text can be
misleading if it is divorced from its original context. It
might make the destination passage sound more authoritative
although no correlation with the original meaning exists.
Often when this term is used, it is meant pejoratively to
bring attention to the improper application of texts.
Because of the significance of Isa 53, it is important to
determine whether the NT application coheres with the
original meaning or not.

Historical Plausibility
The purpose of exploring the historical
plausibility of an allusion is to determine whether the
author could have intended the supposed meaning, and
whether his audience could have understood it. All the
writers of the NT were first-century A.D. Jews living in
Palestine, and should reflect this milieu. Hays warns

160
Hays, Echoes of Scripture, 176. Hays makes one
brief reference to the term proof-text on p. 176.
99
against interpretive readings that would, for example, turn
the NT writer into a Lutheran or deconstructionist.
He also suggests that an understanding of Jewish
interpretations of Isa 53 during the Second Temple period
could shed light on ways the NT writers might have used
this passage. While this information could illuminate this
study, scholars have detected very few texts where traces
of Isa 53 exist. The results based on these texts are
inconclusive.
161

History of Interpretation
This criterion asks whether earlier generations
noticed the same allusions as today's reader. Hays notes
that this criterion may serve to expand, rather than
narrow, the number of allusions that exist because later
Christian interpreters might have missed some of the
writers' concerns. For example, Hays writes, "the
Christian fixation on christological proof-texts may have
caused readers to zero in on texts like Isa 53 and to
overlook Paul's concern for explaining the mission to the
Gentiles and the fate of Israel in relation to

161
Further explanation of this criterion is
presented below.
100
Scripture."
162

Satisfaction
This criterion is similar to thematic coherence.
However, it deals with more than just whether the content
of the allusion is related to the author's argument. It is
used to determine whether the allusion clarifies or
enhances the meaning of the text. As Thompson asks in his
definition of allusion, does it help the reader understand
the author's point?
A further aspect could be added to this criterion.
It is important to consider whether the writer had in mind
just the text he is quoting or alluding to, or the greater
context of the original passage. If the writer has in mind
more than just the original passage, it is less likely the
allusion is being used out of context as a "proof-text."
Alluding to the greater context of Isa 53 through the use
of one passage also would draw more meaning into the
destination passage and possibly result in a greater sense
of satisfaction.

162
Richard B. Hays, "'Who Has Believed Our
Message?": Paul's Reading of Isaiah," in New Testament
Writers and the Old Testament: An Introduction, ed. John M.
Court (London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge),
60.
101
Availability and Isaiah 53
It is evident even from a cursory examination that
the book of Isa had a tremendous influence on the NT
writers and played an important role in the writing of the
NT. Isa, quoted 103 times in the NT, is the second most
quoted book of the OT according to the NA
27
, and every NT
writer uses at least one quotation except for Jude.
163

Various NT writers identify Isa by name as the source of a
quotation twenty-two times.
164

These quotations and allusions are used in a
multitude of ways as John Sawyer pointed out, including
subjects such as "The Nativity, John the Baptist, the
healing miracles, the parables, the passion, the
resurrection, prayer, preaching, mission, salvation,
forgiveness, the temple, faith and the last judgment."
165

Further evidence for the widespread knowledge of
Isa is its reading in the Synagogue, which by the first

163
Sixteen times in Matt; eight times in Mark;
sixteen times in Luke-Acts; eleven times by John (John, 1
John, 2 John, 3 John, and Rev); thirty-one times by Paul;
four times by the author of Heb; and once by Jas.

164
Six times in Matt; twice in Mark; twice in Luke;
four times in John; three times in Acts; and five times in
Rom.

165
John F. A. Sawyer, The Fifth Gospel: Isaiah in
the History of Christianity, (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1996), 21.
102
century was already an important part of the Jewish
community in the Diaspora. It has been estimated that by
the time the temple was destroyed in A.D. 70, four million
Jews attended over one thousand synagogues in the
Diaspora.
166
The Synagogue readings on the Sabbath included
selections from both the Torah and the Haftarah (readings
from the prophets, including Isa).
167

Evidence of the availability and importance of this
book to first-century Judaism is evident from the discovery
of portions of twenty-one copies of Isa in and around
Qumran. This discovery included 1QIsa
a
which is the second
longest scroll found in the desert. It includes the entire
contents of Isa with the exception of a few erasures and
lacunae.
168

Historical Plausibility and Isaiah 53
Hints of Isa 53 have been detected in four types of

166
Geoffrey W. Bromiley gen. ed., International
Standard Bible Encyclopedia, 1988 ed., s.v. "Dispersion,"
by G. A. Van Alstine.

167
Geoffrey W. Bromiley gen. ed., International
Standard Bible Encyclopedia, 1988 ed., s.v. "Synagogue," by
W. S. LaSor and T. C. Eskenazi.

168
Darrell D. Hannah, "Isaiah within Judaism of the
Second Temple Period," in Isaiah in the New Testament, ed.
Steve Moyise and Maarten J. J. Menken (New York: T. & T.
Clark, 2005), 8.
103
texts: the Old Testament, the Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha,
the Dead Sea Scrolls, and versions of Isaiah such as 1QIsa
a

and the LXX. The texts are as follows:
Old Testament
Zechariah 12:9-13-1 and 13:7-9
Daniel 11:33-34, 12:3, and 12:10

Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha
1 Enoch (in the Similitudes 37-71) (Pseudepigrapha)
Testament of Benjamin 3:8.(Pseudepigrapha)
Wisdom of Solomon chapters 2 and 5 (Apocrypha)

Dead Sea Scrolls
Aramaic Apocryphon of Levi (4Q540-541)
Self-Glorification Hymn (4Q491).

Versions
LXX
Isaiah Scroll 1QIsa
a
from the Dead Sea
169

Several factors have made it difficult for scholars
to make firm conclusions based on these passages. Sydney
Page summarizes well the problems:
Considering the nature of the evidence at our disposal
it is not altogether surprising that there is no
unanimity about how the figure of the suffering servant
was understood in the intertestamental period. Much of
the data is in the nature of allusions to servant
passages rather than explicit quotations; some of the
sources are of uncertain date; and a number of the
pertinent documents are definitely post-Christian, but
may preserve more ancient traditions. With

169
Hegel, Martin, and Daniel P. Bailey. "The
Effective History of Isaiah in the Pre-Christian Period."
Translated by Daniel P. Bailey. In The Suffering Servant:
Isaiah 53 in Jewish and Christian Sources. Edited by Bernd
Janowski and Peter Stuhlmacher, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
2004, 75-146.

104
difficulties such as these to contend with, one can
appreciate why scholars have not reached a consensus.
170

Hegel and Bailey conduct a highly detailed
examination of the aforementioned passages and summarize
"the very provisional result," with the following
conclusions.
171
First, the strongest influence from Isa 53
on other texts is the motif of exaltation derived from Isa
52:13-15 and 53:11. Second, the motif of suffering is
apparent in several texts such as Dan 11-12 and the Wisdom
of Solomon 2. Third, evidence of a messianic
interpretation may exist in the Isaiah Scroll 1QIsa
a
, the
Aramaic Apocryphon of Levi
b
,

and the Self-Glorification
Hymn.
Finally, the most important theme for this
dissertation is that of the atoning sacrifice and vicarious
suffering of the Servant. Regarding this theme, Hegel
writes:
Nevertheless, I believe we are not entirely without
grounds for the hypothesis that already in the pre-
Christian period, traditions about suffering and
atoning eschatological messianic figures were available
in Palestinian Judaism . . . and that Jesus and the

170
Sydney H. Page, "The Suffering Servant between
the Testaments," New Testament Studies 31 (1985): 481.

171
Hegel and Bailey, 146.

105
Early Church could have known and appealed to them.
172

This conclusion on the subject of vicarious suffering and
atoning sacrifice is tenuous. Not only is the evidence
inconclusive, but the New Testament clearly records a lack
of understanding of this concept by both the Jewish leaders
and Jesus' disciples. The Jewish leaders, including the
High Priest, wanted to kill Jesus because his teachings
were in opposition with traditional Jewish doctrine. His
disciples were bewildered and did not understand what he
meant when he said that he needed to go to Jerusalem and
ultimately be put to death.
Further, it is likely that the Targum of Isaiah is
a much better representation of what Jews in the first
century believed about Isa 53 and the Servant. In this
text, according to Bruce Chilton:
The chapter is developed to refer to the Messiah and
the "righteous" (v. 2) who depend on him, but in no
sense can the Messiah (or the "servant", cf. 52:13) be
said to suffer. Indeed, the point of the
interpretation is to emphasize the triumph of the
Messiah (cf. 52:13-15).
173

172
Hegel and Bailey, 145. (italics theirs). Hegel
wrote the original article. Bailey subsequently made
additions to it as well as translating the article to
English.

173
The Isaiah Targum: Translated with Introduction,
Apparatus, and Notes, vol. 11, trans. Bruce D. Chilton, in
The Aramaic Bible (Wilmington, DE: Michael Glazier, 1987),
103-4.
106

Jostein dna said that the Targum of Isaiah was probably
written between C.E. 70 and 135 which is after most of the
NT was written. However, changes to the text might have
occurred up until the fifth century because the Targum of
Jonathan, which includes the Targum of Isaiah, underwent a
final redaction that unified the texts between the third
and fifth century C.E.
174

Some scholars have argued that the Targum of Isaiah
53 may not represent an accurate interpretation of Jewish
thought but rather an anti-Christian polemic. However dna
has most recently renewed arguments against this theory.
Because there is no proof that the Servant was interpreted
in Jewish literature as suffering vicariously to provide an
atoning sacrifice, the texts mentioned have no bearing on
this subject in this respect.

Classification
While Hays outlines a system to evaluate allusions,
it is not his intention to categorize them as will be done

174
Jostein dna, "The Servant of Isaiah 53 as
Triumphant and interceding Messiah," trans. Daniel P.
Bailey, in The Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 in Jewish and
Christian Sources, ed. Bernd Janowski and Peter
Stuhlmacher, (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004), 75-146.
107
in this dissertation.
175
Therefore, I have adopted the
simple terminology of Jan Fekkes whose work is similar to
the approach of this study.
176
Fekkes categorizes his
results using the following terminology:
a. Certain/virtually certain
b. Probable/possible
c. Unlikely/doubtful
It needs to be mentioned that even though a set of
criteria will be used to analyze the proposed allusions,
the analysis is not scientific. It is not possible to
rigidly state that a certain number of criteria must be met
in order for an allusion to fall into one of the three
categories. All seven of them, when possible, must be
taken into consideration as a whole.

Conclusion
The purpose of this chapter is to explain the
criteria that will be utilized to evaluate possible
allusions from Isa 53 in the NT. This chapter also

175
Hays' was concerned with how the allusions
functioned in Paul's writings.

176
Fekkes uses a set of criteria to determine the
validity of allusions in the entire book of Rev from all of
Isa. Jan Fekkes III, Isaiah and Prophetic Traditions in
the Book of Revelation: Visionary Antecedents and their
Supplement Series, vol. 93 (Sheffield, England: Sheffield
Academic Press, 1994), 14-15.
108
includes further details about the criterion of
availability as well as factors related to historical
plausibility. In respect to availability, all the writers
are familiar with Isa, and all the readers could have been.
There does not appear to be enough information regarding
historical plausibility to make an impact on this study.
It is not the goal of this paper to funnel each
allusion systematically through the criteria. As Hays
wrote, this would be "wearisome."
177
The criteria will
serve as a guide throughout the analysis. However, when I
discuss the linguistic ties between the original text and
the proposed allusion I am dealing with "volume." Mention
of other uses of Isa by an author in a particular NT book
concerns "recurrence" or "clustering." How the allusion
functions in a passage relates to "thematic coherence."
Whether other writers observed an allusion in a given
passage relates to "history of interpretation." Finally,
"satisfaction" exists if a given allusion adds meaning to
the passage where it is used. A summary of the results of
the analysis of allusions is presented at the conclusion of
this study.

177
Hays, Echoes of Scripture, 32.

109

CHAPTER 5

QUOTATIONS FROM ISAIAH 53
IN THE NEW TESTAMENT
Introduction

In this chapter I will examine the seven passages
from Isa 53 which are quoted in the NT to determine how
these passages were used by NT writers. The analysis of
how individual authors made use of direct quotations from
Isa 53 will contribute to an understanding of how each
writer might have employed allusions from Isa 53.
While all the criteria will be considered for each
quotation, the most important for this section are volume,
thematic coherence, and satisfaction.
178
In regard to
thematic coherence and satisfaction, I will explore whether

178
Clustering is examined to determine whether the
author uses information from the same source elsewhere in
his writing. This in turn makes it more likely that he
would use it again. However, since the source of the
quotations is not disputed, there is no need to strengthen
the argument that they might be from Isa. Similarly,
history of interpretation helps by determining if other
scholars have observed an allusion in a given text. Again,
the source is not in dispute.

110
the NT writer respects the theme of the source of the
quotation, and if it enhances the overall understanding of
the passage in the NT where it is inserted. Matt, Luke,
John, Acts, and 1 Pet all contain one quotation, while Rom
has two. The analysis will proceed in the order of the
books as they are found in the NT. Before examining the
seven quotations I will explain how the term "quotation" is
understood in terms of NT scholarship.

Quotations Defined

The term "quotation" can be misleading because
modern readers expect this designation to refer to a word
for word correspondence between a text and its original
source. However, biblical scholars often use "quotation"
with a much broader meaning. This lack of clarity has
caused recent scholars to urge those writers who examine
quotations to define their terms.
179

The classification of biblical quotations is

179
Dennis L. Stamps, "Use of the Old Testament in
the New Testament as a Rhetorical Device, in Hearing the
Old Testament in the New Testament, ed. Stanley E. Porter
(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2006), 12-14; Stanley E. Porter,
"The Use of the Old Testament in the New Testament: A Brief
Comment on Method and Terminology," in Early Christian
Interpretation of the Scriptures of Israel: Investigations
and Proposals, ed. Craig A. Evans and James Sanders,
Journal for the Study of the New Testament Supplement
Series, vol. 148, ed. Stanley E. Porter (Sheffield:
Sheffield Academic, 1997), 79-96.

111
determined by two factors. The first is whether the
quotation is preceded by an introductory formula. The use
of an introductory formula by a NT writer, as will be shown
below, indicates that what is written after the formula is
derived from another source. Not all biblical quotations
include an introductory formula which I will also
demonstrate. The second factor concerns the extent to
which the quotation is verbatim with the original source.
In regard to the seven quotations under
consideration from Isa 53 in the NT, all of them, except
for 1 Pet 2:22, include an introductory formula: Matt 8:17
on nXgp0g +o pg0r v oio Hooioo +oo npo|g+oo Xryov+o; Luke 22:37
Xry yo p oi v o+i +oo+o +o yryporvov ori +rXro0g voi rv roi; John
12:38 ivo o Xoyo Hooioo +oo npo|g+oo nXgp0g ov rinrv; Acts 8:32 g
or nrpiog +g ypo|g gv ovryivokrv gv oo+g; Rom 10:16 Hooio yo p
Xryri; and Rom 15:21 oXXo ko0 yrypon+oi. Three of these
formulas include the name of the prophet "Isaiah," (Matt
8:17; John 12:38; and Rom 10:16); while five of the verses
state directly or imply that an event happened in
fulfillment of scripture (Matt 8:17 nXgp0g ; Luke 22:37 ori
+rXro0g voi; John 12:38 nXgp0g ; Rom 10:16 Xryri; and Rom 15:21
ko0 yrypon+oi).
Some of the constructions found in these verses are
used frequently in the NT. For example, nXgp0g +o pg0r v from

112
Matt 8:17 is used nine other times, all by Matthew. The
perfect passive indicative third person singular of ypo|
(yrypon+oi) used in Rom 15:21 is used 67 times in the NT,
almost exclusively to introduce quotations. Even though
the quotation in 1 Pet 2:22 does not include an
introductory formula, it is considered a quotation based on
its close linguistic reproduction of Isa 53:9 which will be
explained below.
The second factor to consider in defining
categories for quotations is the level of verbatim
repetition between the text and the original source.
Because more than one Greek text might have been available,
this can be difficult to determine. John 12:38; Rom 10:16,
15:21; and Acts 8:32-33 correspond exactly with their
sources in Isa 53.
180
Two verses, Luke 22:37 and 1 Pet 2:22
contain minor changes while Matthew makes his own
translation of the Hebrew in Matt 8:17.
Luke 22:37 koi r+o ovov rXoyio0g, is very close to
the LXX, which reads koi rv +oi ovooi rXoyio0g. The only
difference is that the NT uses the preposition r+o with the
genitive plural ovov while the LXX translates the MT with

180
John 12:38 and Rom 10:16 from Isa 53:1; Rom 15:21
from Isa 52:15; and Acts 8:32-33 from Isa 53:7-8.

113
the preposition rv, adds a definite article in the dative
plural and renders the noun ovooi in the dative plural.
This change is insignificant and does not alter the
meaning. 1 Pet 2:22 follows Isa 53:9b closely, which reads
o+i ovoiov ook rnoigorv ooor ropr0g ooXo rv + o+oo+i oo+oo. The
only changes in 1 Pet 2:22 are that the clause replaces o+i
for o, and uses the word oop+iov instead of ovoiov. The
change from ovoio to oop+io is not unexpected since the word
ovoio is only used 13 times in the NT and never by Peter,
while oop+io is used over 150 times in the NT and 7 times by
Peter. This is probably an example of Peter modifying his
"quotation" by updating the vocabulary with it contemporary
meaning. It is also possible that Peter used a version of
the Greek OT that contained updated vocabulary.
The final quotation, in Matt 8:17 oo+o +o oo0rvrio
g v rXorv koi +o voooo roo+oorv is completely different from
the LXX and represents a very close translation of the
Hebrew. This should not be surprising since Matt is the
most Jewish of the four gospels.
181
His primary audience is
believed to be the Jewish community and other quotations in

181
Richard Beaton, "Isaiah in Matthew's Gospel," in
Isaiah in the New Testament, ed. Steve Moyise and Maarten
J. J. Menken (London: T. & T. Clark, 2005), 63.

114
Matt also reflect the Hebrew text.
182

This small sample of quotations suggests at least
four separate categories: a verbatim quotation that is
preceded by an introductory formula (John 12:38; Acts 8:32-
33; Rom 10:16, 15:21); a nearly verbatim quotation preceded
by an introductory formula (Luke 22:37); a very close
translation of the Hebrew preceded by an introductory
formula; and a nearly verbatim quotation with no
introductory formula (1 Pet 2:22). Only the first category
mirrors today's standard for quoting a text, which must be
an exact copy of the original.
All of the LXX verses that the NT writers quote or
nearly quote contain reasonably close translations of the
MT that do not significantly affect the Hebrew meaning.
The one verse that does include significant changes between
the Hebrew MT and the Greek LXX is translated directly by
Matthew. It seems clear from Matt 8:17 and 1 Pet 2:22 that
the NT writers were willing to make their own translation

182
Graham Stanton, "Matthew," in It is Written:
Scripture Citing Scripture: Essays in Honour of Barnabas
Linders, ed. D. A. Carson and H. G. M. Williamson
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), 205.

115
of the Hebrew,
183
or alter the Greek text when necessary.
The results of these seven verses can be summarized as
follows.
184

Introductory
formula with
verbatim
quotation
from LXX
Introductory
formula with
near
verbatim
quotation
from LXX
Introductory
formula with
original
translation
from MT
Near
verbatim
quotation
from LXX
with no
introductory
formula
Matt
8:17
x
Luke
22:37
x
John
12:38
x
Acts
8:32-
33
x
Rom
10:16
x
Rom
15:21
x
1 Pet
2:22
x

Isaiah 53:4 in Matthew 8:17

Isaiah 53:4 (MT)

NU1 N1 11`70 }JN NU1 N1 11`70 }JN NU1 N1 11`70 }JN NU1 N1 11`70 }JN
D73O 11`3NJD1 D73O 11`3NJD1 D73O 11`3NJD1 D73O 11`3NJD1
V11 113U0 1101N1
Isaiah 53:4 (LXX)

oo+o +o oop+io oo+o +o oop+io oo+o +o oop+io oo+o +o oop+io
g v |rpri koi nrpi g v |rpri koi nrpi g v |rpri koi nrpi g v |rpri koi nrpi
g v ooovo +oi g v ooovo +oi g v ooovo +oi g v ooovo +oi koi gri
rXoyioor0o oo+o v rivoi
Matt 8:17 (GNT)

on nXgp0g +o pg0r v
oio Hooioo +oo
npo|g+oo Xryov+o
oo+o +o oo0rvrio oo+o +o oo0rvrio oo+o +o oo0rvrio oo+o +o oo0rvrio

183
Matthew's audience was largely Jewish, and
therefore he did make his own translations from the Hebrew
more often than most NT writers.

184
An examination of all the "quotations" in the NT
would necessitate further categories.

116
1VD1 D`7N JD

rv nov koi rv nXgyg
koi rv kokori
g v rXorv koi +o g v rXorv koi +o g v rXorv koi +o g v rXorv koi +o
voooo roo+oorv. voooo roo+oorv. voooo roo+oorv. voooo roo+oorv.

The book of Matt contains eleven quotations from
Isa. Six of these, including Matt 8:17, incorporate the
name Isa in the introductory formula. This quotation is
very different from the text of the LXX and therefore must
represent a quotation from a non-LXX text that closely
followed the Hebrew or Matthew's own translation of the
Hebrew.
185
It is important to note that this quotation is
not word for word, or even close to the LXX. The
similarity of vocabulary and syntax in the allusion to the
precursor text is related to volume. If quotations are not
rendered word for word from the original source, then the
wording of allusions may also be found in unexpected ways.
It would appear that Matthew intends for the reader
to understand this citation literally to explain that
Jesus' healing ministry (curing his mother-in-law, casting
out demons, and healing other people that evening) was done
in fulfillment of Isa 53:4. However, this would not
correspond to the intended meaning of Isa 53:4.
In chapter 3, I argued that the use of `7

185
Robert H. Mounce, Matthew, vol. 1, in New
International Biblical Commentary (Peabody, MA:
Hendrickson), 76.

117
"sickness" and 31NJD "suffering" in verses 53:4 and 5 were
used figuratively, meaning "sin." I also accept that while
the LXX translator did not render the Hebrew literally, he
used a dynamic equivalent,
186
correctly translating `7
"sickness" as oop+io "sin."
187
Both Garland
188
and France
189

have pointed out that sin and physical suffering were
always closely related in Jewish thought. While the Hebrew
of Isa 53:4 refers to sin, and the overarching theme of Isa
53 is redemptive suffering, it did not escape Matthew that
this passage could also be applied literally. Because the

186
Some translations use a dynamic equivalent, where
a word or phrase is translated to convey the same meaning
as the original, rather than a simple word for word literal
translation. For example, the KJV, which is a literal
translation translates the beginning of in Deut 23:18,
"Thou shalt not bring the hire of a whore, or the price of
a dog, into the house of the LORD..." The NIV, which is a
dynamic equivalent reads, "You must not bring the earnings
of a female prostitute or of a male prostitute into the
house of the LORD. . ." The word 37J literally means "dog,"
however in this context it means "male prostitute."

187
Caution was also suggested when using the LXX to
understand the meaning of the Hebrew; including Isa 53, as
the LXX translator clearly diverges at certain points from
the meaning of the Hebrew text.

188
David E. Garland, Reading Matthew: A Literary and
Theological Commentary on the First Gospel (New York:
Crossroad, 1993), 97-98.

189
R. T. France, The Gospel according to Matthew: An
Introduction and Commentary, in The Tyndale New Testament
Commentaries, ed. Leon Morris (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1997), 158-59.

118
NT writers believed Jesus' death provided an atoning
sacrifice, they also believed that on this basis he could
heal. This idea is made more evident in Matt 9:5 when
Jesus clearly links the healing of the paralytic with the
forgiveness of sin.
190

This overview reveals that Matthew quoted Isa 53:4
in an unusual way as well as applying this passage in a
unique way, adding another dimension to the mission of
God's Servant.

Isaiah 53:12 in Luke 22:37
Isaiah 53:12 (MT)

D`33 1770N }J7
77U 70` D`D1YVnN1
1UD1 n1D7 V UN n0n
1D1 D`VUDnN1
NU1 D`3ND0 N11
O V`?D` D`VUD71

Isaiah 53:12 (LXX)

oio +oo +o oo+o
kXgpovogori noXXoo
koi + v ioop v rpiri
oko Xo ov0` v noproo0g
ri 0ovo+ov g |og
oo+oo koi rv +oi koi rv +oi koi rv +oi koi rv +oi
ovooi rXo ovooi rXo ovooi rXo ovooi rXoyio0g yio0g yio0g yio0g koi
oo+o oop+io noXX v
ovgvrykrv koi oio +o
oop+io oo+ v
noproo0g
Luke 22:37 (GNT)

Xry yo p oi v o+i
+oo +o +o yryporvov
ori +rXro0g voi rv roi,
+o +o +o +o koi r+o ovov koi r+o ovov koi r+o ovov koi r+o ovov
rXoyio0g rXoyio0g rXoyio0g rXoyio0g koi yo p +o
nrpi roo +rXo rri.

Luke 22:37 is especially important for this study
because it is the only place in the NT where Jesus himself

190
Matt 9:5-7
5
For which is easier, to say, 'Your
sins are forgiven,' or to say, 'Stand up and walk'? But so
that you may know that the Son of Man has authority on
earth to forgive sins" -- he then said to the paralytic --
"Stand up, take your bed and go to your home."
7
And he
stood up and went to his home. (NRSV)

119
quotes from Isa 53. Unfortunately, its use here has been
frequently debated due to its obscurity.
191

Luke quotes Isa five times with two of these
quotations introduced by the name of the prophet. The
quotation in Luke 22:37 is brief, with only two words which
agree exactly with the LXX, ovoo, "wicked" and Xoyiooi
"reckoned."
192
Many scholars believe that the LXX is not
the source of this quotation. Scholars argue that this
verse does not quote from the Greek on the basis that Luke
used r+o instead of rv, and that he omitted the article.
Stuhlmacher believes it was quoted from the
Hebrew,
193
while Bart Koet suggests it might be from a LXX-
like text that was corrected in the direction of a Hebrew

191
In her analysis of this passage, Morna Hooker
states that this passage is "obscure" and that both the
"meaning and genuineness are extremely doubtful." Many
other scholars have found this to be a very difficult
passage as well. While this text is admittedly difficult,
it should not be discounted as a real statement from Jesus
for this reason. Morna D. Hooker, Jesus and the Servant:
The Influence of the Servant Concept of Deutero-Isaiah in
the New Testament (London: SPCK, 1959), 86.

192
Bart J. Koet, "Isaiah in Luke-Acts," in Isaiah in
the New Testament, ed. Steve Moyise and Maarten J. J.
Menken (London: T&T Clark, 2005), 87.

193
Peter Stuhlmacher, "Isaiah 53 in the Gospel and
Acts," trans. Daniel P. Bailey, ed. Bernd Janowski and
Jewish and Christian Sources (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans 147-
62), 2004., 153.

120
Vorlage.
194
Other scholars, such as Traugott Holtz have
suggested that Luke quoted the passage from memory.
195

Holtz's suggestion seems most likely because of the
difficulty of locating a particular passage in a lengthy
scroll that was not set up with chapters and verses like
today's versions.
It is difficult to decide with certainty the source
of the quotation. This raises the issue of the "volume" of
a passage and the expectations one has in analyzing
allusions. Even though a quotation might be LXX-like, that
does not mean it is the source.
The problems with this passage, as mentioned above
are two-fold. The first problem concerns Jesus' directive
to his disciples, that if they do not already have a sword,
they should buy one. This statement seems to run counter
to many of Jesus' teachings, and might lead the reader to
think he intends for his disciples to make an armed attack.
However, I think that Jesus is simply warning them to
acquire the necessary means of protection. Earlier, in
Luke 9:1-9, Jesus sent his disciples out to spread the

194
Koet, 87-88.

195
Traugott Holtz, Untersuchungen ber die
alttestamentliche Zitate bei Lukas (Berlin: Akademie-
Verlag, 1968), 41-43.

121
Gospel. He instructed them not to take any provisions with
them. They were provided for in a supernatural way. Jesus
also gave them power to heal the sick and cast out demons.
The message Jesus is now giving is that he will no longer
be with them, and they will therefore need to provide their
own provisions and protection. He tells them to get a
sword, not to be used as an offensive weapon, but to defend
themselves against robbers and others who would want to
harm them as they travel.
The events that follow also show that Jesus'
suggestion to acquire swords was not inconsistent with his
teaching. In verse 38, the response of the disciples seems
to indicate that they did not understand Jesus' purpose.
They tell Jesus that in fact they have two swords, and seem
excited at the possibility of using them. Later, as
evidence that Jesus was not suggesting an armed uprising,
when one of his disciples cuts off the ear of a servant of
the High Priest, Jesus tells him to stop, and heals the
servant's ear (49-53). These words and actions show once
again that Jesus did not intend for his disciples to use
their swords in an aggressive manner.
The second question is, who are the transgressors
that Jesus is numbered with? Both his disciples, and the
two thieves with whom Jesus was crucified have been offered

122
as suggestions. Neither of these seems appropriate in this
context. The declaration should be understood as a general
statement and does not refer to any specific individual or
group. Jesus was considered a transgressor, a law breaker.
Later in the evening when Jesus is arrested, he
chides the soldiers for arresting him with clubs and swords
as if he were a bandit needing to be arrested under cover
of darkness. This response again reveals that Jesus did
not intend to lead, or be part of, an armed uprising. In
terms of theme, there is coherence with Isa 53 which refers
to the arrest of the Servant.
Nowhere in the NT does Jesus quote any portion of
Isa 53 that spoke of bearing the sin of others, including
this verse. I agree with Hooker that the way the quotation
from Isa 53 is here used fails to include any information
about the meaning of Jesus' death.
196

The examination of this verse reveals that a
passage containing a quotation whose source is known can be
difficult to understand. However, this analysis has
demonstrated that this pericope does make sense and is
consistent with the teaching of Jesus. Therefore, that a

196
New Testament (London: SPCK, 1959), 86.

123
passage is difficult to understand should not preclude the
existence of an allusion.

Isaiah 53:1 in John 12:38
Isaiah 53:1 (MT)
11nVDU7 }`DN `D
n71 `D7V 1` V111

Isaiah 53:1 (LXX)
kopir +i r kopir +i r kopir +i r kopir +i rnio+roorv +g nio+roorv +g nio+roorv +g nio+roorv +g
okog g v koi o okog g v koi o okog g v koi o okog g v koi o
poiv kopioo +ivi poiv kopioo +ivi poiv kopioo +ivi poiv kopioo +ivi
onrkoXo|0g onrkoXo|0g onrkoXo|0g onrkoXo|0g
John 12:38 (GNT)
ivo o Xoyo Hooioo +oo
npo|g+oo nXgp0g ov
rinrv kopir, +i kopir, +i kopir, +i kopir, +i
rnio+roorv +g okog rnio+roorv +g okog rnio+roorv +g okog rnio+roorv +g okog
g v; koi o poiv g v; koi o poiv g v; koi o poiv g v; koi o poiv
kopioo +ivi onrkoXo|0g; kopioo +ivi onrkoXo|0g; kopioo +ivi onrkoXo|0g; kopioo +ivi onrkoXo|0g;

Of the four quotations in John, three incorporate
an introductory formula that identifies Isa as the source,
including John 12:38. In respect to volume, John 12:38
contains an exact quotation from the LXX of Isa 53:1.
This verse serves as part of a summary at the end
of Jesus' ministry. It is used in conjunction with another
verse from Isa, Isa 6:10. John's conclusion is that the
rejection Jesus encountered during his ministry is a
fulfillment of Isa 53:1. In verse 37, John states that
even though Jesus had performed many miracles, they (the
Jews) still would not believe in him. This reality of
unbelief is a fulfillment of Isa 53:1a "who has believed
our message?" (+i rnio+roorv).
197
The second part of the line

197
Catrin H. Williams, "Isaiah in John's Gospel," in
Isaiah in the New Testament, ed. Steve Moyise and Maarten
J. J. Menken (London: T. & T. Clark, 2005), 108-109.

124
was also fulfilled, because the rejection of Jesus
indicated a failure to see "the arm of the Lord" (God's
power), through the signs that Jesus performed. Therefore,
as Catrin Williams points out, "John 12:37-38 therefore
emphasizes that most people did not believe in Jesus
despite the one aspect of his ministry that was most likely
to produce faith, his visible manifestation of power."
198

This passage fulfills several of Hays' criteria at
high levels. In terms of volume, it is a direct quotation
from the LXX. Recurrence exists as John uses other
quotations from Isa. There is a high level of thematic
coherence. Both Isa 53 and John 12:38 refer to the
unbelief of a message. In regard to satisfaction, John
believed that God was fulfilling a promise recorded in the
OT.

Isaiah 53:7,8 in Acts 8:32,33
Isaiah 53:7,8(MT)

7
1V1 N11 U?1
1`D0nD` N71
731` 03D7 UJ
D7N1 `11 `1D7 70J1
1`D 0nD` N71

Isaiah 53:7-8 (LXX)

7
koi oo+o oio +o
krkok o0oi ook ovoiyri
+o o+oo npoo+ov npoo+ov npoo+ov npoo+ov
rni o|oyg v g0g koi rni o|oyg v g0g koi rni o|oyg v g0g koi rni o|oyg v g0g koi
ovo rvov+iov +oo ovo rvov+iov +oo ovo rvov+iov +oo ovo rvov+iov +oo
kripov+o oo+o v o|vo kripov+o oo+o v o|vo kripov+o oo+o v o|vo kripov+o oo+o v o|vo
oo+ ook ovoiyri +o oo+ ook ovoiyri +o oo+ ook ovoiyri +o oo+ ook ovoiyri +o
o+oo oo+oo o+oo oo+oo o+oo oo+oo o+oo oo+oo
Acts 8:32,33 (GNT)

32
g or nrpiog +g ypo|g
gv ovryivokrv gv oo+g
npoo+ov rni o|oyg v npoo+ov rni o|oyg v npoo+ov rni o|oyg v npoo+ov rni o|oyg v
g0g g0g g0g g0g koi ovo koi ovo koi ovo koi ovo
rvov+iov +oo kripov+o rvov+iov +oo kripov+o rvov+iov +oo kripov+o rvov+iov +oo kripov+o
oo+o v o|vo, oo+ ook oo+o v o|vo, oo+ ook oo+o v o|vo, oo+ ook oo+o v o|vo, oo+ ook
ovoiyri +o o+oo oo+oo ovoiyri +o o+oo oo+oo ovoiyri +o o+oo oo+oo ovoiyri +o o+oo oo+oo .

198
Williams, 108.

125
8
0,7 DDUDD1 YVD
001U` `D 111nN1
D``0 |ND 11 `J
1D7 V1 `DV VUDD

8
rv +g +onrivori g rv +g +onrivori g rv +g +onrivori g rv +g +onrivori g
kpioi oo+oo gp0 kpioi oo+oo gp0 kpioi oo+oo gp0 kpioi oo+oo gp0g +g v g +g v g +g v g +g v
yrvro v oo+oo +i yrvro v oo+oo +i yrvro v oo+oo +i yrvro v oo+oo +i
oigygor+oi o+i oipr+oi oigygor+oi o+i oipr+oi oigygor+oi o+i oipr+oi oigygor+oi o+i oipr+oi
ono +g yg g g oo+oo ono +g yg g g oo+oo ono +g yg g g oo+oo ono +g yg g g oo+oo
ono + v ovoi v +oo
Xooo oo g0g ri
0ovo+ov
33
Ev +g +onrivori Ev +g +onrivori Ev +g +onrivori Ev +g +onrivori
,oo+oo g kpioi oo+oo ,oo+oo g kpioi oo+oo ,oo+oo g kpioi oo+oo ,oo+oo g kpioi oo+oo
gp0g +g v yrvro v oo+oo gp0g +g v yrvro v oo+oo gp0g +g v yrvro v oo+oo gp0g +g v yrvro v oo+oo
+i oigygor+oi; o+i +i oigygor+oi; o+i +i oigygor+oi; o+i +i oigygor+oi; o+i
oipr+oi ono +g yg g oipr+oi ono +g yg g oipr+oi ono +g yg g oipr+oi ono +g yg g
g oo+oo . g oo+oo . g oo+oo . g oo+oo .

Acts 8:32-33 contains the longest quotation from
Isa 53 found in the NT. The quotation encompasses the
second half of Isa 53:7 and all of verse 8 except the last
line, "For my people's transgression, The stroke was upon
him." This citation is quoted word for word from the LXX.
The significance of this passage is that it is the one
passage in the NT that clearly identifies Jesus with the
Suffering Servant of Isa 53. The Ethiopian Eunuch asks
Philip in Acts 8:33, "Tell me, please, who is the prophet
talking about, himself or someone else?" (NIV) Philip
responds by explaining the "good news about Jesus,"
starting with this Scripture.
Even though this passage clearly identifies Jesus
as the Suffering Servant, the verses used to support this
idea have received considerable attention. Hooker notes
that it is significant that this particular portion of Isa
was quoted. She explains that while it does include
details of the Servant's suffering, it does not include the
meaning of those sufferings as mentioned in the last line

126
of verse 8, "For my people's transgression, The stroke was
upon him."
199
Mikeal Parsons argues at some length the
reasons why the Ethiopian Eunuch would be particularly
interested in this portion of Isa 53.
200
He says that the
Eunuch probably identified himself with the Servant because
both were considered outcasts.
It seems clear to me that regardless of which
portion of Isa 53 was quoted, the writer had in mind the
entire passage. Just because the passage quoted did not
contain any information about the Servant taking on the
sins of others does not mean that Philip did not go on to
explain this entire passage. I believe he did based on the
statement in verse 35, "Philip began with that very passage
of Scripture and told him the good news about Jesus." (NIV)
Therefore, not only is this the only quotation which
explicitly identifies Jesus with the Servant, but it is
also intended to cause the reader to think of all of Isa

199
Morna D. Hooker, "Did the Use of Isaiah 53 to
Interpret His Mission Begin with Jesus?" in Jesus and the

200
Mikeal C. Parsons, "Isaiah 53 in Acts 8: A Reply
to Professor Morna Hooker," in Jesus and the Suffering
Bellinger Jr. and William R. Farmer (Harrisburg, PA:
Trinity, 1998), 107-10.

127
53.

Isaiah 53:1 in Romans 10:16

Isaiah 53:1 (MT)
11nVDU7 }`DN `D
n71 `D7V 1` V111

Isaiah 53:1 (LXX)

kopir +i rnio+roorv +g kopir +i rnio+roorv +g kopir +i rnio+roorv +g kopir +i rnio+roorv +g
okog g v okog g v okog g v okog g v koi o
poiv kopioo +ivi
onrkoXo|0g

Romans 10:16 (GNT)

AXX` oo nov+r
ongkoooov +
rooyyrXi. Hooio yo p
Xryri kopir kopir kopir kopir, +i , +i , +i , +i
rnio+roorv +g okog rnio+roorv +g okog rnio+roorv +g okog rnio+roorv +g okog
g v; g v; g v; g v;

Paul makes frequent use of Isa, quoting it eighteen
times in his writings. Five of the eighteen quotations are
introduced by the name Isaiah, including Romans 10:16.
Romans 10:16 follows the LXX exactly, and except for the
addition of "kopir," corresponds to the MT.
201

In this passage, Paul is discussing the failure of
the Jews to believe the Gospel. The context indicates that
Paul's statement oo nov+r ongkoooov "not all obeyed,"
actually means that "just a few" responded to the Gospel.
Paul made use of this quotation similar to the way John
used it in John 12:38. In both passages, the quotation
coheres well with the theme.
Rom 10:16 and Isa 53:1 speak of unbelief, and Paul
argues that Jewish rejection of the Gospel fulfilled this

201
Joseph A. Fitzmyer, Romans: A New Translation
with Introduction and Commentary, vol. 33 in The Anchor
Bible (Garden City, NY: Doubleday 1993), 598.

128
text. Hooker states that this quotation from Isa 53 is not
an indication that Paul had in mind the entirety of Isa 53,
rather, "the point he is emphasizing is the failure of the
Jews to believe the gospel."
202
Betz, however, explains
that Paul did not quote Isa 53 in an "atomistic" way, and
did not use the quotation merely as a text to prove the
unbelief of the Jews. Instead, Betz thinks that Paul wrote
this having in mind the vicarious suffering of the Servant.
In fact, Betz argues that Paul had in mind not only this
entire verse, but all of Isa 53.
203

In this instance, Betz is probably correct. A
portion of Paul's arguments in chapters ten and eleven
includes several statements that would indicate a Gentile
understanding and acceptance of the Gospel,
204
which brings
to mind Isa 52:15.
The word okog "report," would also possibly bring to
mind the rest of the report, the message of Isa 53. In
the discussion of Isa 53 in chapter 3, I explained that the
"report" was the message about the death of the Servant

202
Hooker, Jesus and the Servant, 116-117.

203
Otto Betz, "Jesus and Isaiah 53," in Jesus and
the Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 and Christian Origins, ed.

204
Rom 10:19-20; 11:12,17.

129
that provided forgiveness.
This verse coheres closely with the theme of Isa
53:1, a word for word quotation from the LXX. It also
provides satisfaction as Paul explains that this lack of
belief was predicted in the OT.

Isaiah 52:15 in Romans 15:21
Isaiah 52:15 (MT)

D`3 D`1? \` }J
D`D D`J7D 1YD` 1`7V
1N D7 DON7 UN `J
11113n 1VDUN7 UN1

Isaiah 52:15 (LXX)

oo+ 0ooooov+oi r0vg
noXXo rn` oo+ koi
oovroooiv ooiXri +o
o+oo oo+ v o+i o+i o+i o+i oi ook oi ook oi ook oi ook
ovgyyrXg nrpi oo+oo ovgyyrXg nrpi oo+oo ovgyyrXg nrpi oo+oo ovgyyrXg nrpi oo+oo
o|ov+oi koi oi ook o|ov+oi koi oi ook o|ov+oi koi oi ook o|ov+oi koi oi ook
okgkoooiv oovgooooiv okgkoooiv oovgooooiv okgkoooiv oovgooooiv okgkoooiv oovgooooiv
Romans 15:21 (GNT)

oXXo ko0 yrypon+oi
oi ook ovgyyrXg nrpi oi ook ovgyyrXg nrpi oi ook ovgyyrXg nrpi oi ook ovgyyrXg nrpi
oo+oo o|ov+oi, koi oi oo+oo o|ov+oi, koi oi oo+oo o|ov+oi, koi oi oo+oo o|ov+oi, koi oi
ook okgkoooiv ook okgkoooiv ook okgkoooiv ook okgkoooiv
oovgooooiv oovgooooiv oovgooooiv oovgooooiv.

Paul, in his use of Isa 52:15b in Romans 15:21,
quotes the LXX word for word, omitting only the initial
conjunction o+i. While Paul quotes word for word, the LXX
translator produces a very close rendering of the Hebrew.
The quotation is used by Paul to explain the nature
of his ministry, and the reason he had not yet had an
opportunity to come to Rome: because he was busy preaching
the gospel to those who had never heard it before. Through
the application of this portion of Isa 53, Paul is also
identifying Jesus with the Servant. He does so through the
phrase nrpi oo+oo "concerning him," which in Isa 53:15b

130
refers to the Servant, while in Rom 15:21 its antecedent is
Jesus.
205

In reference to theme, it is also significant to
note that several scholars, including J. Ross Wagner, have
noticed that Paul makes significant use of Isa in general
to contextualize his ministry. Wagner says:
That in Romans Paul quotes Isa. 52:5, 52:7, 52:15 and
53:1 provides strong evidence that Paul's understanding
of his own mission as apostle to the gentiles has been
fundamentally shaped by careful and sustained
reflection on this portion of Isa as a whole.
206

I agree with Wagner's assessment which runs counter to that
of Hooker, who states that this is another instance of Paul
justifying his preaching by using a verse from the fourth
Servant Song and that "there is no indication that he has
in mind anything but this one verse."
207

This verse contains a direct quotation from the
LXX, and thematic coherence with Isa 53. It also fulfills
the criterion of satisfaction by as Paul shows that his
ministry was predicted by Isa.

205
J. Ross Wagner, "Isaiah in Romans and Galatians,"
in Isaiah in the New Testament, ed. Steve Moyise and
Maarten J. J. Menken (London: T. & T. Clark, 2005), 128.

206
Wagner, 128.

207
Hooker, Jesus and the Servant, 117.

131
Isaiah 53 in 1 Peter 2:22-25

In this short epistle, Peter makes significant use
of the book of Isa, quoting it six times according to the
UBS
3
index. Because the verses in this passage, 1 Pet 2:22-
25, are intricately linked, the entire text will be
considered here, even though portions of this text are
considered allusions. This is perhaps most important in
relation to the use of Isa 53 in the NT because it is the
only place in the NT where quotations are used to explain
the significance of Jesus' death in terms of Isa 53.
According to the UBS
3
, 1 Pet 2:22 contains a
quotation from Isa 53:9; and allusions from 1 Pet 2:23 to
Isa 53:7, 1 Pet 2:24 to Isa 53:4,5, and 12, and 1 Pet 2:25
to Isa 53:6. The NA
27
lists the same passages as the UBS
3
.
However, they are all catalogued as quotations, with the
exception of 1 Pet 2:23 which contains neither quotation or
allusion.
208

This section of 1 Pet concerns instructions to
slaves, who are urged to serve their masters faithfully

208
*indicates allusion
UBS
3
NA
27

1 Pet 2:22 53:9 Isa 53:9
1 Pet 2:23 53:7* none
1 Pet 2:24 53:4,5*;
53:12*
53:4,5;
53:12
1 Pet 2:25 53:6* 53:6

132
even if they are mistreated. Peter supports this directive
by pointing to Christ's response to the unjust treatment he
received, and then extends the thought by explaining the
significance of the suffering: "that he bore our sins." As
this analysis will show, with the exception of a few minor
changes, the source of Peter's quotations appears to be
from the LXX.
209

1 Peter 2:22
Isaiah 53:9 (MT)

13 D`VUnN }n`1
1`nD3 ÙVnN1
UV OD0N7 7V
1`D3 DD N71

Isaiah 53:9 (LXX)

koi oo +oo novgpoo
ov+i +g +o|g oo+oo
koi +oo nXoooioo ov+i
+oo 0ovo+oo oo+oo o+i o+i o+i o+i
ovoiov ook rnoigorv ovoiov ook rnoigorv ovoiov ook rnoigorv ovoiov ook rnoigorv
ooor ropr0g ooXo rv + ooor ropr0g ooXo rv + ooor ropr0g ooXo rv + ooor ropr0g ooXo rv +
o+oo+i oo+oo o+oo+i oo+oo o+oo+i oo+oo o+oo+i oo+oo
1 Peter 2:22 (GNT)

o oop+iov ook oop+iov ook oop+iov ook oop+iov ook
rnoigorv ooor ropr0g rnoigorv ooor ropr0g rnoigorv ooor ropr0g rnoigorv ooor ropr0g
ooXo rv + o+oo+i ooXo rv + o+oo+i ooXo rv + o+oo+i ooXo rv + o+oo+i
oo+oo oo+oo oo+oo oo+oo ,

1 Pet 2:22 is a quotation of Isa 53:9. The only
difference between the LXX and the NT is that the LXX
translator used ovoio "lawless deeds," while Peter used
oop+io "sin."
210
It is possible that Peter used oop+io
instead of ovoio in order to link verses 20 oop+ov "to sin"
and 24 oop+io with verse 22 in order to draw attention to

209
Ernest Best, The New Century Bible Commentary,
(Eerdmans: Grand Rapids, 1982), 120.

210
The LXX is a close representation of the Hebrew
except that "was found" is implied in the Hebrew.

133
the fact that not only was Jesus innocent of any crime and
should have therefore avoided capital punishment, but he
was also innocent of sin in general.
211

1 Peter 2:23
Isaiah 53:7 (MT)

1V1 N11 U?1
1`D0nD` N71
731` 03D7 UJ
D7N1 `11 `1D7 70J1
1`D 0nD` N71

Isaiah 53:6 (MT)

11`Vn }NYJ 117J
11`1D 1J17 U`N
13 V`?D 1`1
117J }1V nN

Isaiah 53:12 (MT)

D`33 1770N }J7
77U 70` D`D1YVnN1
1UD1 n1D7 V UN n0n
1D1 D`VUDnN1
NU1 D`3ND0 N11
O V`?D` D`VUD71

Isaiah 53:7 (LXX)

koi oo+o oio +o
+o o+oo npoo+ov
rni o|oyg v g0g koi
ovo rvov+iov +oo
kripov+o oo+o v o|vo
oo+ ook ovoiyri +o
o+oo oo+oo

Isaiah 53:6 (LXX)

nov+r npoo+o
rnXovg0grv ov0pno
+g oo oo+oo rnXovg0g
koi kopio noprokrv noprokrv noprokrv noprokrv
oo+o v +oi oop+ioi
g v

Isaiah 53:12 (LXX)

oio +oo +o oo+o
kXgpovogori noXXoo
oko Xo ov0` v noproo0g noproo0g noproo0g noproo0g
ri 0ovo+ov g |og
oo+oo koi rv +oi
ovooi rXoyio0g koi
oo+o oop+io noXX v
oop+io oo+ v
noproo0g noproo0g noproo0g noproo0g
1 Peter 2:23 (GNT)

o Xoioopoorvo ook
ov+rXoioopri, noov
ook gnriXri, noproiooo
or + kpivov+i oikoi

1 Peter 2:23 (GNT)

o Xoioopoorvo ook
ov+rXoioopri, noov
ook gnriXri, noproiooo noproiooo noproiooo noproiooo
or + kpivov+i oikoi

211
Best, 121.

134
Several elements in this verse have led scholars to
believe that it contains an allusion to Isa 53. The first
element is that Peter used two different words, ov+iXoioopr
"reply with a curse," and onriXr "threaten," to indicate
that Jesus did not speak out when he was being mistreated.
This parallels Isa 53:7 closely, where it is stated both at
the beginning and end of the verse that the Servant "did
not open his mouth," even though he was afflicted. While
there is little volume in this relationship, there is a
high level of thematic coherence.
A second allusion may have been intended through
the use of the word nopooioi "hand over or deliver"
212
which
is used in the LXX in verses 53:6 (one time) and 53:12
(twice). This word is frequently used in the Synoptic
Gospels to refer to Jesus' passion, often in the passive
voice.
213
While there is probably a connection with Isa 53

212
William F. Arndt and F. Wilbur Gingrich, A Greek-
English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early
Christian Literature: A Translation and Adaptation of the
Fourth Revised and Augmented Edition of Walter Bauer's
"Griechisch-Deutsches Worterbuch zu den Schriften des Neuen
Testaments und der ubrigen urchristlichen Literatur," 2d
ed., rev. F. Wilbur Gingrich and Frederick W. Danker
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979), 148.

213
For example Matthew 26:24; Mark 9:31; 10:33 which
will be discussed in the next chapter. In these verses
Jesus is "handed over" to his enemies by God who apparently
is the ultimate agent.

135
through the use of this word in other verses, that does not
appear to be the case here. In Isa 53:6 the word is used
to explain what happened to the sin of the "we" group: it
was noprokrv "laid on" him. In Isa 53:12 it is used to
explain that because of sin the Servant was "delivered" (up
to the point of death) and that because he took upon
himself the sin of others he was "delivered" (from death).
In this passage, it is Jesus who is entrusting himself to
God. Even though some volume exists, there does not appear
to be thematic coherence and I do not think 1 Pet 2:23 is
an allusion to Isa 53.

1 Peter 2:24
Isaiah 53:4,5 (MT)
4
NU1 N1 11`70 }JN
D73O 11`3NJD1
V11 113U0 1101N1
1VD1 D`7N JD
5
11VUDD 770D N11
11`n11VD NJ1D
1`7V 11D17U O1D
117ND1 1n3031

Isaiah 53:12

D`33 1770N }J7
77U 70` D`D1YVnN1
1UD1 n1D7 V UN n0n
Isaiah 53:4,5
4
oo+o +o oop+io +o oop+io +o oop+io +o oop+io
g v |rpri g v |rpri g v |rpri g v |rpri koi nrpi
g v ooovo +oi koi gri
rv nov koi rv nXgyg
koi rv kokori
5
oo+o or r+pooo+io0g
oio +o ovoio g v
koi roXokio+oi oio
+o oop+io g v
noiorio ripgvg g v
rn` oo+ov + Xni + Xni + Xni + Xni
oo+oo gri io0grv oo+oo gri io0grv oo+oo gri io0grv oo+oo gri io0grv

Isaiah 53:12 (LXX)

oio +oo +o oo+o
kXgpovogori noXXoo
1 Peter 2:24 (GNT)

o +o oop+io g v +o oop+io g v +o oop+io g v +o oop+io g v
oo+o ovgvrykrv oo+o ovgvrykrv oo+o ovgvrykrv oo+o ovgvrykrv rv +
oo+i oo+oo rni +o
oXov, ivo +oi
oop+ioi onoyrvorvoi
+g oikoiooovg gorv,
oo + Xni io0g+r + Xni io0g+r + Xni io0g+r + Xni io0g+r.

136
1D1 D`VUDnN1
NU1 D`3ND0 N11
O V`?D` D`VUD71

ri 0ovo+ov g |og
oo+oo koi rv +oi
ovooi rXoyio0g koi
oo+o oop+io noXX v oop+io noXX v oop+io noXX v oop+io noXX v
ovgvrykrv ovgvrykrv ovgvrykrv ovgvrykrv koi oio +o
oop+io oo+ v
noproo0g

1 Pet 2:24 contains two points of contact with Isa
53, both of which have significant volume and thematic
coherence. The first is +o oop+io g v oo+o ovgvrykrv "he
bore our sins." This phrase brings together this idea from
two verses in Isa 53, verse 4 which says +o oop+io g v |rpri
"he bears our sins, and verse 12 which reads oop+io noXX v
ovgvrykrv "he bore the sins of many." Peter, having a choice
of two verbs, employs ovo|rp while he selects several words
from verse 4 for the rest of the phrase, adding an
intensive oo+o for emphasis. It is likely he chose
portions of each verse to draw a more comprehensive
connection to Isa 53.
The second relationship with Isa 53 is found in
the phrase + Xni io0g+r "by (his) wound you have been
healed," derived from Isa 53:5, + Xni oo+oo gri io0grv "we
were healed by his wound." The only difference between the
two is that Peter left out "oo+oo ," and changed the verb from
a first person plural to a second person plural. This

137
again has a high level of volume, as well as thematic
coherence.

1 Peter 2:25
Isaiah 53:6 (MT)

11`Vn }NYJ 117J
11`1D 1J17 U`N
13 V`?D 1`1
117J }1V nN
Isaiah 53:6 (LXX)

nov+r npoo+o npoo+o npoo+o npoo+o
rnXovg0grv rnXovg0grv rnXovg0grv rnXovg0grv ov0pno
koi kopio noprokrv
oo+o v +oi oop+ioi
g v
1 Peter 2:25 (GNT)

g+r yo p npoo+o npoo+o npoo+o npoo+o
nXovrvoi nXovrvoi nXovrvoi nXovrvoi, oXXo
rnro+po|g+r vo v rni +o v
noirvo koi rniokonov
+ v |o v o v.

The statement npoo+o nXovrvoi "[for you were] as
sheep going astray," in 1 Pet 2:25 is very similar to that
of the LXX of Isa 53:6 npoo+o rnXovg0grv "Like sheep we
[all] went astray". The only difference is that Peter left
out nov+r, altered the verb arrangement from a first to a
second person plural, changed nXovo to a participle, and
added rii. There is a high level of volume, and used in
conjunction with the other passages discussed, coheres well
thematically. In the previous verse, it is stated that
Jesus, like the Servant, "bore our sins." In this verse,
Peter points out that like the "we" group in Isa 53, his
readers had also gone astray like sheep.

1 Peter Conclusion
It is clear that Peter does make significant use of
Isa 53 in this passage. Peter also has in mind the

138
original meaning of Isa 53 as he identifies Jesus with the
Servant and his readers with the "we" group. Karen Jobes
summarizes well Peter's use of Isa 53 in 1 Pet 2:22-25:
"Peter does not proof-text when he cites the OT, but
applies the context of the passage as it occurs in the LXX
to his Christian readers in Asia Minor."
214

Conclusion
This analysis of the seven quotations from Isa 53
in the NT has produced several important conclusions.
First, as is evident from Matt 8:17, even when a passage is
quoted, it should not be assumed that the quotation will be
a word-for-word reproduction of the LXX. The writer may be
quoting from memory, making his own translation of the
Hebrew, or relying on a non-LXX version of Isa 53.
It also appears from the details presented that
each writer did have in mind the original meaning of Isa
53. Even in Matt where the author made a literal
application that Jesus "took up our infirmities," it was
still on the basis of his sin bearing that this was
possible.
Isa 53 was used to illuminate several themes. Isa

214
Karen H. Jobes, 1 Peter, in Baker Exegetical
Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Baker,

139
53:1 was used twice to explain the obduracy of Israel (John
12:38 and Rom 10:16), once to support Paul's missionary
work to the Gentiles (Rom 15:21), once in reference to
Jesus healing ministry (Matt 8:17), once by Jesus whereby
he explained his association with transgressors (Luke
22:37), once to clearly identify Jesus with the Servant
(Acts 8:32,33), and finally to support Jesus' vicarious
atoning death (1 Peter 2:22-25).
215
____________________
2005), xi.

215
This chart is reproduced from Steve Moyise,
"Isaiah in 1 Peter," in Isaiah in the New Testament, ed.
Steve Moyise and Maarten J. J. Menken (London: T. & T.
Clark, 2005), 182. It provides a clear overview of the
many relationships between Isa 53 and 1 Peter 2:22-25.

Surely he has borne our
infirmities (+o oop+io g v
|rpri)
i
. . .
upon him was the punishment
that made us whole, and by
his bruises we are healed (+
Xni oo+oo gri io0grv)
ii
...
All we like sheep have gone
astray ( npoo+o
rnXovg0grv)
iii
...
He was oppressed, and he was
afflicted, yet he did not
open his mouth
iv
...
he had done no violence, and
there was no deceit in his
mouth (o+i ovoiov ook rnoigorv
ooor ropr0g ooXo rv + o+oo+i
oo+oo )
v

he poured out (noproo0g)
vi

He committed no sin, and no
deceit was found in his mouth
(oop+iov ook rnoigorv ooor ropr0g
ooXo rv + o+oo+i oo+oo )
v

When he was abused, he did
not return abuse; when he
suffered, he did not

threaten;
iv
but he entrusted
himself (noproiooo)
vi
to the
one who judges justly.
He himself bore our sins (+o
oop+io g v oo+o ovgvrykrv)
i,vii

in his body on the cross, so
that, free from sins, we
might live for righteousness;
by his wounds you have been
healed (+ Xni io0g+r).
ii

For you were going astray
like sheep (g+r yo p npoo+o
nXovrvoi),
iii
but now you

140
himself unto death ...
he bore the sin of many
(oo+o oop+io noXX v
ovgvrykrv)
vii

have returned to the shepherd
and guardian of your souls.

141

CHAPTER 6

ALLUSIONS FROM ISAIAH 53
IN THE GOSPELS AND ACTS
Introduction

This chapter is devoted to an analysis of the
allusions from Isa 53 in the Gospels and the book of Acts
as listed in the UBS
3
and NA
27
Index of Allusions.
216
The
analysis will be presented in order of NT books beginning
with the Gospel of Matt.

Allusions in Matthew
Matt is considered the Gospel to the Jewish
community because of his frequent use of OT quotations to
explain Jesus' life in terms of fulfilling OT prophecy.
According to the UBS
3
index, there are 62 quotations in Matt

216
The two indexes do not always list all the
parallel passages for a given allusion. Therefore I will
examine the passage that appears most likely to contain an
allusion, even if the passage is an unlisted parallel.
Throughout the analysis, preference will also be given to
the book of Mark when parallel passages are discussed
because it is considered the basis for the Gospels of both
Matthew and Luke, and scholarly discussion centers around
the passages from Mark.

142
from the OT. Eleven are from Isa, and include the
previously discussed Isa 53:4 in Matt 8:17 as well as three
other quotations from Deutero-Isaiah. One of the passages
contains four lines of the first Servant Song, quoted in
Matt 12:18-21.
Between the NA
27
and UBS
3
, eleven allusions are
listed from Isa 53 to either Matt or parallel passages.
Two of these allusions will be discussed in this section.

Matthew 2:23
Isaiah 53:2 (MT)

1`1D7 11`J 7V`1
`Y |ND UUJ1
1 N71 17 NnN7
11D011 NDN71
1N11

Isaiah 53:2 (LXX)

ovgyyriXorv rvov+iov
oo+oo noioiov
pio rv yg oi|og ook
ro+iv rioo oo+ ooor
ooo koi rioorv oo+ov
koi ook rirv rioo ooor
koXXo
Matthew 2:23 (GNT)

koi rX0 v ko+kgorv ri
noXiv Xryorvgv
Noopr+ on nXgp0g
+o pg0r v oio + v
npo|g+ v o+i Nopoi o
kXg0gor+oi.

Matt 2:23 is generally regarded by scholars as a
particularly difficult passage because it states that
according to prophecy, Jesus would be identified as coming
from Nazareth. However, there is no text anywhere in the
OT that clearly substantiates this prophecy. In fact,
there is no mention of a town called Nazareth anywhere in
the OT.
The importance of Jesus' origin is emphasized by
the fact that he is identified fifteen times in the NT as

143
"Jesus of Nazareth" (ten times in the gospels and five
times in Acts). Matthew needs to establish a connection
between Jesus and Nazareth, because it was commonly
understood by the Jewish teachers that the Messiah would
come from Bethlehem in fulfillment of prophecy. In fact,
confusion about this point arose during Jesus' life as
recorded in John 7:41-43. John writes that the people of
Jerusalem were divided, because according to scripture the
Christ was to come from Bethlehem; however, Jesus was known
to have come from Galilee. Matthew explains through
scripture he believed was fulfilled by Jesus,
217
that the
Christ would be born in Bethlehem. Therefore, it was also
necessary for Matthew to scripturally defend the fact that
Jesus came from Nazareth in Matthew 2:23
The formula introducing Matt 2:23 differs in two
ways from Matthew's usual pattern and may be a key that his
reference is not to specific words.
218
In 2:23, he uses the
plural "prophets," and then introduces the quotation with
"o+i" rather than "Xryov+r." This is probably because

217
Matthew 2:5-6.

218
In each of these verses Matt 1:22, 2:15, 2:17,
3:3, 4:14, 8:17, 12:17, 13:35 and 21:4, Matthew introduces
the information to which he is referring with the
participle Xryov+o and the genitive singular of npo|g+g,
with the name of the prophet either named or unnamed.

144
Matthew, through the use of "o+i," intends to introduce a
"theme of prophetic expectation," rather than a direct
quotation.
219
Robert Gundry suggests that Matthew intends
"a quotation of substance . . . rather than exact words."
220

However, the source of this "quotation of substance,"
remains a mystery.
The only relationship between the two verses is
thematic, and only in the most general sense. Matt 2:23
states where Jesus grew up, while Isa 53:2 explains how the
Servant grew up" "He grew up before him like a sapling,
Like a root out of dry ground." This similarity alone is
not compelling enough to consider this as containing an
actual allusion.
Two other verses are usually mentioned as the
source of the statement in Matt 2:23: Isa 11:1 and Judg
13:5. In Isa 11:1 the Messiah is described as a Y1
"sprout, shoot,"
221
often translated "twig" (JPS, TNK) or

219
R. T. France, The Formula-Quotations of Matthew 2,
New Testament Studies, 27 (Jan 1981): 247.

220
Robert H. Gundry, Matthew: A Commentary on His
Literary and Theological Art (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1982), 39.

221
William L. Holladay, A Concise Hebrew and Aramaic
Lexicon of the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1971), 244.

145
"branch" (NIV, NAS, KJV). While the word Y1 sounds similar
to the word Nazareth, Y1 is not a location. Another word,
from Judg 13:5, has also been suggested. The word is `11,
which means "Nazarite;"
222
however, Jesus was not a
Nazarite. Scholars may never discover the source of this
allusion. It is unlikely that Matt 2:23 alludes to Isa
53:2.

Matthew 13:16
Isaiah 52:15 (MT)

D`3 D`1? \` }J
D`D D`J7D 1YD` 1`7V
1N D7 DON7 UN `J
11113n 1VDUN7 UN1

Isaiah 52:15 (LXX)

oo+ 0ooooov+oi r0vg
noXXo rn` oo+ koi
oovroooiv ooiXri +o
o+oo oo+ v o+i oi ook
ovgyyrXg nrpi oo+oo
o|ov+oi koi oi ook
okgkoooiv okgkoooiv okgkoooiv okgkoooiv oovgooooiv
Matthew 13:16(GNT)

o v or okopioi oi
o|0oXoi o+i Xrnoooiv
koi +o +o o v o+i
okoooooiv okoooooiv okoooooiv okoooooiv.

The NA
27
lists Matt 13:16 as an allusion to Isa
52:15. Significant rhetorical stress is placed on this
verse as it is part of the conclusion of a pericope in
which Jesus explains to his disciples why he speaks in
parables. The two verses share little explicit lexical or
syntactical repetition, however there are thematic
similarities. Only one word is found in both verses, okoo
"to hear." But opo "to see," and okoo in Isa 53:15

222
Holladay, 232.

146
corresponds with o|0oXo "eye," and oo "ear," in Matt 13:16
respectively.
The statement in Matt 13:17 increases the
likelihood of an allusion because it furthers the thought.
It explains that the seeing and hearing were of things that
had previously been unknown.
223
This is similar to Isa
52:15, although a difference between the two does exist.
In Matt 13:17 Jesus says that there is something prophets
and righteous men wanted to see and hear, but did not (they
were aware of something more significant); in Isa 52:15 the
nations saw and heard things of which they were previously
unaware. In this instance, the disciples saw and heard
that which was predicted.
That this is an allusion to Isa is strengthened by
the fact that Matthew has just quoted Isa 6:9-10 in the two
previous verses. It is virtually certain that Isa 52:15 is
alluded to in this verse.

Allusions in Mark

It may seem strange that Mark is one of the most
important NT books for this study, even though there are no

223
Matt 13:17, Truly I tell you, many prophets and
righteous people longed to see what you see, but did not
see it, and to hear what you hear, but did not hear it.
(NRSV)

147
direct quotations from Isa 53 in it.
224
However, Mark
contains 12 proposed allusions to Isa 53, including perhaps
the most important allusion, Mark 10:45.
225

Mark begins his Gospel with the words, "The
beginning of the good news

of Jesus Christ, the Son of God,"
(NRS) and immediately follows this statement with citations
from several OT passages including Isa 40:3, which are
attributed to Isa the prophet.
226
Several scholars have
seen this quotation to be programmatic, and that the key to
Mark can be found in the book of Isa.
Rikki E. Watts, in Isaiah's New Exodus in Mark,
shows how Mark patterned his book after what is referred to
as the Isaianic New Exodus. The Isaianic New Exodus is a
thematic pattern used in Deutero-Isaiah, which in turn is
modeled after the Israelite exodus from Egypt.
227
The

224
Mark does contain five quotations from other
parts of the book of Isa.

225
This allusion, which I will explain below, is
important because it is the only place in the Gospels where
Jesus explains the meaning of his death.

226
In addition to the citation from Isa 40:3 there
is also an amalgamation of two other passages Exod 23:20
and Mal 3:1.

227
Rikki E. Watts, Isaiah's New Exodus in Mark,
Grand Rapids: Baker, 2000); Rikki E. Watts, "Jesus' Death,
Isaiah 53, and Mark 10:45: A Crux Revisited," in Jesus and
the Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 and Christian Origins, ed.

148
significance of this approach is related to thematic
coherence. In her study, Morna Hooker does not consider
thematic coherence. She approaches the allusions in a very
isolated manner,
228
giving little consideration to the
overall context of a passage. This tendency to examine
verses in such isolation causes her to rule out many
allusions without considering other significant factors.
If Watt's theory is correct, then due consideration must be
given to the underlying theme of Mark when allusions are
examined.

Mark 9:12

Isaiah 53:3 (MT)

DÙ`N 7101 131
`70 V11`1 n13NJD U`N
11DD D`1D nODJ1
113U0 N71 131

Isaiah 53:3 (LXX)

oXXo +o rioo oo+oo
o+iov rkXri nov nopo
nov+o ov0pnoo
ov0pno rv nXgyg v
koi rio |rpriv
oXokiov o+i
onro+pon+oi +o
npoonov oo+oo
Mark 9:12 (GNT)
o or r|g oo+oi HXio
r v rX0 v np +ov
onoko0io+ovri nov+o
koi n yrypon+oi rni
+o v oio v +oo ov0pnoo +o v oio v +oo ov0pnoo +o v oio v +oo ov0pnoo +o v oio v +oo ov0pnoo
ivo noXXo no0g koi noXXo no0g koi noXXo no0g koi noXXo no0g koi
rooorvg0g rooorvg0g rooorvg0g rooorvg0g ;

William H. Bellinger Jr. and William R. Farmer (Harrisburg,
PA: Trinity, 1998), 129. The basic threefold structure of
Mark's Gospel (after the prologue: 1:16-8:21/26; 8:22/27-
10:45/52; 10:46/11:1-16:8) also coheres with the Exodus
rubric of deliverance from bondage and journey to the place
of Yahweh's presence:

Exodus: deliverance from Egypt journey through the desert Sinai
Isaianic NE: deliverance from Babylon journey along the "way" Jerusalem
Mark: deliverance from Satan journey along the "way" Jerusalem

228
For more on Morna Hooker's approach see chapter 2
pp. 15-18 of this dissertation.

149
g+ioo0g koi ook
rXoyio0g

Mark 9:12 records a conversation between Jesus and
three of his disciples as they came down from the Mount of
Transfiguration.
229
While Jesus was transfigured, there was
also a supernatural appearance of Moses and Elijah. The
appearance of Elijah prompted the disciples to recall
prophecies made about Elijah which they questioned Jesus
about, asking in verse 11, "Why do the scribes say that
Elijah must come first?" (NRSV) Mark 9:12 contains Jesus'
response which seems cryptic because his answer includes a
question.
230
Jesus responds by confirming that Elijah has
come and then asks why the scriptures indicate that the Son
of Man
231
must suffer and be humiliated.

229
The sites usually considered the Mount of
Transfiguration are the Mt. of Olives, Tabor, Jebel Jemuk,
and Hermon.

230
R. T. France, The Gospel of Mark: A Commentary on
the Greek Text, in The New International Greek Testament
Commentary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2002), 358; William L.
Lane, The Gospel According to Mark: The English Test with
Introduction, Exposition, and Notes, vol. 2, in The New
International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand

231
Jesus often referred to himself as the Son of Man
including 14 times in Mark. This is a messianic title
likely originated from Dan 7:13.

150
It is important to note the mention of n yrypon+oi
"how is it written," by Jesus in this verse. He is
explicitly asking about references from the OT. The words
noXXo no0g "suffer much," and rooorvg0g "be despised or
rejected" together form a strong link to Isa 53. Isa 53:3
states that the Servant is a man of suffering, and the
greater context of Isa 53 reveals that in fact the Servant
endures much suffering. Likewise, the Servant is said to
have been rejected twice in Isa 53:3, both at the beginning
and end of the verse by the Hebrew word 13 "despise,
reject." The words used to render this same idea in the
LXX are the adjective o+io "dishonorable" and the verb
o+io "to dishonor." Because there is no other verse in
the OT that so plainly mentions both suffering and
rejection, it is virtually certain that Jesus was alluding
to Isa 53:3.

Mark 8:31, 9:31, and 10:33,34
Mark 8:31
No Passage Listed No Passage Listed Mark 8:31 (GNT)

Koi gpo+o oioookriv
oo+oo o+i ori ori ori ori +o v oio v oio v oio v oio v
+oo ov0pnoo +oo ov0pnoo +oo ov0pnoo +oo ov0pnoo noXXo noXXo noXXo noXXo
no0ri v no0ri v no0ri v no0ri v koi
onoookioo0g voi ono
+ v nproo+rpv koi
+ v opirprv koi + v
ypoo+rv koi

151
onok+ov0g voi koi r+o
+pri grpo ovoo+g voi

These three passages, Mark 8:31, 9:31, and 10:33-34
are known as the passion predictions. None of them is
included in either the NA
27
or UBS
3
index, however, many
commentators and scholars consider them as allusions to Isa
53.
For those who see an allusion to Isa 53 from these
three passages, Mark 9:12b is an important element in the
argument because, Jesus specifically states that the future
suffering and rejection of the Son of Man would occur as
written in the OT. It is possible to dissect these verses
and attribute parts of them to other passages in the OT
such as Ps 118:22 or Ps 34:20; however, when all the
elements in these verses are combined and the theme of the
Isaianic New Exodus in Mark is considered, it is difficult
to see that the source of these allusions is from anywhere
other than Isa 53.
That Mark 8:31 is an allusion to Isa 53 is
established by appeal to the word ori, "must" or "necessity"
(according to scripture). Hooker summarizes the thinking
of those who see a reference to Isa 53 through the word ori,

152
saying:
They hold that the word 'must', [sic] which is used so
emphatically in all three gospels on the first occasion
[in parallel passages], and the sense of which is
echoed in the later passages, shows a conviction in the
mind of Jesus of the necessity for his death which
could have been derived only from scripture; further,
in the Old Testament the only passage which could give
rise to such a conviction is Isa. 53.
232

Mark 8:31 also includes the words that were
repeated in Mark 9:12, that the Son of Man must noXXo no0ri v
"suffer much." Watts shows that of the various passages
which have been considered as the source of allusion, Isa
53 contains the closest lexical link to noo in Mark 8:31.
He explains that the Hebrew word 70 , which is used in Isa
53:10, and its substantive forms used in Isa 53:3 and 4,
are closest in meaning to the NT meaning of noo. He also
says that the other passages do not use the Hebrew 70 in
their description of suffering (Ps 21, 117, 118, and Dan
7).
233
Because of this close verbal connection, if Jesus
had Isa 53 in mind, Isa 53:5,6 are the most probable
verses. Jesus is almost certainly alluding to Isa 53 in
Mark 8:31.

232

233
Watts, Jesus' Death, Isaiah 53, and Mark 10:45,
132-133.

153
Mark 9:31
No Passage Listed No Passage Listed Mark 9:31 (GNT)

roioookrv roioookrv roioookrv roioookrv yo p +oo
o0g+o oo+oo koi
rXryrv oo+oi o+i o oi o oi o oi o oi o o o o
+oo ov0pnoo +oo ov0pnoo +oo ov0pnoo +oo ov0pnoo
nopooioo+oi nopooioo+oi nopooioo+oi nopooioo+oi ri ri po
ov0pnv, koi
onok+rvoo oiv onok+rvoo oiv onok+rvoo oiv onok+rvoo oiv oo+ov, koi
onok+ov0ri r+o +pri
grpo ovoo+gor+oi.

In Mark 9:31 Jesus again explains the outcome of
the Son of Man. It is probable that the word roioookrv "was
teaching" indicates that Jesus is making reference to the
OT just as he did in Mark 9:12.
234
The reference Jesus
makes is to Isa 53:12 where the passive of nopooioi "handed
over" is used twice, particularly in the phrase v noproo0g
ri 0ovo+ov g |og oo+oo "his soul was handed over unto death."

Mark 10:33,34

No Passage Listed No Passage Listed Mark 10:33-34
(GNT)

o+i iooo ovooivorv
ri lrpoooXoo, koi o o o o
oio +oo ov0pnoo oio +oo ov0pnoo oio +oo ov0pnoo oio +oo ov0pnoo
nopooo0gor+oi nopooo0gor+oi nopooo0gor+oi nopooo0gor+oi +oi
opirpro oiv koi +oi
ypoo+ro oiv, koi
ko+okpivoo oiv oo+o v
0ovo+ koi

234
Craig Evans, Mark 8:27-16:20, vol. 34B, in Word
Bible Commentary (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2001), 57.

154
nopoo nopoo nopoo nopooooooiv ooooiv ooooiv ooooiv oo+o v
+oi r0vroiv

Mark 10:34 (GNT)

koi rnoioooiv oo+
koi rn+oooooiv rn+oooooiv rn+oooooiv rn+oooooiv oo+
koi oo+iyooooiv oo+iyooooiv oo+iyooooiv oo+iyooooiv
oo+o v koi onok+rvoo oiv,
koi r+o +pri grpo
ovoo+gor+oi.

Mark 10:33-34, which uses nopooioi twice, is also
seen as a link to Isa 53 for reasons similar to Mark 9:31.
In addition to the repeated use of nopooioi, two of the
words that are used in Isa 50:6 (part of the third Servant
Song) are used in 10:34: oo+i "scourge, whip," and rn+ooo
"spit." While these words are not from Isa 53, a
connection to the third song strengthens the servant
concept in general. Keeping in mind the Isaianic New
Exodus theme in Mark, it is virtually certain that Mark
8:31, 9:31 and 10:33-34 are all allusions to Isa 53.

Mark 10:45

Isaiah 53:10 (MT)

`70 1NJ1 |D0 1`1
1UD1 DUN DÙnDN
D`D` q`N` V1 N`
07Y` 11`3 1` |D01

Isaiah 53:10 (LXX)

koi kopio ooXr+oi
ko0opiooi oo+o v +g
nXgyg ro v o +r nrpi
oop+io g |og o v
o|r+oi onrpo
okpoiov koi ooXr+oi
kopio o|rXri v

Mark 10:45 (GNT)

koi yo p o oio +oo
ov0pnoo ook gX0rv
oiokovg0g voi oiokovg0g voi oiokovg0g voi oiokovg0g voi oXXo
oiokovg ooi oiokovg ooi oiokovg ooi oiokovg ooi koi ooo voi ooo voi ooo voi ooo voi
+g v |og v oo+oo Xo+pov +g v |og v oo+oo Xo+pov +g v |og v oo+oo Xo+pov +g v |og v oo+oo Xo+pov
ov+i noXX ov+i noXX ov+i noXX ov+i noXX v v v v.

155
Isaiah 53:11

N` 1UD1 7DVD
1nV13 V3U`
D`37 `13V `1Y `1Y`
73O` N1 Dn11V1
Isaiah 53:11

ono +oo novoo +g
|og oo+oo ori oi
oo+ | koi nXoooi +g
oovrori oikoi ooi
oikoiov ro oooXroov+o
noXXoi koi +o
oop+io oo+ v oo+o
ovoiori ono +oo novoo
+g |og oo+oo ori oi
oo+ | koi nXoooi +g
oovrori oikoi ooi
noXXoi koi +o
oop+io oo+ v oo+o
ovoiori

Of all the allusions considered in this
dissertation, Mark 10:45 is the most important. The
analysis above of Mark 8:31, 9:12, 9:31, and 10:33-34 shows
that Jesus predicted his suffering and death. However,
Mark 10:45 is the only verse where Jesus himself explains
the significance of his death: "to give his life as a
ransom for many." If it can be determined that Jesus
actually made this statement, and in it he alluded to Isa
53, then there is clear proof that Jesus understood the
profundity of his death.
235

There are several potential points of contact
between Isa 53 and Mark 10:45. The first is a possible

235
The determination of whether the historical Jesus
actually made this statement is outside the realm of this
dissertation.

156
link between the word oiokovg ooi "to serve," and the word 13V
"servant" found in Isa 52:13 and 53:11. In the LXX Isa
52:13 13V is rendered noi and in 53:11 it is translated as
a verb by oooXro.
Hooker does not acknowledge any connection between
Isa 53 and Mark 10:45 based on the Hebrew and Greek words
"servant" and "to serve." She notes that the word oiokovr
is never used in the LXX.
236
However, Watts points out that
between the time of the LXX translation and the writing of
the NT, the oooX- and oiokov- stems underwent a semantic
change where the oiokov- stem absorbed some of the meaning of
the oooX- stem and possibly became a more accurate rendering
of the LXX's oooXro.
237
He also notes that oooXro does not
form the passive and therefore could not be used in the
active-passive construction in Mark 10:45. Therefore, the
use of oiokovg ooi in the NT is not as unexpected as Hooker
thinks it is.
Hooker also objects to a relationship between Isa
53 and Mark 10:45 because she believes the status of the
"servant" in each passage differs. She notes that a

236

237
Watts, Jesus' Death, Isaiah 53, and Mark 10:45,
138.

157
measure of honor was implied for "God's Servant" in
Deutero-Isaiah while in the passage in Mark, "lowly service
to others" is implied.
238
While the exaltation of the
Servant in Isa 53 is mentioned in Isa 52:13 and 53:12, this
same Servant is humble, lowly, and considered forsaken by
God. In Mark 10:45, "lowly service to others" may be
implied, however Jesus explains in Mark 9:35 that the way
of honor is through servanthood: "If anyone wants to be
first, he must be the very last, and the servant of all."
(NIV) There is no inconsistency on this point between these
two verses.
Another point of contact between Isa 53 and Mark
10:45 is ooo voi +gv |og v oo+oo, "to give his life," which is
similar to Isa 53:10 1UD1 n1D7 V, "he poured out his life
to death."
239
Hooker sees nothing more in Mk 10:45 than
"the English phrase 'he gave up the ghost.'"
240
However,
the statement in Mark means more than he simply died; it is
saying he "gave" his life for a specific purpose. The

238
Morna Hooker, The Gospel According to Saint Mark,
in Black's New Testament Commentaries (Peabody, MA:
Hendrickson, 1991), 248.

239
Evans, 121.

240
Hooker, Mark, 248.

158
specific purpose is the subject of the next point of
contact.
A fourth suggested relationship is between Xo+pov
ov+i , "ransom for," and DUN, "guilt offering," in Isa 53:10.
The objection to this link is that the word Xo+pov is not
found in the LXX of Isa 53, nor is it ever used to
translate DUN in the LXX. Consequently, Hooker, Barrett,
and Casey
241
reject that Mark 10:45 reflects an allusion to
Isa 53 on this basis. Hooker states, "the word ransom
bears no relation, in spite of many statements to the
contrary, to the Hebrew word m used in Isa. 53:10,
which means 'an offering for sin.'"
242

The statement that these two words bear no relation
to one another is in error as both have to do with payment:
DUN "guilt offering" is a "restitution for guilt"
243
and
Xo+pov is the "price of release, ransom."
244
The Hebrew

241
Maurice Casey, Aramaic Sources of Mark's Gospel,
Society for New Testament Studies, Monograph Series 102,
(Cambridge: University Press, 1998), 212.

242
Hooker, Mark, 248.

243
Francis Brown, S. R. Driver, and Charles A.
Briggs, The Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon
with an Appendix Containing the Biblical Aramaic (Peabody,

244
William F. Arndt and F. Wilbur Gingrich, A Greek-
English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early

159
involves sacrifice for sins while the latter is usually
used for a business transaction. In this passage Jesus is
saying he is going to give his life as a ransom for many.
The question must be answered, from what is he ransoming
the many? It seems that the answer is "sin." Therefore,
Jesus is stating that he is going to "ransom" or "buy back"
the many from the consequences of their sin. In addition,
through the use of Xo+pov Jesus is able to emphasize the
result or the offering produced for others rather than the
offering itself. Further, this verse appears to be more of
a summary of the Servant's work and the source of this
summary is not the LXX but the Hebrew.
245

The final elements in this verse which are linked
to Isa 53 are the words ov+i noXX v. The word ov+i implies the
substitutionary concept that is performed by the Servant as
he bears the sins of others. The theme of noXXoi, the "many"
is also an important theme in Isa 53:11, 12.
246
Because

Christian Literature: A Translation and Adaptation of the
Fourth Revised and Augmented Edition of Walter Bauer's
"Griechisch-Deutsches Worterbuch zu den Schriften des Neuen
Testaments und der ubrigen urchristlichen Literatur," 2d
ed., rev. F. Wilbur Gingrich and Frederick W. Danker
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979), 120.

245
Evans, 121.

160
numerous linguistic and thematic connections exist between
Isa 53 and Mark 10:45 it is virtually certain that this
verse is an allusion to Isa 53.

Mark 14:21
Isaiah 53:9 (MT)

13 D`VUnN }n`1
1`nD3 ÙVnN1
UV OD0N7 7V
1`D3 DD N71

Isaiah 53:6

11`Vn }NYJ 117J
11`1D 1J17 U`N
13 V`?D 1`1
117J }1V nN

Isaiah 53:12

D`33 1770N }J7
77U 70` D`D1YVnN1
1UD1 n1D7 V UN n0n
1D1 D`VUDnN1
NU1 D`3ND0 N11
O V`?D` D`VUD71

Isaiah 53:9 (LXX)

koi oo +oo novgpoo
ov+i +g +o|g oo+oo
+oo 0ovo+oo oo+oo o+i
ovoiov ook rnoigorv
ooor ropr0g ooXo rv +
o+oo+i oo+oo

Isaiah 53:6

nov+r npoo+o
rnXovg0grv ov0pno
koi kopio noprokrv noprokrv noprokrv noprokrv
oo+o v +oi oop+ioi
g v

Isaiah 53:12

oio +oo +o oo+o
kXgpovogori noXXoo
oko Xo ov0` v noproo0g v noproo0g v noproo0g v noproo0g
ri 0ovo+ov g |og ri 0ovo+ov g |og ri 0ovo+ov g |og ri 0ovo+ov g |og
oo+oo oo+oo oo+oo oo+oo koi rv +oi
ovooi rXoyio0g koi
oo+o oop+io noXX v
ovgvrykrv koi oio +o oio +o oio +o oio +o
oop+io oo+ v oop+io oo+ v oop+io oo+ v oop+io oo+ v
Mark 14:21 (GNT)

o+i o r v oio +oo
ov0pnoo onoyri ko0
yrypon+oi nrpi oo+oo ,
oooi or + ov0pn
rkriv oi` oo o oio +oo
ov0pnoo nopooioo+oi nopooioo+oi nopooioo+oi nopooioo+oi
koXo v oo+ ri ook
ryrvvg0g o ov0pno
rkri vo.

246
Passion Narratives (Sheffield, England: Almond Press,
1983), 125.

161
Exactly why the relationship between Mark 14:21 and
Isa 53:9 was selected by the editors of the UBS
3
is
uncertain.
247
Isa 53:9 centers on the idea of the burial of
the Servant and his sinlessness. The focus of Mark 14:21
is a statement made by Jesus during the Last Supper
regarding his upcoming arrest (nopooioi: "hand over,
betray, deliver)."
It is important to note that Jesus explains the
manner in which he is to be taken away: onoy "to go." He
says it was happening as fulfillment of Scripture: "just as
it is written concerning him." When this verse is
discussed by commentators in relationship to Isa 53, the
verses usually mentioned are Isa 53:6, where nopooioi is
used once in the active voice, and Isa 53:12, where it is
used twice in the passive voice: noproo0g ri 0ovo+ov g |og
oo+oo ("his soul was handed over unto death"), and oio +o
oop+io oo+ v noproo0g ("he was handed over because of their
sins"). Because of the repetition of the passive nopooioi
and the relationship between the treatment of the Servant
and Jesus, Mark 14:21 seems to be a clear allusion to Isa

247
The UBS
3
lists Matthew 26:24 as containing an
allusion to Isa 53:9; however, for the analysis of this
passage, the focus will be the unlisted parallel passage
Mark 14:21.

162
53:6,12. However, Mark 14:21 is not an allusion to the
verse listed in the UBS
3
index, Isa 53:9.

Mark 14:24
Isaiah 53:11,12
(MT)

N` 1UD1 7DVD
1nV13 V3U`
D`37 `13V `1Y `1Y`
73O` N1 Dn11V1

Isaiah 53:12

D`33 1770N }J7
77U 70` D`D1YVnN1
1UD1 n1D7 V UN n0n
1D1 D`VUDnN1
NU1 D`3ND0 N11
O V`?D` D`VUD71

Isaiah 53:11,12
(LXX)
ono +oo novoo +g
|og oo+oo ori oi
oo+ | koi nXoooi +g
oovrori oikoi ooi
noXXoi noXXoi noXXoi noXXoi koi +o
oop+io oo+ v oo+o
ovoiori

Isaiah 53:12

12 oio +oo +o oo+o
kXgpovogori noXXoo noXXoo noXXoo noXXoo
ri 0ovo+ov g |og
oo+oo koi rv +oi
ovooi rXoyio0g koi
oo+o oop+io noXX v noXX v noXX v noXX v
oop+io oo+ v
Mark 14:24 (GNT)

koi rinrv oo+oi +oo +o
ro+iv +o oio oo +g
oio0gkg +o
rkovvorvov onr p rkovvorvov onr p rkovvorvov onr p rkovvorvov onr p
noXX v noXX v noXX v noXX v.

The allusion in question in this instance occurs
during the institution of the Lords Supper 14:22-25 in the
words rkovvorvov onr p noXX v "[the blood was] poured out for
many." It is generally agreed that the source of allusion
for the first part of this verse is Exod 24:8.
248
The

248
Watts, Isaiah's New Exodus in Mark, 351.

163
connections between the second part of this verse and Isa
53 are two-fold with the words rkovvorvov and noXX v, and
explains how and for whom the covenant is effected.
The problem with the first word rkr "pour out" is
that it is never used in the LXX to translate the word V
"to lay bare, to pour out."
249
In Isa 53:12, the LXX
translator makes a less literal translation using the Greek
nopooioi "to hand over," to translate V . Hooker denies a
correlation between Isa 53 and Mark 14:24 for two
reasons.
250
First she does not acknowledge a link between
the words V and rkr because in the LXX rkr is used to
translate qDU "to pour out." Second, because in the NT the
concept of "bloodshed" is rendered by the phrase oio rkriv
and is equivalent to D1 qDU . Her conclusion is that the
idea in Mark 14:24 "to pour" does not correspond to the
Hebrew which she translates as "laid bare to death."
251

It is difficult to see, given the context of Isa
53, that there is much difference in meaning between "the
Servant was laid bare to death," and "the Servant's life

249
Ibid., 355.

250

251
The JPS also used "bare"; the CJB and TNK used
"exposed."

164
was poured out to death." The essence of both statements
is that the Servant died. In addition, contra to Hooker's
statement, "poured out" is also a viable translation for
rkr.
252

The second element of correspondence is the
relationship between the word noXX v in Mark 14:24 and Isa
53:11,12. HoXo is used five times in Isa 53, once in verse
11 and twice in verse 12. The repetition of this word in
Isa 53 brings the theme of "the many" to the fore in this
passage. Its use in Mark 14:24, in combination with rkr
creates a strong link with Isa 53:11, 12 and it is
virtually certain that it represents an allusion to that
passage.
253

Mark 14:49
Isaiah 53:7 (MT)

1V1 N11 U?1
1`D0nD` N71
731` 03D7 UJ
D7N1 `11 `1D7 70J1
1`D 0nD` N71
Isaiah 53:7 (LXX)

koi oo+o oio +o
+o o+oo npoo+ov
rni o|oyg v g0g koi
ovo rvov+iov +oo
Mark 14:49 (GNT)

ko0` grpov ggv npo
oo rv + irp
oioookv koi ook
rkpo+goo+r r oXX` ivo
nXgp0 oiv oi ypo|oi.

252
Holladay, 283; BDB, 788; Gundry, Use, 59, France,
Jesus, 122, and Moo, Passion, 131 all state that V is
equivalent to correspond rkr NIV, KJV, NRSV, NASV all
translate V "poured out."

253
Robert H. Gundry, The Use of the Old Testament in
Matthews Gospel, with Special Reference to the Messianic
Hope (Leiden: Brill, 1967), 59.

165
oo+ ook ovoiyri +o
o+oo oo+oo

The NA
27
lists Mark 14:49, which preserves the words
of Jesus during his arrest, as an allusion to Isa 53:7. In
Mark 14:49, Jesus is stating that his arrest, and the
circumstances surrounding it, are intended to fulfill
Scripture. In respect to volume, no verbal correspondence
exists between Mark 14:49 and Isa 53:7. Hooker spends very
little time on this passage, simply stating, "There is no
reason to associate these words with Isa. 53 in particular:
it is most probable that the phrase 'the scriptures' refers
to an understanding of the Old Testament as a whole, rather
than to any particular passage."
254
However, Jesus already
made mention of his arrest in Mark 14:21 and it is highly
probable that the same scripture he referred to in that
passage is also meant here. Isa 53 represents the only
viable passage that would indicate the unjust arrest of a
person. But as in Mark 14:21, it appears that the better
source of allusion is Isa 53:12 with the passive nopooioi.

Mark 14:60,61 and Mark 15:4,5
Isaiah 53:7 (MT)

1V1 N11 U?1
Isaiah 53:7 (LXX)

koi oo+o oio +o
Mark 14:60-61 (GNT)

koi ovoo+o o opirpro

254

166
1`D0nD` N71
731` 03D7 UJ
D7N1 `11 `1D7 70J1
1`D 0nD` N71

krkok o0oi ook
ovoiyri +o o+oo
npoo+ov rni o|oyg v
g0g koi ovo
rvov+iov +oo
kripov+o oo+o v
o|vo oo+ ook
ovoiyri +o o+oo
oo+oo

ri roov rngp+gorv +o v
lgooo v Xryv ook
onokpivg ooor v +i oo+oi
ooo ko+oop+opoo oiv;

Mark 14:61 (GNT)

o or roino koi ook
onrkpivo+o ooorv. noXiv o
opirpro rngp+o oo+o v
koi Xryri oo+ oo ri o
pio+o o oio +oo
roXoyg+oo ;

Isaiah 53:7 (MT)

1V1 N11 U?1
1`D0nD` N71
731` 03D7 UJ
D7N1 `11 `1D7 70J1
1`D 0nD` N71

Isaiah 53:7 (LXX)

koi oo+o oio +o
+o o+oo npoo+ov
rni o|oyg v g0g koi
ovo rvov+iov +oo
oo+ ook ovoiyri +o
o+oo oo+oo

Mark 15:4 (GNT)

o or HiXo +o noXiv
rngp+o oo+o v Xryv
ook onokpivg ooorv; ior
nooo ooo ko+gyopoo oiv.

Mark 15:5 (GNT)

5 o or lgooo ookr+i
ooor v onrkpi0g, o+r
0oooriv +o v HiXo +ov.

It has been suggested that allusions to Isa 53 can
be found in Mark 14:60,61 and 15:4,5. Joel Marcus says
that it is "probable" that the Isaian Servant Songs have
influenced some of the "details in the accounts of Jesus
trial before the Sanhedrin and Pilate."
255
One point of
contact is the silence of Jesus before his accusers
mentioned in Mark 14:61 and 15:5 which refer back to Isa

255
Joel Marcus, The Way of the Lord: Christological
Exegesis of the Old Testament in the Gospel of Mark
(Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1992), 187.

167
53:7. Moo says that the relationship between Mark 14:61
and Isa 53:7 depends not on linguistic similarity but on
"the parallel emphasis on an analogous theme."
256

Hooker explains that there are two possible ways
that Mark 14:61 and Isa 53 are connected. One way is that
Jesus knowingly takes upon himself the demeanor of the
Servant (who was silent) in Isa 53:7. The second
possibility is that the gospel writers themselves want to
show Jesus as the Servant of Isa 53.
257
She outlines a
"pattern of silence" that reveals that Jesus did reply to
the High Priest when he was asked about his person, even
though he refused to reply to false charges. From this she
concludes that the events presented are historical and that
these events were not influenced by Isa 53:7 and the
picture of the "lamb led to the slaughter."
258

Moo calls Hookers "silence pattern" "a very
significant insight and effectively rebuts those who
maintain that the silence of Jesus is a prophetically-based
insertion into the tradition."
259
Nevertheless, Moo remains
unconvinced, citing three reasons to support a connection

256
Moo, 148.

257

258
Hooker, Jesus and the Servant 87-88.

168
between Isa 53:7 and Mk 14:61. First, he says the
evangelists did place an emphasis on the feature of silence
in an attempt to "evoke the picture of the Servants
submissiveness."
260
Second, he suggests the appropriateness
of the relationship based on the theory of Claus Westerman
who argues that Isa 53:7 itself is a trial scene.
261

Regarding her third point, Moo questions not only Hookers
conclusion, but also her understanding of the way OT
prophecy corresponds to NT fulfillment. He says that
"Surely, every allusion to an OT passage does not have to
include clear-cut evidence of the appropriation of the
central message of the context to which the verse
belongs."
262

Another connection between Isa 53 and the silence
theme of Jesus comes from Mark 15:5. In this verse, Pilate
is said to respond to Jesus' refusal to answer questions
with 0oooriv, "amazement." This amazement is believed to be
an allusion from Isa 52:15 which also uses 0ooo. Pilate

259
Moo, 149.

260
Ibid.

261
Claus Westermann, Isaiah 40-66: A Commentary,
trans. David M. G. Stalker, in The Old Testament Library,
eds. G. Ernest Wright, et al. (Philadelphia: Westminster,
1969), 265.

169
is amazed by something he has never seen before, just like
the kings of Isa 52:15. The fact that Pilate is a Gentile,
who is from the "nations" strengthens the allusion.
263

The proposed allusions in this section raise an
interesting question. Suppose two people witness the
events described above. One is aware of the precursor
text(Isa 53), but the other is not. How would the
awareness or lack of it affect their retelling of the
events? In this case, we know that Mark was aware of Isa
53, and it does seem as if Jesus' silence is emphasized.
In addition, even though this would seem to contradict Isa
53, as Hooker pointed out, the writer was not afraid to
include the fact that Jesus did respond to some statements.
He was not totally silent. He did answer some questions.
What Jesus did not respond to were false accusations. It
seems virtually certain that these texts do contain
allusions to Isa 53:7.
Mark 14:65

Isaiah 53:5 (MT)

11VUDD 770D N11
Isa 53:5 (LXX)

oo+o or r+pooo+io0g r+pooo+io0g r+pooo+io0g r+pooo+io0g
Mark 14:65 (GNT)
264

Koi gpov+o +ivr

262
Moo, 150.

264
Matthew 26:67-68 To+r rvrn+ooov ri +o npoonov oo+oo koi
rkoXo|ioov oo+ov, oi or rponioov 68 Xryov+r npo|g+rooov gi v, pio+r, +i
ro+iv o noioo or;

170
11`n11VD NJ1D
1`7V 11D17U O1D
117ND1 1n3031

oio +o ovoio g v
koi roXokio+oi oio
+o oop+io g v
noiorio ripgvg g v
rn` oo+ov + Xni Xni Xni Xni
oo+oo gri io0grv

rn+oriv rn+oriv rn+oriv rn+oriv oo+ koi
nrpikoXon+riv oo+oo +o
npoonov koi
koXo|iriv koXo|iriv koXo|iriv koXo|iriv oo+o v koi
Xryriv oo+
npo|g+rooov, koi oi
ongpr+oi ponioooiv ponioooiv ponioooiv ponioooiv
oo+o v rXoov.

No word-for-word correspondence exists between Isa
53:5 and Matt 26:67, instead the correlation is thematic.
265

The theme is based on words similar in meaning. The words
rn+o "spitting," koXo|i, "beat, strike," and ponioo "beat,
strike" (with stick, club, hand) found in Mark 14:65
describe the kind of injury that is stated generally in the
LXX of Isa 53:5 through the words +pooo+i "wound," and
X| "bruise."
Inasmuch as some thematic correspondence exists
between the two passages, most commentators who see a
correlation with the Servant do so through the use of
another Servant passage, Isa 50:6.
266
In this verse, the
Servant himself is describing how he has been mistreated.
Two of the three words that are used in Mark 14:65 are also
used in Isa 50:6, ponioo and rn+o. The theme in both

265
The UBS
3
lists Matt 26:67 as an allusion to Isa
53:5, however the discussion will focus on Mark 14:65 a
parallel passage which is not listed in either index.

171
passages is specifically of a person being beaten and spat
upon. It is probable that the verse in Mark refers to Isa
53:5 in a general way, however it is more likely to be an
allusion to Isa 50:6.

Mark 15:27

Isaiah 53:12 (MT)

D`33 1770N }J7
77U 70` D`D1YVnN1
1UD1 n1D7 V UN n0n
1D1 D`VUDnN1
NU1 D`3ND0 N11
O V`?D` D`VUD71

Isaiah 53:12 (LXX)

oio +oo +o oo+o
kXgpovogori noXXoo
ri 0ovo+ov g |og
oo+oo koi rv +oi koi rv +oi koi rv +oi koi rv +oi
ovooi rXoyio0g ovooi rXoyio0g ovooi rXoyio0g ovooi rXoyio0g koi
oo+o oop+io noXX v
oop+io oo+ v
noproo0g

Mark 15:27 (GNT)

Koi oo v oo+
o+oopoo oiv ooo Xgo+o,
rvo rk ori v koi rvo r
rovov oo+oo .

Mark 15:27 is listed in the NA
27
as an allusion to
Isa 53:12 on the basis that Jesus was crucified with two
robbers, an event which might correspond to the statement
in Isa 53:12 that the Servant was "numbered with the
transgressors." Modern edited texts such as the NA
27
and
the UBS
3
omit Mark 15:28, stating that the earliest and most
reliable texts do not include this verse. The verse is
included in the Textus Receptus which is the Greek text

266
Isa 50:6 (LXX) +o v v +ov oo oroko ri oo+iyo +o or
oioyovo oo ri ponioo+o ponioo+o ponioo+o ponioo+o +o or npoonov oo ook onro+pr|o ono oioovg
rn+ooo+v. rn+ooo+v. rn+ooo+v. rn+ooo+v.

172
behind the King James Version and reads koi rnXgp0g g |po|g g
Xryoooo, Koi r+o ovov rXoyio0g, ("And the Scripture was
fulfilled that says And he will be numbered with the
transgressors").
In the last chapter I explained that in Luke 22:37
the statement by Jesus from Isa 53:12 "he was numbered with
the transgressors" should be understood in general terms.
No specific transgressors are in mind. Therefore, while
this is an allusion to Isa 53:12, it should not be
considered "the" allusion, or the only allusions to the
idea that Jesus was identified with wrongdoers. Jesus is
considered part of the group of those who break the law.
Here he is simply identified with two specific people from
that group.
267
It is virtually certain that this is an
allusion to Isa 53:12.

Allusions in Luke
Luke quotes Isa five times in his Gospel including
the only quotation attributed directly to Jesus in Luke
22:37. In this section, I will examine four allusions from
Luke, Luke 11:22; 24:25; 24:27; and 24:47.

267
Moo, 155.

173
Luke 11:22

Isaiah 53:12 (MT)

D`33 1770N }J7
77U 70` D`D1YVnN1
1UD1 n1D7 V UN n0n
1D1 D`VUDnN1
NU1 D`3ND0 N11
O V`?D` D`VUD71

Isaiah 53:12(LXX)

oio +oo +o oo+o
kXgpovogori noXXoo
koi + v ioop v rpiri koi + v ioop v rpiri koi + v ioop v rpiri koi + v ioop v rpiri
oko Xo oko Xo oko Xo oko Xo ov0` v noproo0g
ri 0ovo+ov g |og
oo+oo koi rv +oi
ovooi rXoyio0g koi
oo+o oop+io noXX v
oop+io oo+ v
noproo0g
Luke 11:22 (GNT)

rno v or ioopo+rpo ioopo+rpo ioopo+rpo ioopo+rpo
oo+oo rnrX0 v vikgog
oo+ov, +g v novonXiov
oo+oo oipri r|` g
rnrnoi0ri koi +o oko Xo oko Xo oko Xo oko Xo
oo+oo oiooiooiv.

The NA
27
lists Luke 11:22 as an allusion to Isa
53:12. There is some verbatim repetition with both verses
using the adjective ioopo "strong," and the word oko Xov
"booty, spoil,"
268
in the accusative plural. Even though
the two verses use a different word for "divide," the idea
is similar. In Luke 11:22, with "whom" the spoils will be
divided is implied.
Even though some of the words are similar in both
verses, the meaning of each individual verse differs as
well as the overall passage. In Luke, Jesus uses the
strong man image as part of his explanation to the
Pharisees to show the inconsistency of their claim that
Jesus was casting out devils by the power of Beelzebub.
Jesus states that he could cast out demons because he is

268
Arndt and Gingrich, 283.

174
stronger than Satan, thus providing evidence that the
kingdom of God is advancing. In this case, the "spoils"
are to be understood as the people themselves who have been
freed from Satanic control. The emphasis in this phrase is
on the fact that Jesus has the power to do something.
In Isa 53, the emphasis is on reward. Because the
Servant obediently yields himself to God's plan he is
successful and therefore is honored with a victor's share.
Very few commentaries mention any relationship between this
passage and Isa 53. Even though similar words exist
between Isa 53:12 and Luke 11:22, this verse does not
cohere thematically with Isa 53 nor does an allusion
provide satisfaction. It is doubtful this verse is an
allusion to Isa 53.

Luke 24:25, 24:27 and 24:46
General allusion
to all of Isa 53.
General allusion
to all of Isa 53.
Luke 24:25 (GNT)

koi oo+o rinrv npo
oo+oo ovog+oi koi
poori +g kopoio +oo
nio+roriv rni no oiv oi no oiv oi no oiv oi no oiv oi
rXoXgoov oi npo|g +oi rXoXgoov oi npo|g +oi rXoXgoov oi npo|g +oi rXoXgoov oi npo|g +oi

General allusion
to all of Isa 53.
General allusion
to all of Isa 53.
Luke 24:27 (GNT)

koi oporvo ono oporvo ono oporvo ono oporvo ono
Moor koi ono
nov+v + v npo|g+ v
oirpgvroorv oo+oi rv
noooi +oi ypo|oi +o
nrpi roo+oo .

175

General allusion
to all of Isa 53.
General allusion
to all of Isa 53.
Luke 24:46 (GNT)

koi rinrv oo+oi o+i
oo+ yrypon+oi no0ri v no0ri v no0ri v no0ri v
+o v pio+o v koi
ovoo+g voi rk vrkp v +g
+pi+g grpo,

Luke 24:25 is listed in the Index in NA
27
while the
UBS
3
Index lists Luke 24:27 and 24:46. All three verses are
listed as general allusions to Isa 53, no specific verse is
listed. Luke 24:25,27 are part of the pericope regarding a
conversation between two disciples and the resurrected
Jesus, whom they did not recognize. This discussion occurs
while they traveled on a road to Emmaus. The statement in
Luke 24:46 is included in a conversation that took place
later that evening when Jesus appears to eleven of his
disciples in Jerusalem.
Earlier in this book Luke quotes Isa five times,
including a quotation from Isa 53:12 in Luke 22:37.
However, the volume of all three of these allusions is low.
There is no specific lexical or grammatical coherence with
any passage in Isa 53 with the exception of 24:46.
In 24:25 the supposed allusion is a very general
and broad statement, "[to believe in] no oiv oi rXoXgoov oi
npo|g +oi," "[to believe in] everything which the prophets
spoke." Verse 24:27 is also very broad and states that

176
Jesus explains Scriptures from both the prophets and
"Moses."
269
It is apparent from the wide-ranging statements
in these two verses that certainly many more passages than
just those from Isa 53 were discussed.
One verse that I think could be an allusion to Isa
53 is not listed in either Index, and that is verse 26. It
says, ooi +oo +o rori no0ri v +o v pio+o v koi riorX0ri v ri +g v ooov
oo+oo , ("Was it not necessary for the Christ to suffer these
things and to enter into his glory?"). This verse
identifies two of the major themes of Isa 53, the suffering
and exaltation of the Servant. It is certain that the
passages discussed along the Emmaus road included Isa 53,
however it is also likely that many other passages were
discussed as well.
The third verse listed, Luke 24:46, is more
specific than the first two and mentions the "suffering" of
Jesus. However, like Luke 24:25,27, it is impossible to
limit the verses discussed to Isa 53.

Allusions in John
The NA
27
lists two allusions to Isa 53 while the

269
The first five books of the OT are known as the
Books of Moses; also known in Hebrew as the Torah "law"; or
in the LXX the Pentateuch.

177
UBS
3
lists one. Including the quotation from Isa 53 in John
12:38, the book of John contains four direct quotations
from Isa. In this section I will discuss proposed
allusions in John 1:29 and John 3:14.

John 1:29
Isaiah 53:7 (MT)

1V1 N11 U?1
1`D0nD` N71
731` 03D7 UJ
D7N1 `11 `1D7 70J1
1`D 0nD` N71

Isaiah 53:7 (LXX)

koi oo+o oio +o
rni o|oyg v g0g rni o|oyg v g0g rni o|oyg v g0g rni o|oyg v g0g koi
ovo ovo ovo ovo rvov+iov +oo rvov+iov +oo rvov+iov +oo rvov+iov +oo
kripov+o oo+o v kripov+o oo+o v kripov+o oo+o v kripov+o oo+o v o|vo
oo+ ook ovoiyri +o
o+oo oo+oo
John 1:29 (GNT)

Tg rnoopiov Xrnri +o v
lgooo v rporvov npo
oo+o v koi Xryri ior o o o o
ovo +oo 0roo o oipv ovo +oo 0roo o oipv ovo +oo 0roo o oipv ovo +oo 0roo o oipv
+g v oop+iov +oo +g v oop+iov +oo +g v oop+iov +oo +g v oop+iov +oo
koooo koooo koooo koooo.

Both the NA
27
and UBS
3
identify an allusion from Isa
53:7 in John 1:29 on the basis of the words o ovo +oo 0roo o
oipv +g v oop+iov +oo koooo ("the lamb of God who takes away
the sin of the world"). However, several other suggestions
have been made as the source of allusion in John 1:29,
including "the lamb of the sin-offering," and "the paschal
lamb."
270
Regarding the lamb of the sin offering I agree
with Dodd who points out that the bull, not the lamb, was

270
C. H. Dodd, The Interpretation of the Fourth
Gospel, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968), 233.
For a summary of these views see Dodd, Interpretation, 233-
238; and Raymond E. Brown, The Gospel According to John,
vol. 29, in The Anchor Bible (Garden City, NY: Doubleday,
1966), 58-63.

178
the customary animal for the sin-offering.
271
The paschal
lamb is a viable possibility because it is so prominent in
Jewish culture. It is also possible that Jesus was
crucified at the same time the Passover lambs were slain.
However there is no connection between the Passover lamb
and John's statement about taking away the sins of the
world.
The most likely source of this allusion is from Isa
53 for several reasons. First, it does use the terminology
of a lamb going to the slaughter in Isa 53:5. Second, in
Isa 53:10 the work of the Servant is identified as an DUN
"guilt offering." Finally, Isa 53:12 takes up the theme
that the Servant "bore the sin of many." These three
factors combined make an allusion, not only to Isa 53:7 but
also to Isa 53:10, 12. It is virtually certain that John
1:29 contains allusions to Isa 53.

John 3:14
Isaiah 52:13 (MT)

`13V 7`JU` 1
1ND 31 NU11 D1`

Isa 52:13 (LXX)

iooo oovgori o noi oo
koi o|0gor+oi o|0gor+oi o|0gor+oi o|0gor+oi koi
oooo0gor+oi o|oopo

John 3:14 (GNT)

Koi ko0 Moog
o| o| o| o|orv orv orv orv +o v o|iv rv +g
rpg, oo+ o|0g voi o|0g voi o|0g voi o|0g voi
ori +o v oiov +oo
ov0pnoo,

271
Dodd, Interpretation, 233.

179
John 3:14 is listed as an allusion to Isa 52:13 in
the NA
27
index. The relationship between the two verses
hinges on the word o|o which is used twice in John 3:14.
This verse is part of a discussion between Jesus and a
Pharisee named Nicodemus who is also a member of the Jewish
ruling council. Jesus is explaining to him the
requirements for a person to enter into the kingdom of God.
In the course of this conversation, in order to
illustrate his point, Jesus makes reference to an event
that occurred during the exodus under the leadership of
Moses. In Num 21:4-9, the Israelites were complaining
against God and Moses as they traveled through the desert.
As judgment, God sent venomous snakes among the people who
were bit with many of them dying. When the people realized
this was a judgment, they repented and asked Moses to
intervene. God told Moses to fashion a bronze snake and
put it on a pole and lift it up for all the people to see.
When they were bitten, they were instructed to look at the
bronze snake and through this act of faith they would be
healed.
With the background from Numbers in mind, John 3:14
does not appear to be an allusion to Isa 52:13. Jesus
states that the reference to "being lifted up" is
specifically linked to the event in Num. In addition, the

180
idea of being lifted up in Isa 52:13 is one of exaltation.
In John 3:14 it is a reference to the crucifixion of Jesus.
It is doubtful that this verse has any connection with Isa
53.

Allusions in Acts

Acts 3:13
Isaiah 52:13

`13V 7`JU` 1
1ND 31 NU11 D1`

Isaiah 53:11

N` 1UD1 7DVD
1nV13 V3U`
D`37 `13V `1Y `1Y`
73O` N1 Dn11V1

Isa 52:13 (LXX)
iooo oovgori o noi oo o noi oo o noi oo o noi oo
koi o|0gor+oi koi
oooo0gor+oi oooo0gor+oi oooo0gor+oi oooo0gor+oi o|oopo

Isaiah 53:11

ono +oo novoo +g
|og oo+oo ori oi
oo+ | koi nXoooi +g
oovrori oikoi ooi
oikoiov ro oooXroov+o oooXroov+o oooXroov+o oooXroov+o
noXXoi koi +o
oop+io oo+ v oo+o
ovoiori
Acts 3:13 (GNT)
o 0ro Apoo koi ,o
0ro looo k koi ,o 0ro
lok, o 0ro + v
no+rpv g v, roooorv roooorv roooorv roooorv
+o v noi oo oo+oo +o v noi oo oo+oo +o v noi oo oo+oo +o v noi oo oo+oo lgooo v
ov ori r v noproko+r
koi gpvgooo0r ko+o
npoonov HiXo+oo,
kpivov+o rkrivoo
onoXori

Acts 3:13 is thought to be an allusion to Isa 52:13
and 53:11 on the basis of the use of the term noi
"servant," and the verbs ooo "to glorify," and oooXro "to
serve." This verse is part of a sermon Peter preaches
outside of the Temple in Jerusalem immediately after
healing a lame man.
The Hebrew word 13V is used twice in Isa 53. In
52:13 it is joined with a pronoun to mean "my Servant," and
is translated in the LXX with noi also meaning "my

181
Servant." 13V is used in Isa 53:11 in the phrase "my
righteous Servant," while the LXX translator chose oooXro in
a participial form in the interpretive phrase "served the
many well."
The word noi is also used in the NT to mean
"servant," including eight times with the possessive
pronoun to refer to a "servant of the Lord." This
designation is used once to refer to Israel (Luke 1:53) and
twice to David (Luke 1:69; Acts 4:25). It is used in a
quotation from the first Servant Song in Matt 12:18 which
is applied to Jesus. The four remaining instances refer to
Jesus and are used by Luke in Acts (Acts 3:13,26; 4:27,
30).
If this is an allusion to Isa 53, it is on the
strength of Isa 52:13 with the repetition of noi and ooo.
However, there is no reason that Luke could not have looked
past the LXX's interpretive rendering of Isa 53:11 to the
Hebrew's "my righteous Servant."
The likelihood that this is a reference to Isa 53
is strengthened by the fact that Luke records Jesus'
quotation of part of Isa 53:12 in Luke 22:37, "he was
numbered with the transgressors." In addition, Luke also
quotes Isa 53:7-8 in Acts 8:32-33 in a passage where Philip

182
explains to the Ethiopian Eunuch that the Servant was
Jesus.
Peter also mentions in Acts 3:13 that the Jews
handed Jesus over to Pilate, probably bringing to mind the
unjust treatment of the Servant. It seems virtually
certain that this verse is an allusion to Isa 52:13 and
53:11.
Acts 10:43
Isaiah 53:5,6 (MT)

11VUDD 770D N11
11`n11VD NJ1D
1`7V 11D17U O1D
117ND1 1n3031

Isaiah 53:6

11`Vn }NYJ 117J
11`1D 1J17 U`N
13 V`?D 1`1
117J }1V nN
Isaiah 53:5,6 (LXX)

oo+o or r+pooo+io0g
oio +o ovoio ovoio ovoio ovoio g v koi
roXokio+oi oio +o
oop+io oop+io oop+io oop+io g v noiorio
ripgvg g v rn` oo+ov
+ Xni oo+oo gri
io0grv
Isaiah 53:6

nov+r npoo+o
rnXovg0grv ov0pno +g
oo oo+oo rnXovg0g koi
kopio noprokrv oo+o v noprokrv oo+o v noprokrv oo+o v noprokrv oo+o v
+oi oop+ioi g v +oi oop+ioi g v +oi oop+ioi g v +oi oop+ioi g v
Acts 10:43 (GNT)

+oo+ nov+r oi
npo|g +oi op+opoo oiv
o|roiv o|roiv o|roiv o|roiv oop+i v oop+i v oop+i v oop+i v
Xori v oio +oo
ovoo+o oo+oo nov+o
+o v nio+roov+o ri
oo+ov.

Acts 10:43 is the conclusion of a speech Peter
delivers at the home of a gentile centurion named
Cornelius. The emphasis of the speech is that the Lord is
the God of all men, not only the Jews. This is an
important realization to Peter and the early church. The
conclusion is that God will forgive the sins of all who
believe in the name of Jesus. The statement "all the

183
prophets" indicates that Peter is not thinking specifically
of Isa 53, although it is probable that that is one of the
passages he had in mind.

Conclusion
In this chapter I examined 22 allusions from Isa 53
in the Gospels and Acts. Of these 22, I determined that 19
of them were certain/virtually certain. However, 4 of
these 19 allusions, Luke 24:25, 27 and 46 and Acts 10:43,
consist of general references to the OT. It was determined
that while these verses must certainly refer to Isa 53,
there is no doubt that the writer also had other OT verses
in mind as well. Two of the allusions are considered
unlikely/doubtful, and one was probable/possible.
Of the eleven allusions that contain statements by
Jesus, nine of them were classified as certain/virtually
certain while two of them were unlikely/doubtful. Of the
certain sayings of Jesus, one of them regards his manner of
teaching. In Matt 13:16 Jesus explains to his disciples
the reason why he spoke in parables. The remaining eight
allusions that were classified certain/virtually certain
concern the end of Jesus' life.
Five of the eight allusions by Jesus regarding the
end of his life are predictions of his suffering and death

184
in Mark 8:31, 9:12, 9:31, 10:33-34, and Mark 10:45. Two of
them occur during the Last Supper. One of these allusions
is made when Jesus predicts his betrayal by Judas in Mark
14:21. The other Last Supper saying that contains an
allusion to Isa 53 occurs when Jesus states that his blood
will be poured out on behalf of many in Mark 14:24. The
final saying of Jesus that alludes to Isa 53 occurs when
Jesus is arrested in Mark 14:49.
Three other allusions that were determined
certain/virtually certain occur during the passion
narrative. Two of them record the silence of Jesus as he
stood in court before his accusers in Mark 14:60-61 and
Mark 15:4-5. The other allusion to Isa 53 is used when
Jesus is described as being crucified between two robbers.
The majority of the allusions that were deemed
certain/virtually certain concern the events of Jesus'
death.
The remaining two allusions classified as
certain/virtually certain are made by John the Baptist and
Peter. John the Baptist referred to Isa 53 when he
announced that Jesus is the Lamb of God in John 1:29, and
Peter called Jesus "my [God's] Servant Jesus" in Acts 3:13.
The one probable/possible allusion to Isa 53 occurs
during the passion narrative when Jesus is being mocked and

185
beaten by Roman soldiers in Mark 14:65. The two
unlikely/doubtful allusions are sayings of Jesus in Luke
11:22 "the strong man," and John 3:14 "the Son of Man must
be lifted up."

186

CHAPTER 7

IN THE PAULINE EPISTLES

Introduction

Paul is credited with writing thirteen books in the
NT. Of these thirteen, the NA
27
and UBS
3
lists only Rom, 1
Cor, and Phil as containing allusions to Isa 53. In this
chapter, I will examine a total of nine allusions from
these three epistles.

Allusions in Romans

In this epistle, Paul makes significant use of the
book of Isa, quoting it eighteen times, including two
quotes from Isa 53. Paul quotes Isa more than any other OT
book in Rom, and identifies Isaiah as a named speaker in
Rom five times. In this section, allusions to Rom 4:24,
25; 5:1, 15, and 19 will be discussed.

Romans 4:24, 4:25 and 5:1
Isaiah 53:12 (MT)

D`33 1770N }J7
Isaiah 53:12 (LXX)

oio +oo +o oo+o
Romans 4:24 (GNT)

oXXo koi oi` go , oi

187
77U 70` D`D1YVnN1
1UD1 n1D7 V UN n0n
1D1 D`VUDnN1
NU1 D`3ND0 N11
O V`?D` D`VUD71

kXgpovogori noXXoo
ri 0ovo+ov g |og
oo+oo koi rv +oi
ovooi rXoyio0g rXoyio0g rXoyio0g rXoyio0g koi
oo+o oop+io noXX v
oop+io oo+ v
noproo0g
rXXri Xoyiro0oi Xoyiro0oi Xoyiro0oi Xoyiro0oi, +oi
nio+rooooiv rni +o v
ryripov+o lgooov +o v
kopiov g v rk vrkp v,

Isaiah 53:4 (MT)

NU1 N1 11`70 }JN
D73O 11`3NJD1
V11 113U0 1101N1
1VD1 D`7N JD

Isa 53:5 (MT)

11VUDD 770D N11
11`n11VD NJ1D
1`7V 11D17U O1D
117ND1 1n3031

Isaiah 53:4 (LXX)

oo+o +o oop+io +o oop+io +o oop+io +o oop+io
g v |rpri g v |rpri g v |rpri g v |rpri koi nrpi
g v ooovo +oi koi gri
rv nov koi rv nXgyg
koi rv kokori

Isa 53:5 (LXX)

oo+o or r+pooo+io0g r+pooo+io0g r+pooo+io0g r+pooo+io0g
oio oio oio oio +o ovoio g v +o ovoio g v +o ovoio g v +o ovoio g v
koi roXokio+oi oio koi roXokio+oi oio koi roXokio+oi oio koi roXokio+oi oio
+o oop+io g v +o oop+io g v +o oop+io g v +o oop+io g v
noiorio ripgvg g v
rn` oo+ov + Xni
oo+oo gri io0grv
Romans 4:25 (GNT)

o noproo0g oio +o noproo0g oio +o noproo0g oio +o noproo0g oio +o
nopon+o+o g v nopon+o+o g v nopon+o+o g v nopon+o+o g v koi
gyrp0g oio +g v
oikoioiv g v oikoioiv g v oikoioiv g v oikoioiv g v.

Isa 53:5 (MT)

11VUDD 770D N11
11`n11VD NJ1D
1`7V 11D17U O1D
117ND1 1n3031

Isa 53:5 (LXX)

oo+o or r+pooo+io0g
oio +o ovoio g v
koi roXokio+oi oio
+o oop+io g v
noiorio ripgvg ripgvg ripgvg ripgvg g v
rn` oo+ov + Xni
oo+oo gri io0grv
Romans 5:1 (GNT)

Aikoi0rv+r oov rk
nio+r ripgvgv ripgvgv ripgvgv ripgvgv rorv
npo +o v 0ro v oio +oo
kopioo g v lgooo
Xpio+oo

The UBS
3
index lists only Rom 4:25 as containing an
allusion to Isa 53 while the NA
27
index included Rom 4:24,
25 and 5:1. Rom 4:24, 25 are part of the conclusion of a
discussion that began in Rom 4:1. In this passage, Paul

188
explains that Abraham was justified before God, not by his
works, but by faith. Rom 5:1 begins a new section where
Paul explains the benefit of justification through faith.
The only verse of the three that seems to have a real
connection with Isa 53 is Rom 4:25.
Paul explained in Rom 4:24 that righteousness will
be credited to those who believe in God, who raised Jesus
from the dead. Rom 4:24 is listed as an allusion to Isa
53:12 because both verses contain the word Xoyiooi; however,
the word is used in a different context in each verse. In
Isa 53:12 the Servant is "reckoned" with the lawless, while
in Rom 4:24 it refers to those who will be "reckoned" with
the righteous. The only thought in Isa 53:12 that may
connect with Rom 4:24 is the idea that the Servant was
handed over to death. However, the emphasis in Rom 4:24 is
not death but the resurrection. It is doubtful that Rom
4:24 alludes to Isa 53:12.
The allusion listed for Rom 5:1 from Isa 53:5 has a
closer connection than the one just discussed from Rom 4:24
and Isa 53:12. A small measure of volume exists between
Rom 5:1 and Isa 53:5 because word ripgvg is found in both.
In Rom 5:1 Paul states that peace with God is possible
because of justification acquired by faith. In Isa 53:5
forgiveness of sins is secured by the "chastisement of

189
peace" that the Servant endured. These two themes (peace
acquired by faith in Rom 5:1) and (chastisement that
produces peace in Isa 53:5) do not cohere well. In Isa 53,
forgiveness was wrought by the chastisement of the Servant,
while in Rom 5:1 it is by faith. Even though it is clear
that Paul had Isa in mind throughout the book of Rom,
including Isa 53, it does not seem that this verse alludes
to Isa 53:5. That Isa 53:5 is alluded to in Rom 5:1 is
doubtful.
Most scholars agree that Paul alluded to Isa 53 in
Rom 4:25, and the verse actually contains two separate
allusions. However, the verses chosen as the source of
these allusions differ. The UBS
3
lists Isa 53:4, 5 as the
source of the allusion while the NA
27
cites only Isa 53:5.
Other verses suggested are Isa 53:11-12. The words noproo0g
oio +o nopon+o+o g v ("he was handed over for our
trespasses") are similar in thought to +o oop+io g v |rpri
("he bore our sins") in Isa 53:4 and r+pooo+io0g oio +o ovoio
g v koi roXokio+oi oio +o oop+io g v ("He was wounded
because of our transgressions, He was sick because of our
sins").
While the ideas in these verses correspond, it
seems that a better source of the allusion is Isa 53:12
where the passive of nopooioi is also used in the phrase oio

190
+o oop+io oo+ v noproo0g ("he was handed over because of
their sins"). Only two rather minor changes are made by
Paul from this phrase. First, the pronoun is different
because in Isa 53:12 the Lord is speaking. The other
change is with the word that stands for "sin,
transgression." Paul used nopon+o while the LXX used
oop+io. It is possible Paul uses nopon+o either for
variety or to prepare the reader for the discussion that
follows. The word nopon+o occurs in Rom eight times,
however, Paul uses it six times between Rom 4:25 and Rom
5:20. Several times the word appears to by used as a
synonym for oop+io.
The second allusion is found in Rom 4:25b +g v
oikoioiv g v "our righteousness," which could correspond to
Isa 53:5b noiorio ripgvg g v rn` oo+ov + Xni oo+oo gri io0grv
("The discipline of peace was upon him, We were healed by
his bruise"). Paul explicitly states what is implied in
Isa 53:5b, that the healing refers to forgiveness of sins,
to be made righteous before God. Perhaps a better source
for this allusion is Isa 53:11. However, Paul would have
had to rely on the Hebrew which he certainly knew well D`37
`13V `1Y `1Y` 1nV13 ("By his knowledge my righteous servant
will justify many"). The Hebrew speaks of the Servant
justifying many while the LXX renders this phrase in terms

191
of the vindication of the Servant. It is virtually certain
that Rom 4:25 is an allusion to Isa 53:4,5 and 11,12.

Romans 5:15 and 5:19

Isaiah 53:11 (MT)

N` 1UD1 7DVD
1nV13 V3U`
D`37 `13V `1Y `1Y`
73O` N1 Dn11V1

Isaiah 53:12 (MT)

D`33 1770N }J7
77U 70` D`D1YVnN1
1UD1 n1D7 V UN n0n
1D1 D`VUDnN1
NU1 D`3ND0 N11
O V`?D` D`VUD71
Isaiah 53:11 (LXX)

ono +oo novoo +g
|og oo+oo ori oi
oo+ | koi nXoooi +g
oovrori oikoi ooi
oop+io oo+ v oo+o
ovoiori

Isaiah 53:12 (LXX)

oio +oo +o oo+o
kXgpovogori noXXoo noXXoo noXXoo noXXoo
ri 0ovo+ov g |og
oo+oo koi rv +oi
ovooi rXoyio0g koi
oo+o oop+io noXX v noXX v noXX v noXX v
oop+io oo+ v
noproo0g
Romans 5:15 (GNT)

AXX` oo +o
nopon+o, oo+ koi
+o opioo ri yo p +
+oo rvo nopon+o+i oi oi oi oi
noXXoi noXXoi noXXoi noXXoi onr0ovov, noXX
o XXov g opi +oo 0roo
koi g opro rv opi+i
+g +oo rvo ov0pnoo
lgooo Xpio+oo ri +oo +oo +oo +oo
noXXoo noXXoo noXXoo noXXoo rnrpiooroorv.

Isaiah 53:11 (MT)

N` 1UD1 7DVD
1nV13 V3U`
D`37 `13V `1Y `1Y`
73O` N1 Dn11V1

Isaiah 53:11 (LXX)

ono +oo novoo +g
|og oo+oo ori oi
oo+ | koi nXoooi +g
oovrori oikoi ooi
oop+io oo+ v oo+o
ovoiori
Roma 5:19 (GNT)

onrp yo p oio +g
nopokog +oo rvo
ov0pnoo oop+Xoi
ko+ro+o0goov oi noXXoi oi noXXoi oi noXXoi oi noXXoi,
oo+ koi oio +g
onokog +oo rvo oikoioi oikoioi oikoioi oikoioi
ko+oo+o0goov+oi oi ko+oo+o0goov+oi oi ko+oo+o0goov+oi oi ko+oo+o0goov+oi oi
noXXoi noXXoi noXXoi noXXoi.

The NA
27
lists Rom 5:15 as an allusion to Isa
53:11f. while UBS
3
omits this allusion. A common allusion
listed by both the UBS
3
and NA
27
is Romans 5:19 to Isa

192
53:11. These verse are included in a passage (Rom 5:12-21)
where Paul considers the effect of Adam's sin and Jesus'
obedience.
In respect to volume, points of contact in both
verses 15 and 19 are the references to "the many"
represented in Romans 5:15 by oi noXXoi and +oo noXXoo , and in
Rom 5:19 by oi noXXoi, and oikoioi ko+oo+o0goov+oi oi noXXoi ("the
many will be made righteous"). Because the LXX translation
of Isa 53:11 refers to the vindication of the Servant, Paul
must have had the Hebrew in mind; however, that does not
rule out that he gleaned oi noXXoi from the LXX of Isa
53:11,12.
Morna Hooker does not think that the use of the
word noXXoi in this passage provides sufficient evidence that
it refers to Isa 53:
The use of the word noXXoi in Rom. 5.19 depends upon
the rhetorical contrast between the one man and the
result for the many. The passage thus has a certain
similarity to Isa. 53, where the same contrast is made,
but this is no justification for claiming that Paul's
argument derives from that chapter. Indeed, in the
whole of the section Rom. 5.12-21 he does not mention
the sufferings or the death of Christ.
272

Hooker is correct in stating that Paul does not

272

193
mention the sufferings or death of Christ in this passage.
However, these ideas are certainly implied in this text.
What is more, if Adam is recognized in the OT as the person
who caused sin to enter the world, then the OT figure who
resolved that problem was the Servant. The themes in Isa
53 and Rom cohere as well. The passages in Rom and Isa 53
explain what one person did for the "many," and in both,
the word noXXoi is repeated several times. It is virtually
certain that Paul intended his readers to recognize an
allusion in Rom 5:15, 19.

Allusions in 1 Corinthians

1 Corinthians 2:9
Isaiah 52:15 (MT)

D`3 D`1? \` }J
D`D D`J7D 1YD` 1`7V
1N D7 DON7 UN `J
11113n 1VDUN7 UN1

Isaiah 52:15 (LXX)

oo+ 0ooooov+oi r0vg
noXXo rn` oo+ koi
oovroooiv ooiXri +o
o+oo oo+ v o+i oi ook oi ook oi ook oi ook
ovgyyrXg nrpi oo+oo ovgyyrXg nrpi oo+oo ovgyyrXg nrpi oo+oo ovgyyrXg nrpi oo+oo
o|ov+ o|ov+ o|ov+ o|ov+oi koi oi ook oi koi oi ook oi koi oi ook oi koi oi ook
okgkoooiv oovgooooiv okgkoooiv oovgooooiv okgkoooiv oovgooooiv okgkoooiv oovgooooiv
1 Cor 2:9 (GNT)

oXXo ko0 yrypon+oi o o o o
o|0oXo ook ri o|0oXo ook ri o|0oXo ook ri o|0oXo ook ri orv koi orv koi orv koi orv koi
oo oo oo oo ook gkooorv ook gkooorv ook gkooorv ook gkooorv koi rni
kopoiov ov0pnoo ook
ovrg, o g+oioorv o
0ro +oi oyon oiv
oo+ov.

Both UBS
3
and NA
27
list 1 Cor 2:9 as an allusion to
Isa 52:15. Few of the authors presented in the Review of
Literature discuss this verse as having any special
relationship with Isa 53.
If an allusion to Isa 53 is intended, it is with
the idea of the eyes seeing and the ears hearing that which

194
was not previously known. While there is some similarity
between the two verses, there is a better source for this
allusion.
Many commentators, such as Soards
273
, Fee
274
, and
Grosheide
275
see 1 Cor 2:7 as an amalgamation of the LXX of
Isa 64:4 and 65:17.
276
Grosheide says, "The view that Paul
quotes the Old Testament, using passages like Is. 64:4, LXX
(64:3 in the Hebrew) for the first and the last part of the
quotation and Is. 65:17 for the middle, remains the most
plausible one."
277
Because it seems evident that other

273
Marion L. Soards, 1 Corinthians, vol. 7, in The
New International Biblical Commentary (Peabody, MA:
Hendrickson, 1999), 59.

274
Gordon D. Fee, The First Epistle to the
Corinthians in The New International Commentary on the New
Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987), 108-109.

275
F[rederik] W[illem] Grosheide, Commentary on the
First Epistle to the Corinthians, in The New International
Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1953), 66.

276
Isa 64:3 (LXX) (Isa 64:4 in BHS) ono +oo oi vo ook ook ook ook
gkoooorv gkoooorv gkoooorv gkoooorv ooor oi o|0oXoi g v ri ooor oi o|0oXoi g v ri ooor oi o|0oXoi g v ri ooor oi o|0oXoi g v ri oov 0ro v oov 0ro v oov 0ro v oov 0ro v nXg v ooo koi +o rpyo ooo o o o o
noigori +oi ono noigori +oi ono noigori +oi ono noigori +oi onorvoooiv rXrov rvoooiv rXrov rvoooiv rXrov rvoooiv rXrov 4 oovov+gor+; Isa 64:3 (LXX) ono +oo
oi vo ook gkoooorv ooor oi o|0oXoi g v rioov 0ro v nXg v ooo koi +o
rpyo ooo o noigori +oi onorvoooiv rXrov; Isa 65:17 (LXX) ro+oi yo p o
oopovo koivo koi g yg koivg koi oo g vgo0 oiv + v npo+rpv ooo` oo g
rnrX0g oo+ v rni +g v kopoiov rni +g v kopoiov rni +g v kopoiov rni +g v kopoiov

277
Grosheide, 66.

195
specific verses in the OT are alluded to, it is unlikely
that 1 Cor 2:9 is an allusion to Isa 53.

1 Corinthians 5:7
Isaiah 53:7 (MT)

1V1 N11 U?1
1`D0nD` N71
731` 03D7 UJ
D7N1 `11 `1D7 70J1
1`D 0nD` N71

Isaiah 53:7 (LXX)

koi oo+o oio +o
rni o|oyg v g0g koi rni o|oyg v g0g koi rni o|oyg v g0g koi rni o|oyg v g0g koi
ovo ovo ovo ovo rvov+iov +oo
oo+ ook ovoiyri +o
o+oo oo+oo
1 Cor 5:7 (GNT)

rkko0opo+r +g v noXoio v
ogv, ivo g+r vrov
|opoo, ko0 ro+r
oooi koi yo p +o
nooo nooo nooo nooo g v r+o0g
Xpio+o.

USB lists 1 Cor 5:7 as an allusion to Isa 53:7. In
the passage that incorporated this verse, Paul discusses
how the church body is defiled when it knowingly tolerates
members who are engaged in sexual immorality. The
relationship between 1 Cor 5:7 and Isa 53:7 is that of a
sacrificial lamb. In 1 Cor 5:7 Christ is referred to as
the nooo, which in this context stands for the paschal lamb
that each family sacrificed on the Passover. In Isa 53:7
the picture is a lamb to be slaughtered, perhaps as a
sacrifice. While both verses mention sacrificing or
slaughtering a lamb, the theme of the two verses is
different.
1 Cor 5:6-8 focuses on the elements of the
Passover, particularly the command to avoid the use of
yeast, which is a metaphor for sin. Paul states that just

196
as a little yeast leavens the whole batch of dough, so the
sin of one person will affect the entire church body. Paul
gives this directive regarding sin on the basis that Jesus
was the Christian Passover lamb and the Christian had a
greater obligation to holy living. The topic of proper
ethical living is not an important theme in Isa 53. With
the statement in 1 Cor 5:7 embedded in a context of the
Passover, it is doubtful that Paul had Isa 53 in mind.

1 Corinthians 15:3
Isaiah 53:5

11VUDD 770D N11
11`n11VD NJ1D
1`7V 11D17U O1D
117ND1 1n3031

Isaiah 53:8

0,7 DDUDD1 YVD
001U` `D 111nN1
D``0 |ND 11 `J
1D7 V1 `DV VUDD

Isaiah 53:9

13 D`VUnN }n`1
1`nD3 ÙVnN1
UV OD0N7 7V
1`D3 DD N71
Isaiah 53:5

oo+o or r+pooo+io0g
oio +o ovoio g v oio +o ovoio g v oio +o ovoio g v oio +o ovoio g v
koi roXokio+oi oio oio oio oio
+o oop+io g v +o oop+io g v +o oop+io g v +o oop+io g v
noiorio ripgvg g v
rn` oo+ov + Xni
oo+oo gri io0grv

Isaiah 53:8

rv +g +onrivori g
kpioi oo+oo gp0g +g v
yrvro v oo+oo +i
oigygor+oi o+i oipr+oi
ono +g yg g g
oo+oo ono + v ovoi v ono + v ovoi v ono + v ovoi v ono + v ovoi v
+oo Xooo oo g0g ri +oo Xooo oo g0g ri +oo Xooo oo g0g ri +oo Xooo oo g0g ri
0ovo+ov 0ovo+ov 0ovo+ov 0ovo+ov

Isaiah 53:9

koi oo +oo novgpoo oo +oo novgpoo oo +oo novgpoo oo +oo novgpoo
ov+i +g +o|g oo+oo ov+i +g +o|g oo+oo ov+i +g +o|g oo+oo ov+i +g +o|g oo+oo
koi +oo nXoooioo ov+i koi +oo nXoooioo ov+i koi +oo nXoooioo ov+i koi +oo nXoooioo ov+i
+oo 0ovo+oo +oo 0ovo+oo +oo 0ovo+oo +oo 0ovo+oo oo+oo o+i
ovoiov ook rnoigorv
1Cor 15:3 (GNT)

noproko yo p oi v rv
np+oi, o koi
noprXoov, o+i Xpio+o
onr0ovrv onr0ovrv onr0ovrv onr0ovrv onr p + v onr p + v onr p + v onr p + v
oop+i v g v oop+i v g v oop+i v g v oop+i v g v ko+o +o
ypo|o

197

Isaiah 53:12

D`33 1770N }J7
77U 70` D`D1YVnN1
1UD1 n1D7 V UN n0n
1D1 D`VUDnN1
NU1 D`3ND0 N11
O V`?D` D`VUD71

o+oo+i oo+oo

Isaiah 53:12

oio +oo +o oo+o
kXgpovogori noXXoo
ri 0ovo+ov g |og
oo+oo koi rv +oi
ovooi rXoyio0g koi
oo+o oop+io noXX v oo+o oop+io noXX v oo+o oop+io noXX v oo+o oop+io noXX v
ovgvrykrv ovgvrykrv ovgvrykrv ovgvrykrv koi oio +o oio +o oio +o oio +o
oop+io oo+ v oop+io oo+ v oop+io oo+ v oop+io oo+ v

UBS
3
and NA
27
both list 1 Cor 15:3 as an allusion to
Isa 53:8,9 while the NA
27
also lists allusions to Isa 53:5
and 53:12. The most important theme of this verse is the
reason for Jesus' death. Paul explains that Jesus died,
onr p + v oop+i v g v ("for our sins"). He also makes it
clear that the significance of Jesus' death fulfilled
scripture by claiming it occurred ko+o +o ypo|o .
There is no other passage in the OT that clearly
pictures an individual dying on behalf of the sins of
others than Isa 53. What is more, this theme is repeated
numerous times in Isa 53: Isa 53:4a oo+o +o oop+io g v |rpri
("this one bears our sins"); Isa 53:5a oo+o or r+pooo+io0g oio
+o ovoio g v ("He was wounded because of our
transgressions"); Isa 53:5b roXokio+oi oio +o oop+io g v
("He was sick because of our sins"); Isa 53:6b kopio

198
noprokrv oo+o v +oi oop+ioi g v ("the Lord laid on him our
sins"); Isa 53:8d ono + v ovoi v +oo Xooo oo g0g ri 0ovo+ov
("From the lawless conduct of my people he was led to
death");
278
Isa 53:11d +o oop+io oo+ v oo+o ovoiori ("he will
bear their sins"); and Isa 53:12 oo+o oop+io noXX v ovgvrykrv
("he took upon himself the sins of many").
Morna Hooker argues that this passage does not
contain an allusion to Isa 53. Her reason for discounting
an allusion in this verse is because ko+o +o ypo|o refers
only to Jesus' death, and not to the reason for that death,
onr p + v oop+i v g v ("for our sins"). In an effort to
substantiate this view she examines several sermons in
Acts, including one delivered by Paul, in Acts 13:26-41.
Regarding the fifth and final element, which concerns the
meaning of Christ's death, Hooker writes, "Through him
forgiveness of sins is proclaimed."
279
While Hooker states
that forgiveness of sins was part of the meaning of Jesus'
death she immediately explains, "in Luke's account the

278
The LXX is somewhat interpretive at this point,
however the meaning is close enough to the Hebrew that Paul
could have relied on the LXX wording. 1D7 V1 `DV VUDD D``0
|ND 11 `J "For my people's transgression, The stroke was
upon him."

279
Hooker, 118.

199
forgiveness of sins is not directly connected with Christ's
death, but is proclaimed at the end of the narrative."
280

Her statements contradict each other, and her
effort to disassociate the death of Jesus with the meaning
for it falls short. Similarly, her effort to remove the
idea in Rom 15:3 that Jesus died for our sins according to
the scripture also fails. It seems virtually certain that
Rom 15:3 contains an allusion to several passages in Isa 53
including Isa 53:4,5,8,9,11, and 12.
281

280
Ibid.

281
Otfried Hofius provided this helpful summary for
other possible allusions between Rom 15:3-4 and Isa 53: I
believe that the following points of contact are evident
between Isaiah 53 and the four members of the catechetical
summary in 1 Cor. 15:3b-5:

I. onr0ovrv onr p + v oop+i v g v, "[Christ] died for our
sins": Isa. 53:4a, 5, 6b, 8b, 11b, 12b-c.
II. r+o|g, "he was buried": Isa. 53:9a.
III. rygyrpo+oi, "he was raised": Isa. 53:10b, 11a (on
"seeing light" as a metaphor for "living" see
below n. 68); also 52:13 (the Servant's
exaltation).
IV. |0g, "he appeared": Isa. 52:15b; 53:1 (the report
about the victory won by the Servant and his
unique exaltation). Otfried Hofius, "The Fourth
Servant Song in the New Testament Letters,"
trans. Daniel P. Bailey, ed. Bernd Janowski and
Peter Stuhlmacher, in The Suffering Servant:
Isaiah 53 in Jewish and Christian Sources (Grand

200
Allusion in Philippians

Philippians 2:7
Isaiah 53:3 (MT)

DÙ`N 7101 131
`70 V11`1 n13NJD U`N
11DD D`1D nODJ1
113U0 N71 131

Isaiah 53:11

N` 1UD1 7DVD
1nV13 V3U`
D`37 `13V `1Y `1Y`
73O` N1 Dn11V1

Isaiah 53:3 (LXX)

oXXo +o rioo oo+oo
o+iov rkXri nov nopo
nov+o ov0pnoo
ov0pno ov0pno ov0pno ov0pno rv nXgyg v
koi rio |rpriv
oXokiov o+i
onro+pon+oi +o
npoonov oo+oo
g+ioo0g koi ook
rXoyio0g

Isaiah 53:11

ono +oo novoo +g
|og oo+oo ori oi
oo+ | koi nXoooi +g
oovrori oikoi ooi
oikoiov ro oooXroov+o oooXroov+o oooXroov+o oooXroov+o
noXXoi koi +o
oop+io oo+ v oo+o
ovoiori
Phil 2:7 (GNT)

oXXo roo+o v rkrvorv rkrvorv rkrvorv rkrvorv
op|g v oooXoo Xov op|g v oooXoo Xov op|g v oooXoo Xov op|g v oooXoo Xov, rv rv rv rv
ooio+i ov0pnv ooio+i ov0pnv ooio+i ov0pnv ooio+i ov0pnv
yrvorvo yrvorvo yrvorvo yrvorvo koi ogo+i
ropr0ri ov0pno
ovoo,

NA
27
identifies Isa 53:3 and 53:11 as allusions to
Phil 2:7 while the UBS
3
does not list any. Phil 2:7 is
part of a passage(verses 2:5-11) that has generally been
accepted as a hymn based on the 1927 dissertation of Ernst
Lohmeyer.
282
In this "hymn" verses 6-8 express the humility

282
Fred B. Craddock, Philippians, in Interpretation
(Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1985), 39. There are also those
who still question whether this passage is a "poem" or
"hymn" at all such as Gordon Fee; Gordon D. Fee, Paul's
Letter to the Philippians, in The New International

201
of Jesus, while verses 9-11 His vindication and
exaltation.
283
Moytner makes an interesting observation
about this passage. He says that it is "virtually unique"
because it allows the reader to understand the work of
Christ on the cross not as history, as presented in the
gospels, nor its meaning, as discussed in other parts of
the NT, but from the perspective of Jesus Himself,
revealing His "thoughts and motives."
284

The relationship between Phil 2:7 and the two
verses listed in the NA
27
is not often discussed by
commentators. The correspondence between Isa 53:3 and Phil
2:7 is that Jesus, like the Servant, was a man. The
difference is that the Servant was a man, while Jesus is
God and became a man. It may be implied from other parts
of Isa 53 that the Servant was more than a man, but the
words of Isa 53:3 do not indicate this. However, Phil 2:7
says that Jesus took on the form of a man. These two ideas

Commentary on the New Testament, (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1995), 192-193.

283
Markus Bockmuehl, The Epistle to the Philippians,
vol. 11, in Blacks New Testament Commentaries (Peabody,

284
J. A. Motyner, The Message of Philippians, in The
Bible Speaks Today (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press
1966), 73.

202
are very different and it does not appear that Paul was
alluding to Isa 53:3 in Phil 2:7.
A more likely allusion is the connection between
the verb oooXro "to serve," in Isa 53:11 and the noun ooo Xo
"servant," in Phil 2:7.
285
Not only are both the Servant
and Jesus identified as acting like servants, but both
passages contain the themes of exaltation and humiliation.
It is very likely that Phil 2:7 is an allusion to Isa
53:11.
While the NA
27
lists Isa 53:3 and 53:11 as allusions
to Isa 53, interestingly, most commentators discuss Phil
2:7 in relationship with Isa 53:12 on the basis of the word
krvo "to empty, make empty." The point of contact with
this term in Isa 53:12 is the phrase "he poured out his
soul to death," and hearkens back to the Hebrew 1UD1 n1D7
V. Perhaps some correspondence exists between the two
passages, but ultimately they are very different. The
relationship is that both Jesus and the Servant "poured
out," or "emptied," themselves of something. However, what
each one "poured out," is not the same. In Isa 53:12 the

285
As explained earlier, oooXro is used to translate
13V "servant" in Isa 53:11. The Hebrew phrase is "my
righteous Servant," while the LXX translator rendered the
interpretive phrase "to serve the many well." 13V is also
used in Isa 52:13 and is translated in the LXX by noi .

203
phrase the Servant "poured out his soul to death," means he
died. The reference in Phil 2:7 is that Jesus emptied
himself of his deity.
286
This allusion lacks the necessary
thematic correspondence and therefore it is unlikely that
Phil 2:7 is an allusion on the basis of Isa 53:12.

Conclusion
Nine allusions to Isa 53 are examined in this
chapter. Five of these allusions are classified as
unlikely/doubtful; the other four are certain/virtually
certain.
Three of the certain/virtually certain allusions
are from Rom. In Rom 4:25, Paul alludes to Isa 53 when he
says, "He was delivered over to death for our sins and was
raised to life for our justification." (NIV) In Rom 5:15,
19 Paul alludes to Isa 53 largely through the use of oi
noXXoi. The remaining allusion considered certain/virtually
certain comes from 1 Cor 15:3, where Paul alludes to six
verses in Isa 53 to convey that idea "Christ died for our
sins." (NIV)

286
The concept that Jesus emptied himself of his
deity is know as the kenotic theory. For a summary of this
theory see Jacobus Johannes Mller, The Epistles of Paul to
the Philippians and to Philemon: the English Text with
Introduction, Exposition and Notes, in The New

204
Two of the allusions that were classified as
unlikely/doubtful are Rom 4:24 and Rom 5:1. Both of these
verses are part of Paul's explanation regarding the nature
of God's justification. 1 Cor 2:9 is a quotation that I
concluded is an amalgamation of statements from parts of
the OT other than Isa 53. The remaining verses that
probably do not include an allusion to Isa 53 are 1 Cor 5:7
and Phil 2:7. In 1 Cor 5:7, Paul discusses an ethical
matter, and Phil 2:7, is part of a hymn about Jesus.

International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans, 1955), 83-85.

205

CHAPTER 8


IN THE GENERAL EPISTLES AND REVELATION

Introduction

This chapter is devoted to eight allusions from Isa
53 in the General Epistles and Rev. Heb, 1 Pet, and 1 John
each contain one possible allusion while Rev has five.

Hebrews 9:28
Isaiah 53:12 (MT)

D`33 1770N }J7
77U 70` D`D1YVnN1
1UD1 n1D7 V UN n0n
1D1 D`VUDnN1
NU1 D`3ND0 N11
O V`?D` D`VUD71

Isaiah 53:12 (LXX)

oio +oo +o oo+o
kXgpovogori noXXoo
ri 0ovo+ov g |og
oo+oo koi rv +oi
ovooi rXoyio0g koi
oo+o oop+io noXX v oo+o oop+io noXX v oo+o oop+io noXX v oo+o oop+io noXX v
ovgvrykrv ovgvrykrv ovgvrykrv ovgvrykrv koi oio +o
oop+io oo+ v
noproo0g
Hebrews 9:28 (GNT)

oo+ koi o Xpio+o
ono npoorvr0ri ri ri ri ri
+o noXX v ovrvrykri v +o noXX v ovrvrykri v +o noXX v ovrvrykri v +o noXX v ovrvrykri v
oop+io oop+io oop+io oop+io rk oro+rpoo
pi oop+io
o|0gor+oi +oi oo+ov
onrkororvoi ri
o+gpiov.

The writer of Heb makes extensive use of the OT
especially from the Pentateuch and Pss, and expects his
readers to have familiarity with the OT. He makes almost

206
exclusive use of the LXX as his source text.
287
According
to the "Index of Allusions" in the NA
27
, Heb lists four
quotations and twenty allusions to Isa; nine of the
allusions are from Deutero-Isaiah. Based on this large
number of allusions from Isa it is evident that the author
could have had in mind an allusion to Isa 53 in Heb 9:28.
The point of contact between Isa 53:12 and Heb 9:28
is the phrase ri +o noXX v ovrvrykri v oop+io ,"he took upon
himself the sins of many"), and the oo+o oop+io noXX v
ovgvrykrv ("he bore the sins of many"). There is close
verbal correspondence between the LXX and the NT as the
words noXo (both genitive masculine plural), oop+io (both
accusative feminine plural), and ovo|rp are found in both
verses. The only change is in the verb ovo|rp, which is an
aorist indicative third person singular in the LXX and an
aorist infinitive in the NT. In the LXX the subject of the
verb is "Servant" while in the NT it is "Christ." The
correspondence is even more compelling since Isa 53:11 and
53:12 are the only places in the LXX where the word ovo|rp
(instead of o|oipr) is used with oop+io as in the Heb. 9:28

287
Leon Morris, Hebrews, vol. 12, in Expositor's
Bible Commentary, ed. Frank E. Gaebelein, (Grand Rapids:
Zondervan, 1981), 7.

207
phrase noXX v ovrvrykri v oop+io.
288

Rhetorical stress is placed on Verse 28 because it
is the climax of the immediate section. In verse 28 the
writer explains that Christ's sacrifice of himself is the
final solution to sin. The author of Heb states that in
the past, sacrifices were made often. Emphasis on the idea
that Christ was sacrificed "once," and to "bear the sins of
many" concludes this verse. By referring back to Isa
53:12, the author is using this allusion to strengthen his
argument, showing that God's purpose was fulfilled. The
fact that a phrase similar to the one in Heb 9:28 is also
found in 1 Pet, +o oop+io g v oo+o ovgvrykrv, is an
indication that this concept was probably an important one
within the early church and that the reader could and would
understand its meaning. Many scholars recognize an
allusion in Heb 9:28 from Isa 53 including Morna Hooker,
Otfried Hofius and William Farmer.
289
It is virtually
certain that Heb 9:28 contains an allusion to Isa 53:12.

288
J. Cecil McCullough, "Isaiah in Hebrews," Isaiah
in the New Testament, ed. Steve Moise and Maarten J. J.
Menken (New York: T. & T. Clark, 2005), 168.

289
New Testament (London: SPCK, 1959), 123-124; Otfried
Hofius, "The Fourth Servant Song in the New Testament
Letters," trans. Daniel P. Bailey, ed. Bernd Janowski and

208

1 Peter 1:11
No Specific Hebrew
Text
No Specific LXX
Text
1Peter 1:11 (GNT)

rpoov v+r ri +ivo g
noi ov koipo v rogXoo +o
rv oo+oi nvro o
Xpio+oo
npoop+oporvov +o ri
Xpio+o v no0go+o koi
+o r+o +oo +o ooo.

UBS
3
lists 1 Pet 1:11 as an allusion to Isa 53:1
while the NA
27
does not. There is no question that Peter
has Isa 53 in mind in this book. In addition to the
extended passage in 1 Pet 2:22-25, Peter quotes the book of
Isa five other times.
1 Pet 1:11 is considered a general allusion to Isa
53 and there is very little evidence in terms of specific
verbal repetition between this verse and Isa 53. The
closest parallel is the noun ooo ("glory"), and the verb
ooo ("glorify"). However, one of the main themes of Isa
53 is the suffering of the Servant and his subsequent
glorification.

Jewish and Christian Sources (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
2004), 184-185; William R. Farmer, "Reflections on Isaiah
53 and Christian Origins," in Jesus and the Suffering
Trinity, 1998), 262.

209
In this section of 1 Pet, the author points out
that what the prophets said in the past about the suffering
and glory of the Christ was predictive in nature. In
reference to Isa 53, there is no other passage in the OT
that so distinctly emphasizes both the suffering and glory
of the Servant. The fact that both the suffering and glory
of the Christ are mentioned would fit very well with the
theme here in 1 Pet. The major objection to a connection
between the two is that the author uses the plural
"prophets." This would seem to indicate that he is
referring to other portions of scripture besides, or in
addition to, Isa 53.
Hooker acknowledges, "There is no doubt that Isa.
53 was to the author an outstanding example of the
prefiguring of Christ's suffering and glory." However, she
does not see an exclusive reference to Isa 53, and states
that this reference to the Old Testament is of a general
nature and "'the prophets' implies the whole prophetic
tradition rather than any one particular passage."
290

Hofius' evaluation of the relationship between Isa 53 and 1
Pet 1:11 seems stronger than Hooker's statement. Hofius
writes, "That the writer of the letter is thinking here

290
Hooker, 124.

210
primarily of the fourth Servant Song is made clear by the
texts 2:21-25 and 3:18."
291
It is virtually certain that 1
Pet 1:11 is an allusion to Isa 53, however, Peter certainly
must have other OT passages in mind as well.

1 John 3:5
Isaiah 53:9 (MT)

13 D`VUnN }n`1
1`nD3 ÙVnN1
UV OD0N7 7V
1`D3 DD N71

Isaiah 53:11 (MT)

N` 1UD1 7DVD
1nV13 V3U`
D`37 `13V `1Y `1Y`
73O` N1 Dn11V1

Isaiah 53:9 (LXX)

koi oo +oo novgpoo
ov+i +g +o|g oo+oo
ovoiov ook rnoigorv ovoiov ook rnoigorv ovoiov ook rnoigorv ovoiov ook rnoigorv
o+oo+i oo+oo

Isaiah 53:11 (MT)

ono +oo novoo +g
|og oo+oo ori oi
oo+ | koi nXoooi +g
oovrori oikoi ooi
noXXoi koi +o
oop+io oo+ v oo+o oop+io oo+ v oo+o oop+io oo+ v oo+o oop+io oo+ v oo+o
ovoiori ovoiori ovoiori ovoiori
1John 3:5 (GNT)

koi oioo+r o+i rkri vo
r|ovrp0g, ivo +o
oop+io opg, oop+io opg, oop+io opg, oop+io opg, koi
oop+io rv oo+ ook oop+io rv oo+ ook oop+io rv oo+ ook oop+io rv oo+ ook
ro+iv ro+iv ro+iv ro+iv.

Both the NA
27
and UBS
3
list 1 John 3:5 as an
allusion to Isa 53:9 even though there is a lack of exact
verbal correspondence. John does not make much use of Isa
53 elsewhere in this epistle. According to NA
27
, there are
no quotations at all from Isa, and only three other
possible allusions. The key phrase in 1 John 3:5 is oop+io

291
Hofius, 185.

211
rv oo+ ook ro+iv ("in him is no sin"), which is believed to
correspond to Isa 53:9 ovoiov ook rnoigorv ,"he committed no
lawless deeds).
The words oop+io and ovoio meaning "sin/lawless
deeds," are very similar in meaning and often used as
synonyms. However, it appears that in John's community
they took on more specific meanings. The word oop+io
carried the idea of "transgression of the law," ovoio meant
"rebellion against God," and was tied to the rebellion of
Satan against God.
292
Therefore, John chooses the word that
was closer in meaning at the time he was writing.
There are also differences in the verb that is used
in each verse. John uses ro+iv, which emphasizes a state of
being or condition, while rnoigorv indicates an action. Even
with these differences, the two ideas seem to be close in
meaning.
The greater difference appears when the Hebrew noun
translated oop+io is considered. The word OD0 means
"violence" or "wrong." Therefore, in the Hebrew, it means
"he committed no wrong (or violence)." Even this carries a
similar idea if violence is considered a type of sin.

292
Glen W. Barker, 1 John, vol. 12, in Expositor's
Bible Commentary, ed. Frank E. Gaebelein (Grand Rapids:
Zondervan, 1981), 331.

212
The NA
27
also lists 1 John 3:5 as an allusion to Isa
53:11. The point of contact in 1 John 3:5 is oop+io opg
"he might take away sins," to +o oop+io oo+ v oo+o ovoiori,
"our sins he will bear."
In spite of some verbal similarity, as well as
thematic coherence, it does not seem either of these
proposed allusions from Isa 53 is actually used by John.
An appeal to Isa 53 would do little to strengthen the
points John is trying to make in this passage. It seems
unlikely that this passage contains allusions to Isa 53.

Allusions in Revelation

Revelation 5:6, 5:9, 5:12, 13:8
Isaiah 53:7 (MT)

1V1 N11 U?1
1`D0nD` N71
731` 03D7 UJ
D7N1 `11 `1D7 70J1
1`D 0nD` N71

Isaiah 53:7 (LXX)

koi oo+o oio +o
rni o|oyg v g0g rni o|oyg v g0g rni o|oyg v g0g rni o|oyg v g0g koi
ovo ovo ovo ovo rvov+iov +oo
oo+ ook ovoiyri +o
o+oo oo+oo

Rev 5:6 (GNT)

Koi rioov rv ro +oo
0povoo koi + v
+rooopv v koi rv
ro + v nproo+rpv
opviov opviov opviov opviov ro+gko
ro|oyrvov ro|oyrvov ro|oyrvov ro|oyrvov rv krpo+o
rn+o koi o|0oXoo rn+o
oi rioiv +o ,rn+o
nvroo+o +oo 0roo
onro+oXrvoi ri no oov
+g v yg v.

Rev 5:9 (GNT)

koi oooooiv og v
koivg v Xryov+r oio
ri Xori v +o iXiov koi
ovoi oi +o o|poyi oo
oo+oo , o+i r r r r o|oyg o|oyg o|oyg o|oyg koi

213
gyopooo + 0r rv +
oio+i ooo rk noog
|oXg koi yXoog koi
Xooo koi r0voo

Rev 5:12 (GNT)

Xryov+r |vg ryoXg
oiov ro+iv +o opviov +o opviov +o opviov +o opviov
+o ro|oyrvov +o ro|oyrvov +o ro|oyrvov +o ro|oyrvov Xori v
+g v oovoiv koi nXoo +ov
koi oo|iov koi ioov
koi +ig v koi ooov koi
roXoyiov.

Rev 13:8 (GNT)

koi npookovgooooiv
oo+o v nov+r oi
ko+oikoo v+r rni +g
yg , oo oo yrypon+oi +o
ovoo oo+oo rv +
iXi +g g +oo +oo +oo +oo
opvioo +oo ro|oyrvoo opvioo +oo ro|oyrvoo opvioo +oo ro|oyrvoo opvioo +oo ro|oyrvoo
ono ko+ooXg koooo.

Rev has by far the most allusions from Isa of any
NT book according to the NA
27
, which lists nearly 150
allusions as well as five quotations. The NA
27
lists
allusions from Isa 53:7 in Rev 5:6, and 9 while the UBS
3

lists allusions from Isa 53:7 in Rev 5:6, 12; and 13:8.
The point of contact in all these verses to Isa 53:7 is
based on the statement, "lamb that has been slain." In
each NT instance the word opviov (lamb) is linked to the
verb o|o (slaughter) (except Rev 5:9 in which the word
opviov is implied from the context).
In the LXX of Isa 53:7 the word slaughter is

214
rendered by a noun o|oyg , instead of a verb. The word for
sheep/lamb in the construction with o|oyg is npoo+ov; the
other word in the verse is ovo and is used in the phrase,
"as a sheep before her shearers is silent." If this is an
allusion to Isa 53:7, why did John choose a third word for
"lamb," in Rev?
In the NT the word npoo+ov is never used of Jesus
except in the quotation from Isa 53:7 in Acts 8:32, and
rarely used to indicate a sacrificial animal.
293
The other
word, ovo is only used four times, twice by John to
identify Jesus as the "Lamb of God," once in the quote of
Isa 53:7 in Acts 8:32, and once in 1 Pet. In the entire
NT, the word opviov is only used once outside the book of
Rev. All but one of the twenty-eight times it is used in
Rev refers to Jesus.
H. B. Swete suggests that John might have derived
the word from a non-Septuagintal version of Isa or possibly
from Jer 11:19.
294
Neither of these suggestions is
compelling. In Jer 11:19 the word 0o is used for slaughter

293
The New International Dictionary of New Testament
Theology and Exegesis, 1999 ed., s.v. "npoo+ov," Rudolph
Bremerhaven Tuente.

294
John Philip McCurdo Sweet, Revelation in
Westminster Pelican Commentaries (Philadelphia: Westminster
1979), 78.

215
and the context and theme of this verse does not cohere as
well as Isa 53:7. It seems unlikely that John would use a
non-Septuagintal version of Isa since it has already been
demonstrated that he quotes word for word from the LXX in
John 12:38. Since John chooses opviov as a title for Jesus
when referring to him as the "lamb," it seems safe to
assume that the other words for "lamb" would be subsumed by
this term.
In this passage the only one found worthy to open a
scroll sealed with seven seals is the "Lamb that was
slain." An allusion to Isa 53 would be relevant for
several reasons. One reason it is related is because in
Isa 53:7 the Servant is also identified as a lamb led to
the slaughter. Second, in the broader context of Isa 53,
the Servant died and came back to life. This would relate
to the statement in Rev 5:6 that the lamb appeared
ro|oyrvov "as slain." Finally, because this death brought
forgiveness of sins and "success," the lamb is deemed to be
"worthy." It is virtually certain that the author of Rev
alluded to Isa 53:7 in Rev 5:6, 9, 12, and 13:8.

Revelation 14:5
Isaiah 53:9 (MT)

13 D`VUnN }n`1
1`nD3 ÙVnN1
Isaiah 53:9 (LXX)

koi oo +oo novgpoo
ov+i +g +o|g oo+oo
Rev 14:5 (GNT)

koi rv + o+oo+i oo+ v rv + o+oo+i oo+ v rv + o+oo+i oo+ v rv + o+oo+i oo+ v
oo ropr0g |ro oo, oo ropr0g |ro oo, oo ropr0g |ro oo, oo ropr0g |ro oo,

216
UV OD0N7 7V
1`D3 DD N71

ovoiov ook rnoigorv
ooor ropr0g ooXo rv + ooor ropr0g ooXo rv + ooor ropr0g ooXo rv + ooor ropr0g ooXo rv +
o+oo+i oo+oo o+oo+i oo+oo o+oo+i oo+oo o+oo+i oo+oo
ooi rioiv.

Both the NA
27
and the UBS
3
list Rev 14:5 as
containing an allusion to Isa 53:9 based on linguistic and
thematic similarities. Rev 14:1-5 explains what happened
to the 144,000 who refused to receive the mark of the
beast. At the end of this discussion it is said, "and in
their mouth no lie was found; they are blameless." (NRSV)
Fekkes explains the meaning of this verse: "The 'lie' that
would bring 'blame' refers to the blasphemy of the beast
worshipers who deny the Father and the Son and ascribe
vitality to the beast by believing his heresies and
worshiping his image."
295
If this is an allusion to Isa
53:9 then its purpose is to identify these who died like
sacrificial lambs and kept themselves pure and truthful,
like the Servant.
296

The construction rv + o+oo+i, "in the mouth," and the
word ropr0g "it was not found," are common to both Isa 53:9
and Rev 14:5. However, in Isa 53:9 the subject is ooXo,

295
Alan F. Johnson, Revelation, vol. 12, in
Expositor's Bible Commentary, ed. Frank E. Gaebelein (Grand
Rapids: Zondervan, 1981), 540.

296
Sweet, Revelation, 79.

217
"deceit, falsehood," while in the NT it is |ro oo, "lie,
falsehood." Exchanging |ro oo for ooXo may be a relatively
insignificant modification since John commonly uses |ro oo
and its cognates.
297
Much more significant is the use of
the genitive third person plural pronoun in Rev 14:5 rather
than the genitive third person singular pronoun in Isa
53:9.
While similarities from Isa 53:9 exist, another OT
verse, Zeph 3:13b which reads, "koi oo g ropr0g rv + o+oo+i
oo+ v yX ooo ooXio," may have been the source of this allusion.
Even though this verse contained yX ooo which is not in Rev
14:5, and the negation oo g is stronger, the significant
change is that the pronoun in both verses are plural with
both referring to the speech of a collective community
rather than a single individual.
There are other similarities between the passage in
Rev 14:1-4 and Zeph 3:9-20. In Zeph 3:9-20 "the Remnant of
Israel" is in the presence of the Lord (Zeph 3:15, 17; Rev
14:1), there is mention of Mount Zion (Zeph 3:11, 14, 16;
Rev 14:1), and singing is associated with salvation (Zeph

297
Jan Fekkes III, Isaiah and Prophetic Traditions
in the Book of Revelation: Visionary Antecedents and their
Supplement Series 93 (Sheffield, England: Sheffield
Academic Press, 1994), 190.

218
3:17; Rev 14:2-3).
298

Because of the closer linguistic and thematic
relationship with Zeph 3:9-20, it seems unlikely that the
author of Rev was alluding to Isa 53:9 in Rev 14:5.

Conclusion
Eight allusions from four books are examined in
this chapter. Six are classified as certain/virtually
certain while the other two are unlikely/doubtful. 1 Pet
1:11 is another verse
299
that falls into a special category.
I believe this verse is referring to Isa 53, however, the
statement in the verse is so general that Peter also had
other OT passages in mind. Heb 9:28 is included among the
certain/virtually certain allusions and regards Jesus' sin
removing and sin bearing activity. The remaining four
certain/virtually certain allusions are found in Rev 5:6,
9, 12 and 13:8. They all refer to Jesus as "the Lamb that
was slain."
The two allusions that are unlikely/doubtful are
from 1 John 3:5 and Rev 14:5. Although John writes about
Jesus' sin bearing in 1 John 3:5, it does not meet the
criterion of satisfaction. Rev 14:5 probably derives its

298
Fekkes, 191.

299
Also Luke 24:25,27,46 and Acts 10:43.

219
source of allusion from elsewhere in the OT, if it contains
an allusion at all.

220

CHAPTER 9

CONCLUSION

In chapters 6-8 I examined 39 potential allusions
from Isa 53 in the NT: 22 allusions in the Gospels and
Acts, 7 in the Pauline Epistles, and 8 allusions in the
General Epistles and Rev. Of these 39 possible allusions,
24 were determined to be certain/virtually certain, one is
probable/possible, and 12 are unlikely/doubtful.
The following chart shows the results of the
analysis of the allusions from Isa 53. In addition to the
three original categories as explained in chapter 4, a
fourth category has been added. This is necessary because
the allusions found in some verses are so general that
while it is certain that they refer to Isa 53, they must
also refer to other OT passages as well. This approach
runs counter to that of Morna Hooker's. Hooker believes
that it is only possible to prove an allusion is from a
particular passage, if it can be proven that it is from no
other passage.
I also determined that several of the allusions
suggested in the UBS
3
and the NA
27
were unlikely/doubtful.

221
However, I concluded that they did contain allusions from
other verses in Isa 53. These alternate suggestions are
identified with an asterisk (*).
Allusions from Isa 53 in the NT
Certain/
Virtually
Certain
Probable/
Possible
Unlikely/
Doubtful
Not
limited
to Isa 53
Matt 2:23 Isa 53:2

Matt 13:16 Isa 52:15

Mark 9:12 Isa 53:3

Mark 8:31
Isa 53:5
Isa 53:6*

Mark 9:31 Isa 53:12*

Mark 10:33-34 Isa 53:12*

Mark 10:45

Isa 53:10
Isa 53:11*

Mark 14:21

Isa 53:6*
Isa 53:12* Isa 53:9

Mark 14:24
Isa 53:11
Isa 53:12

Mark 14:49 Isa 53:12 Isa 53:7

Mark 14:60-61 Isa 53:7

Mark 15:4-5 Isa 53:7

Mark 14:65 Isa 53:5

Mark 15:27 Isa 53:12

Luke 11:22 Isa 53:12

Luke 24:25
General
Allusion
x

222
Luke 24:27
General
Allusion
x
Luke 24:46
General
Allusion
x
John 1:29
Isa 53:7
Isa 53:10*
Isa 53:12*

John 3:14 Isa 52:13

Acts 3:13
Isa 52:13
Isa 53:11

Acts 10:43
Isa 53:5
Isa 53:6
x
Rom 4:24 Isa 53:12

Rom 4:25
Isa 53:4,
Isa 53:5
Isa 53:11
Isa 53:12*

Rom 5:1 Isa 53:5

Rom 5:15
Isa 53:11
Isa 53:12

Rom 5:19
Isa 53:11
Isa 53:12*

1 Cor 2:9 Isa 53:15

1 Cor 5:7 Isa 53:7

1 Cor 15:3
Isa 53:4*
Isa 53:5
Isa 53:8
Isa 53:9
Isa 53:11*
Isa 53:12

Phil 2:7
Isa 53:3
Isa 53:12

Hebrews Isa 53:12

1 Pet 1:11
General
Allusion
x
1 John 3:5
Isa 53:9
Isa 53:11

223
Rev 5:6,9,12;
13:8 Isa 53:7

Rev 14:5 Isa 53:9

The graph below shows that the majority of the
allusions derived from Isa 53 are from verses 11 and 12.
Twelve of the allusions refer to Isa 53:12, while seven of
them alluded to Isa 53:11.
Allusions and Quotations by Verse
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
I
s
a

5
2
:
1
3
I
s
a

5
2
:
1
4
I
s
a

5
2
:
1
5
I
s
a

5
3
:
1
I
s
a

5
3
:
2
I
s
a

5
3
:
3
I
s
a

5
3
:
4
I
s
a

5
3
:
5
I
s
a

5
3
:
6
I
s
a

5
3
:
7
I
s
a

5
3
:
8
I
s
a

5
3
:
9
I
s
a

5
3
:
1
0
I
s
a

5
3
:
1
1
I
s
a

5
3
:
1
2
Quotation
Allusion

The pie chart below illustrates that Isa 53:11, 12
account for almost half of the allusions that are used in
the NT. The significance of this information is determined
through the answer to the question, why did the NT writers
quote so often from these two verses?

224
Allusion by Percent
Isa 52:13
Isa 52:14
Isa 52:15
Isa 53:1
Isa 53:2
Isa 53:3
Isa 53:4
Isa 53:5
Isa 53:6
Isa 53:7
Isa 53:8
Isa 53:9
Isa 53:10
Isa 53:11
Isa 53:12

One reason the NT writers quote from Isa 53:12 is
based on the passive of paradivdwmi "handed over." Frequent
use of this word is made by Jesus to predict his death and
also to indicate his betrayal by Judas in verses such as
Mark 9:32, 10:33, and 14:21.
An important phrase found in both Isa 53:11, 12 is
a&martiva" pollw' n a*nhvnegken "he bore the sins of many." This idea
is stated in both verses using slightly different wording.
Through this idea the writers of the NT were able to
establish that Jesus, in his sin-bearing capacity,
fulfilled the OT. This is the only place in the OT where
such an explicit statement is made. Another word that is
prominent in both Isa 53:11, 12 is polloiv and is used in

225
several places in the NT to contrast the relationship
between the "one" and the "many."
The NT writers use several other themes from Isa
53. The idea that Jesus is the Lamb of Isa 53:7 is used
four times in the book of Rev. Isa 53:7 is also used twice
to explain the silence of Jesus during his trial. The
exaltation theme is only used once, in Acts 3:13, drawing
from Isa 52:13. Perhaps the most important theme is Jesus'
explanation of the purpose of his death. He said that it
was to provide a "ransom for many." This is essential,
because Jesus had elsewhere predicted his suffering and
death, but had not explained the meaning of it. Here Jesus
explains that his death has a purpose. His death was not
in vain. No allusions were discovered for three verses
from Isa 53 Isa 52:14, Isa 53:1 and 53:2.
The preponderance of evidence shows that, contrary
to the conclusions of scholars like Morna Hooker, who
recognize few, if any allusions from Isa 53 in the NT,
there are numerous allusions in the NT from Isa 53. Nearly
every NT writer uses at least one allusion with the
exception of Jas and Jude.
In spite of these many allusions, it still seems
that given the importance of Isa 53, there would be more
explicit statements from Isa 53. Why isn't the servant

226
concept more extensive? As Acts 8:33-34 indicates, Luke
certainly understands Jesus as the fulfillment of the
Servant of Isa 53. The early church must have agreed with
this connection, otherwise his books would not have been
included in the canon of the NT. It is possible that the
relationship between Jesus and Isa 53 was so clearly
understood by the early church that only a slight reference
was necessary to bring the passage to mind. Further
reflection on both the criteria and the verses examined in
this dissertation will mature and solidify the results of
this study.
The research required to complete this dissertation
has made me aware of the need for further study in the area
of allusions. While many studies exist that focus on
quotations from the OT in the NT, relatively little
scholarship has been devoted to the analysis of allusions.
Most of the recent discussion about allusions centers on
the criteria developed by Richard Hays. The few studies
recently conducted seem to incorporate Hays' criteria.
One criterion in particular that needs to be
reexamined is volume, which relies primarily on the
repetition of words and syntactical patterns. If, in a
given instance, the NT writer is thinking of the LXX for an
allusion at the time of writing then this criterion poses

227
no problem. However, it seems to me that this process is
often more complex. The OT was written in Hebrew and
translated into Greek. It was then read by people whose
native tongue was Aramaic, who themselves wrote in Greek.
To consider that allusions might only come through the
Greek fails to take in the native language of most of the
NT writers (Aramaic) and texts that many of them may have
memorized in Hebrew. This phenomenon may account for what
seems to be relatively little influence of the Servant
concept in the NT.
Another issue that has never been addressed at
length is Morna Hooker's criteria. Particularly
problematic is her criterion that insists that it must be
demonstrated that an allusion can only be derived from a
given text before it can be proved that it is from that
text. Hooker's work has received considerable attention
and numerous scholars have found deficiencies with her
approach. However, I am unaware of any in depth
examination of her criteria and conclusions.

228

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ancient Sources

The Isaiah Targum. Translated with Introduction, Apparatus,
and Notes by Bruce D. Chilton. The Aramaic Bible. Vol.
11. Wilmington, DE: Michael Glazier, 1987.

The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha. Vol. 1, Apocalyptic
Literature and Testaments. Edited by James H.
Charlesworth. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1983.

Books

dna, Jostein. "The Servant of Isaiah 53 as Triumphant and
interceding Messiah." Translated by Daniel P. Bailey.
In The Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 in Jewish and
Christian Sources. Edited by Bernd Janowski and Peter
Stuhlmacher, 75-146. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004.

Alexander, Joseph A. Commentary on the Prophecies of
Isaiah. Vol. 2. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1953.

Archer, Gleason L., Jr. A Survey of Old Testament
Introduction. Chicago: Moody Press, 1985.

Bailey, Daniel P. "Concepts of Stellvertretung in the
Interpretation of Isaiah 53." In Jesus and the
Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 and Christian Origins.
Edited by William H. Bellinger Jr., and William R.
Farmer, 223-50. Harrisburg, PA: Trinity, 1998.

________. "The Suffering Servant: Recent Tbingen
Scholarship on Isaiah 53." In Jesus and the Suffering
Servant: Isaiah 53 and Christian Origins. Edited by
William H. Bellinger Jr., and William R. Farmer, 251-
59. Harrisburg, PA: Trinity, 1998.

229
Barker, Glen W. 1 John. Vol. 12. In Expositor's Bible
Commentary, Edited by Frank E. Gaebelein. Grand
Rapids: Zondervan, 1981.

Barrett, C. K. "The Background of Mark 10:45." In New
Testament Essays: Studies in Memory of Thomas Walter
Manson, 1893-1958. Edited by Angus John Brockhurst
Higgins, 1-18. Manchester: Manchester University
Press, 1959.

________. "Mark 10:45: A Ransom for Many." In New Testament
Essays, 20-26. London: SPCK, 1972.

Beaton, Richard. "Isaiah in Matthew's Gospel." In Isaiah in
the New Testament. Edited by Steve Moyise and Maarten
J. J. Menken, 63-78. New York: T. & T. Clark, 2005.

Best, Ernest. The New Century Bible Commentary. Eerdmans:
Grand Rapids, 1982.

Betz, Otto. "Jesus and Isaiah 53." In Jesus and the

Bellinger, William H. and William R. Farmer. Jesus and the
Edited by William H. Bellinger and William R. Farmer.
Harrisburg, PA: Trinity, 1998.

Blenkinsopp, Joseph. Isaiah 40-55: A New Translation with
Introduction and Commentary. Vol. 19A. in The Anchor
Bible. New York: Doubleday, 2002.

________. "The Servant and the Servants in Isaiah and the
Formation of the Book." In Writing and Reading the
Scroll of Isaiah: Studies of an Interpretive
Tradition. Vol. 1. Edited by Craig C. Broyles and
Craig A. Evans, 155-75. Supplements to Vetus
Testamentum. Vol. 70, no. 1. Edited by J. A. Emerton,
H. M. Barstad, Phyllis A. Bird, R. P. Gordon, A.
Hurvitz, A. van der Kooij, A. Lemaire, R. Smend, J. C.
Vanderkam, and H. G. M. Williamson. Leiden: Brill,
1997.

Blocher, Henri. Songs of the Servant. Dowers Grove, IL:
InterVarsity, 1975.

230

Bockmuehl, Markus. The Epistle to the Philippians. Vol. 11.
In Blacks New Testament Commentaries. Peabody, MA:
Hendrickson, 1998.

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An Examination of The Allusions To Isaiah 52:13-53:12 in The New Testament

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AN EXAMINATION OF THE ALLUSIONS TO

ISAIAH 52:13-53:12 IN THE NEW TESTAMENT

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